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Photo credit:Kalpajit Gogoi/WorldFishNutrition-sensitive carpmola polyculture in ponds:Management and economics2Nutrition-sensitive carpmola polyculture in ponds:Management and economics AuthorsSourabh Kumar Dubey,1 Kalpajit Gogoi,1 Jeherul Islam,2 Francois Rajts,1 Rashmi Ranjan Das,1 Arun Padiyar,1 Pratap Sinha2 and Chadag Vishnumurthy Mohan.1Affiliation1 WorldFish,Bhubaneswar,Odisha,India2 Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ)GmbH,New Delhi,IndiaCitation This publication should be cited as:Dubey SK,Gogoi K,Islam J,Rajts F,Das RR,Padiyar A,Sinha P and Mohan CV.2024.Nutrition-sensitive carpmola polyculture in ponds:Management and economics.Penang,Malaysia:WorldFish.Program report:2024-36.Acknowledgments This publication is the result of a collaborative initiative between two projects in Assam and Odisha funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development(BMZ)and commissioned by the Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ).The projects involved are(1)the Food Security through Integrated Aquaculture(EIAA)project,known locally as Sustainable Aquaculture for Food and Livelihood(SAFAL),an Indo-German Development Cooperation project implemented by GIZ with support from the Ministry of Fisheries,Animal Husbandry,and Dairying,Government of India,as well as the Department of Fisheries in both Assam and Odisha;and(2)Taking Nutrition-Sensitive CarpSIS Polyculture Technology to Scale,which is implemented by WorldFish.The authors would like to express their deep gratitude to the following individuals and organizations for their invaluable contributions during the review workshop:The authors are grateful to Ashim Kumar Borah,Senior Executive,National Fisheries Development Board(NFDB),Assam;Dorothy M.S,Executive,NFDB,Assam;Mr.Debananda Bhanja,Joint Director of Fisheries,and Mr.GS Nanda,Additional District Fisheries Officer,Fisheries and Animal Resources Development Department,Government of Odisha;Dr.Sanjay Sarma,Fishery Coordinator,APART,Department of Fisheries,Government of Assam;Dr.Pradip Chandra Bhuyan,Dean,College of Fisheries,Assam Agriculture University(AAU),Raha;Neeta Beypi,Subject Matter Specialist,Krishi Vigyan Kendra(KVK),Darrang,Assam;Dr.Ambika Prasad Nayak,Senior Scientist,KVK Puri,Odisha;Rajeev Ahal,Director,Natural Resource Management and Agroecology,GIZ India;Meekha Hannah Paul,Project Manager,Enhancing Rural Resilience through Appropriate Development Actions(ERADA),GIZ India;Ujjwal Kumar,Advisor,ERADA,GIZ India;Sandeep Nayak,Advisor for Fisheries and Aquaculture,SAFAL,GIZ India;Pradipta Chand,Advisor,Support to Agroecological Transformation Processes in India(SuATI),GIZ India;Dr.Saikhom Inaotombi,Advisor,Protection and Sustainable Management of Aquatic Resources in the North-Eastern Himalayan Region of India(NERAQ),GIZ India;Amit Rabha,Junior Evaluation Advisor,SAFAL,GIZ India;Bettina Renner,Junior Specialist for Public Relations,Monitoring&Evaluation,SAFAL,GIZ India;Nijira Basumatary,Project Assistant,SAFAL,GIZ India;Dharamananda Bhoi,Project Assistant,SAFAL,GIZ India;Rimon Sarmah,Government Support Consultant,GIZ India;Priyam Kakoti Bora,Communications Consultant;Dr Abdul Malik Ahmed,Aquaculture Expert,ICCSPL;Chaitanya Biswal,Director(Administration),Gram-Utthan;Kedareswar Chowdhury,Secretary,Darbar Sahitya Sansada(DSS);Rohan Ahmed,Subject Matter Specialist,Seven Sisters Development Assistance(SeSTA)and Biswajyoti Sarma,Farmer,for their constructive comments during the review workshop.Additionally,we sincerely thank Dr.Jens Kahle,Advisor,Global Program Sustainable Fisheries and Aquaculture,GIZ,for his thorough review of the draft and valuable suggestions for improvement.3Contact WorldFish Communications and Marketing Department,Jalan Batu Maung,Batu Maung,11960 Bayan Lepas,Penang,Malaysia.Email:worldfishcentercgiar.org Creative Commons License Content in this publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License(CC BY-NC 4.0),which permits non-commercial use,including reproduction,adaptation and distribution of the publication provided the original work is properly cited.2024 WorldFish.Design and productionChua Seong Lee,Thavamaler Ramanathan and Sabrina Chong,WorldFishPhoto credits Front cover,page 10,Kalpajit Gogoi/WorldFish;pages 9,16,17,19,21,26,27,28,Sourabh Kumar Dubey/WorldFish;page 16,Rashmi Ranjan Das/WorldFish;page 25,Baishnaba Charan Ratha/WorldFish;page 27,Nabamika Sonowal.4Table of contents List of abbreviations 5Executive summary 61.Introduction 72.General biology and nutritional profile of mola 103.Improved pond management for carpmola polyculture 123.1.Pre-stocking management 133.2.Stocking mola brood or seeds 133.3.Post-stocking management 173.4.Mola harvesting strategies 183.5.Productivity of carpmola polyculture 204.Economics of carpmola polyculture 224.1.Moderate to high input economic model 234.2.Low-input improved traditional economic model 235.Success stories on scaling nutrition-sensitive aquaculture in India 245.1.Innovative carpmola polyculture for economic growth and human nutrition:An initiative by the Assam government 245.2.Nutrition-sensitive carpmola polyculture through womens groups:A successful policy intervention by the Odisha government 245.3.Mass seed production of mola to scale nutrition-sensitive aquaculture:A WorldFish initiative 256.Popular recipes using small fish and mola 266.1.Mixed vegetable curry with mola and other SIS 266.2.Steamed mola in banana leaves 276.3.Fresh mola fry 277.Conclusion and recommendations 29References 315List of abbreviationsAPART Assam Agribusiness and Rural Transformation Project BMPs better management practices BMZ German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and DevelopmentEIAA Food Security through Integrated AquacultureFARD Fisheries and Animal Resources Development(department)GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale ZusammenarbeitGP Gram PanchayatIMC Indian major carpINR Indian rupeeMOC mustard oil cake PR&DW Panchayati Raj and Drinking Water DepartmentSAFAL Sustainable Aquaculture for Food and LivelihoodSDGs Sustainable Development GoalsSIS small indigenous fish speciesSSP single super phosphate WSHG women self-help group6This publication is the result of a collaborative initiative between two projects in Assam and Odisha funded by the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development(BMZ)commissioned by the Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Internationale Zusammenarbeit(GIZ).The projects involved are(1)the Food Security through Integrated Aquaculture(EIAA)project,known locally as Sustainable Aquaculture for Food and Livelihood(SAFAL),an Indo-German Development Cooperation project implemented by GIZ with support from the Ministry of Fisheries,Animal Husbandry,and Dairying,Government of India,as well as the Department of Fisheries in both Assam and Odisha,and(2)Taking Nutrition-Sensitive CarpSIS Polyculture Technology to Scale,which is implemented by WorldFish.This publication aims to provide detailed insights into scaling nutrition-sensitive aquaculture approaches such as carpmola polyculture.With a special emphasis on diversifying income,it illustrates the strategies and solutions for enhancing food security and livelihood sustainability in target communities in Assam and Odisha.The carpmola polyculture system integrates the nutrient-rich indigenous small fish mola(Amblypharyngodon mola)into conventional carp farming.It is a comprehensive approach to enhancing food security,increasing production,diversifying income generation,promoting sustainable aquaculture and supporting livelihoods.The manual provides detailed insights into improved pond management practices for carpmola polyculture systems,covering pre-stocking,stocking,post-stocking and harvesting strategies.It highlights the productivity and different economic models of carpmola polyculture systems across varying input levels.It emphasizes the importance of optimizing pond conditions,stocking densities and feeding practices to boost mola yields while maintaining a healthy pond environment.Illustrative success stories from Assam and Odisha underscore the transformative impact of scaling nutrition-sensitive aquaculture,showcasing increased production,income and household consumption of nutrient-rich fish.Furthermore,collaborative endeavors led by organizations such as WorldFish to develop scalable hatchery techniques for mass seed production of mola are propelling the sustainability and expansion of carpmola polyculture.To fully harness the potential of carpmola polyculture,this publication recommends a multifaceted approach.This includes initiatives such as raising awareness and building capacity for technical and financial empowerment,backing supportive policy measures,expanding outreach and extension services,integrating a gender perspective,providing business coaching,improving access to financial services,establishing mechanisms for maintaining farm records,digitizing farm records through institutional frameworks,investing in research and innovation,facilitating market access,and implementing robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to assess impact.By implementing these recommendations and building on existing success,stakeholders can work synergistically to unlock the full potential of carpmola polyculture.By doing so,they can improve nutrition,enhance livelihoods,transform rural economies and promote sustainable aquaculture development across India.Executive summary71.IntroductionIn India,pond aquaculture predominantly revolves around carp species,including three Indian major carps(IMCs):catla(Labeo catla),rohu(Labeo rohita)and mrigal(Cirrhinus mrigala).These are often cultured alongside exotic carps,such as silver carp(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix),grass carp(Ctenopharyngodon Idella)and common carp(Cyprinus carpio).Together,these form composite culture or carp polyculture systems,a practice widely adopted by small-to medium-scale farmers.Minor carp species(Labeo bata/Labeo gonius),calbaus(Labeo calbasu),silver barb(Barbonymus gonionotus)and other exotic fish varieties,such as striped catfish(Pangasianodon hypophthalmus),tilapia(Oreochromis spp.)and red-bellied pacu(Piaractus brachypomus),are also cultivated in the carp polyculture system,which diversifies the aquaculture production system.Despite its prevalence,aquaculture communities in India face various challenges,including micronutrient deficiencies and poverty.Acknowledging the significant contribution fish can make to enhance food security and livelihoods is a first step to addressing these challenges.Fish serves as an exceptional source of protein,minerals,vitamins and essential omega-3 fatty acids,which are often lacking in alternative sources(Ahern et al.2021).Therefore,in regions where a considerable portion of the population,including women,men and children,suffers from undernourishment,aquatic foods can play a crucial role in combating malnutrition.Historically,small indigenous fish species(SIS)1 such as mola and punti(Puntius sophore)have been crucial for providing micronutrients such as iron,calcium,zinc,iodine and vitamins A,B12 and D,contributing significantly to human nutrition(Bogard et al.2015).Unfortunately,the diversity of SIS is declining because of various factors,including habitat degradation and overexploitation of inland capture fisheries(Nandi et al.2012).As a consequence,they are now becoming increasingly scarce and expensive,making them less accessible to individuals with limited financial resources and depriving them of the nutritional and cultural benefits that these species provide.Traditionally,fishponds in rural areas contained both small fish and large carp.However,modern aquaculture practices have advocated the eradication of naturally occurring small,self-recruiting species through repeated netting,dewatering and the use of piscicides to reduce competition for food between small and large fish.This management strategy has had negative socioeconomic and nutritional impacts on rural households.However,rural fish farmers,particularly those from poor households,have become interested in stocking their ponds with both SIS and large carp species to ensure a regular supply of SIS for their daily meals while earning income by selling large carp at their local market.Nutrition-sensitive aquaculture has emerged as an approach to aquaculture development that prioritizes the production and consumption of these nutrient-rich SIS alongside conventional carp polyculture(Thilsted et al.2016;Shepon et al.2020).Evidence from Bangladesh suggests that this approach could play a pivotal role in providing nutritionally rich food,diversifying production,supporting livelihoods and enhancing food security for aquaculture-dependent communities(Roos et al.2007;Castine et al.2017).One promising innovation in this realm is the integration of SIS,particularly mola,into carp polyculture systems,commonly known as carpmola polyculture.Mola is well known for its high levels of essential nutrients such as calcium,iron,vitamin A and vitamin B12,as well as essential amino acids,omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids,and lipids(Mohanty et al.2012;Bogard et al.2015;Islam et al.2023)(Figure 1 and Table 1).Consuming mola can help combat eye and skin diseases associated with vitamin A deficiency and prevent micronutrient deficiencies in children and pregnant women(Byrd et al.2020).Its small size offers superior nutritional advantages,as it is often consumed whole,using all bio-available nutrients,including micronutrients located in the head,bones and viscera(Thilsted 2012).1 Indigenous small fish species,which originate from freshwater environments,are known for their diminutive size,typically reaching a maximum length of approximately 25 cm(9 inches)(Mandal and Nandi 2015).These species thrive in diverse freshwater habitats,ranging from cosmopolitan floodplains,rivers,rivulets and streams to canals,beels(floodplain depressions),ponds,tanks,lakes and even lowland areas such as rice fields and wetlands.8Carpmola polyculture can be implemented using various combinations of species and across diverse settings,ranging from small homestead or backyard ponds to larger ponds,community waterbodies and integrated ricefish farming systems(Thilsted and Wahab 2014).In pond culture with carps,mola requires minimal additional management,making it compatible with carp farming practices.Furthermore,the adoption of certain improved pond management techniques can enhance the efficiency of the entire system.However,certain concerns persist,such as competition between mola and carps for food within the pond ecosystem.Mola primarily consumes phytoplankton,with small amounts of plant materials,detritus and zooplankton,mainly protozoa and rotifers.Rohu also feeds in this surface niche,leading to dietary overlap.Catla feeds in the mid-and upper layers of the water column,mainly capturing zooplankton.Adding mola and punti also reduces rotifers among zooplankton and increases respiratory effects on water quality.The addition of mola has both negative and positive effects on carp cash crops(Wahab et al.2003).The positive impact on minor carp could be attributed to increased food availability because of the small fecal pellets that large numbers of mola drop.Bottom-feeding fish(common carp and small punti)bioturbate the pond bottom,which supports phytoplankton and zooplankton production available for rohu and mola,while catla consumes zooplankton.The negative effects of mola on rohu might be due to food competition.However,studies indicate that yields of large carp remain the same,suggesting a lack of negative effects of small fish on cash crop production of carps(Wahab et al.2003;Alim et al.2005;Kadir et al.2007).In a polyculture system,there is an intricate web of complex interactions between different trophic levels of ponds(surface,column and bottom),pond ecology,and inter-and intraspecific competition between species.These complex relationships may result in gains for one species and losses for another,leading to no significant differences in total harvested biomass between treatments(Wahab et al.2003;Alim et al.2005;Kadir et al.2007).In a well-managed system,regular fertilization and supplementary feeding ensure steady plankton production and sufficient food for fish,reducing competition between species.To reduce anticipated competition between mola and carps,systematic withdrawals of mola through partial harvesting are necessary.Partial harvesting after 3 months allows farmers to capture parent or large SIS while retaining juveniles in the pond to continue breeding.Farmers can harvest SIS from their ponds according to their needs.The quantities of small fish harvested may seem small,but they are significant for countries like Bangladesh,where weekly consumption of 250 g of mola or punti can supply essential nutrients to a five or six member household(Wahab et al.2003).For several decades now,WorldFish has been a trailblazer in championing and advancing nutrition-sensitive carpmola polyculture across various South Asian nations,including Bangladesh,India and Nepal.Research indicates that integrating mola into carp polyculture systems has resulted in substantial mola yields in grow-out ponds without necessitating additional inputs or management,and without compromising carp yields(Roos et al.2003,2007a and 2007b;Milstein et al.2009;Wahab et al.2003;Ali et al.2016).Subsequent studies have revealed that incorporating mola into carp polyculture systems can boost the consumption of micronutrient-rich mola among women and children(Castine et al.2017;Karim et al.2017).This approach has demonstrated cost-effectiveness in addressing the issue of micronutrient malnutrition(Fiedler et al.2016).Because of its natural breeding behavior,mola can propagate freely in ponds,obviating the need to restock fingerlings yearly in perennial ponds.Consequently,integrating small fish such as mola with carp in pond polyculture has the potential to enhance total fish production for both consumption and income diversification,with carp providing an additional revenue stream for households and mola contributing to meeting their nutritional needs.Since 2018,the promotion of carpmola polyculture has been gaining momentum in Indian states such as Assam,Andhra Pradesh,Bihar and Odisha,facilitated by government and internationally funded programs involving small-scale farmers,women self-help groups(WSHGs),farmers groups,cooperatives,farmer institutions and civil society organizations.Ongoing carpmola polyculture practices can benefit greatly from the adoption of improved pond management practices and the enhancement of knowledge and capacity among farming communities and other stakeholders.9In response to this need,this publication aims to provide comprehensive insights into carpmola polyculture in homestead ponds.It offers detailed guidance on farm management practices,production potentials,productivity trends and economic factors associated with carpmola polyculture systems.With a particular focus on income diversification,this document presents detailed strategies and solutions for enhancing food security and livelihood sustainability in target communities.By addressing both opportunities and challenges and offering recommendations for scaling up and replication,this approach seeks to accelerate efforts to promote nutrition-sensitive carpmola polyculture systems.This endeavor is envisioned to benefit farmers,civil society organizations,farmer institutions,local governments,policymakers and other stakeholders throughout the value chain.This document is structured as follows:Section 2 discusses the general biology and nutritional profile of mola.Section 3 details improved pond management for carpmola polyculture.Section 4 examines the economics of carpmola polyculture.Section 5 provides success stories on scaling nutrition-sensitive aquaculture in India.Section 6 illustrates popular food recipes using small fish mola.Section 7 concludes with recommendations.Plate 1.Dried mola is a popular product that fetches high prices in northeast India.Photo credit:Sourabh Kumar Dubey/WorldFish10Box 1.Get to know mola.The mola carplet is a highly sought-after indigenous fish species that thrives in various aquatic environments,such as ponds,canals,beels,slow-moving streams,ditches,reservoirs,inundated paddy fields and floodplain wetlands.In India,it is known by the local names moa in Assam and mahurali in Odisha.Mola is a surface-dwelling fish,predominantly feeding on phytoplankton.Remarkably prolific,mola reaches sexual maturity at just 3 months of age.It displays partial spawning behavior,with spawning periods spanning from February to November,influenced by climate conditions,rainfall and broodstock management practices.Renowned for its superior taste and prized nutritional content,mola commands high prices in markets.Enjoyed whole,mola often requires no more than rinsing with water and minimal dressing before cooking and consumption.FemalesMales Females are larger in size and lighter in color.They have a soft and conspicuously distended abdomen.Mature females have smooth pelvic fins and a deeply forked caudal fin.Males are comparatively brighter,thinner and smaller.They do not have a distended abdomen.They exhibit active swimming behavior.Mature males have a yellowish caudal fin.Plate 2.A mature female(left)and male mola(right).Photo credit:Kalpajit Gogoi/WorldFish2.General biology and nutritional profile of mola11Nutrient content(per 100 g of raw edible parts)Mola(wild)Mola(cultured)Energy(kj)445412Protein(g)17.314.7Fat(g)4.54.6Moisture(g)75.677.3Ash(g)3.54Iron(mg)5.719Zinc(mg)3.24.2Calcium(mg)8531400Iodine(g)1733Selenium(g)519Phosphorus(mg)-700Magnesium(mg)3549Sodium(mg)3931Potassium(mg)15258Manganese(mg)-1.9Sulfur(mg)-160Copper(mg)-0.047Vitamin B12(g)7.985.9Vitamin D3(g)2.033Vitamin D2(g)2.9-Vitamin E(mg)0.270.91Folate(g)-4.3Total vitamin A(g retinol activity equivalent)25032226Total saturated fatty acid(g)55.865-Total monounsaturated fatty acid(g)20.19-Total polyunsaturated fatty acid(g)23.94-Sources:Compiled from Mohanty et al.(2011)and Bogard et al.(2015).Table 1.Proximate composition of minerals,vitamins and fatty acids in mola.16.3113.7410.59.82 9.626.685.725.455.174.413.151.87 1.73 1.72 1.5 1.390.840.31Amino acids02468101214161820Grams per 100 g of proteinGlutamic acidGlycineAlanineAspartic acidLeucineSerineThreonineIsoleucineLysineHistidineCysteineArginineTryptophanMethioninePhenylalanineTyrosineValineProlineSource:Mohanty et al.(2011).Figure 1.Amino acid composition of mola.12The freshwater aquaculture sector in India has experienced remarkable growth,marked by diversification in both species and systems.The introduction of techniques such as induced breeding of carp and polyculture in static ponds and tanks has significantly increased aquaculture productivity,transforming the sector into a rapidly expanding industry(Jayasankar 2018).Culturing carp commonly involves the polyculture of three IMCseither alone or in combination with three exotic carps.Standard practices in carp culture typically entail three requirements:(1)stocking at combined densities ranging from 4000 to 10,000 fingerlings per hectare,(2)fertilizing the pond using organic manure sourced from cattle or poultry,along with inorganic fertilizers like urea and single super phosphate(SSP),and(3)supplementary feeding using a blend of rice bran or wheat bran with groundnut oil cake or mustard oil cake(MOC)in equal proportions(Jayasankar 2018).The three IMCs collectively contribute the majority of production,accounting for approximately 70u%of total freshwater fish production,while exotic carps constitute the second significant group,contributing around 250%(Jayasankar 2018).Standardized optimal production rates typically range between 3 and 6 t/ha per year.Better management practices(BMPs)for carp culture have been effectively established in India(Jayasankar 2018).The management techniques employed in carpmola polyculture closely resemble those used in carp polyculture ponds,albeit with enhancements in stocking and feeding management.The economic viability and success of carpmola polyculture are contingent upon the extent to which these improved management practices are adopted and implemented.The flowchart in Figure 2 outlines the management process for a pond used for carpmola polyculture.It involves pre-stocking pond management,sourcing mola broodstock,post-stocking management and harvesting strategies.3.Improved pond management for carpmola polyculture0 2-Pre-stocking pond managementMola stockingPost-stocking pond managementHarvestingImproved pond management practices:Inclusion of mola in carp polyculturePond preparationWater filling and fertilizationStocking of wild broodsStocking of hatchery reared seedSupplementary feedingLiming and fertilizationWater quality and health monitoringPartialBulkRegularFigure 2.Improved pond management practices for carpmola polyculture.133.1.Pre-stocking management Pre-stocking pond management is similar to carp farming.It encompasses several crucial steps,including pond drying and water filling,dike management and the development of a robust population of natural food sources,such as plankton and algae.These measures are crucial for sustaining the mola population within the pond.Here,we have described an overall improved management strategy with some additional management on fertilization and feeding to improve mola production.In this section,we outline each step concisely.3.1.1.Pond preparation Begin by draining the pond and removing sludge from the bottom,allowing it to dry.Plow the bottom to ensure proper aeration.Keep the pond dikes clear from bushes to eliminate spots where predators can hide.Repair dikes as necessary to control water seepage.Apply lime evenly over the pond surface at the recommended rate(the rate for hydrated lime Ca(OH)2 in powder form is 200 g/m2 or 2000 kg/ha).Leave the pond bottom to dry for a week to disinfect it and get rid of predators.Consider fencing the sides of the pond using materials like nylon nets,bamboo or locally available plants for biosecurity.3.1.2.Water filling and pond fertilization Farmers must use fertilizers at their recommended doses.There are two options to choose from:(1)as per the guidelines set forth by authoritative bodies such as the Food and Agriculture Organization,as for example in Woynarovich and Horvth(1980),Kumar(1992)and Horvth et al.(2002)or(2)according to the local competent authorities,like the Department of Fisheries or fisheries universities.Nevertheless,for the sake of clarity within this document,we propose specific fertilizers and their corresponding recommended doses.Apply organic fertilizer,such as cattle dung,compost,etc.,at the rate of 12 t/ha to the pond bottom.Apply urea at the rate of 10 g/m2(100 kg/ha)and SSP at the rate of 20 g/m2(200 kg/ha)by diluting it in the pondwater when water filling has begun.Fertilize the pond intermittently using chemical fertilizers at recommended rates,typically 28 kg of nitrogen and 21 kg of phosphorus per hectare with urea and SSP or other locally available fertilizers.Gradually fill the pond with water to a depth of 0.50.6 m.Use borehole water to refill the pond.If not available,use surface water filtered through a 100-micron net to prevent predatory insects or fish fry from entering the pond.If using fermented MOC,spray it on the pond surface at the rate of 350 kg/ha.MOC will work mainly as an organic fertilizer.Fill the pond completely,maintaining a water depth between 1.5 and 2 m.Apply agricultural lime(CaCO3)at the rate of 200300 kg/ha.Fill and fertilize the pond 5 days before stocking to allow the rotifer population to develop while preventing the development of adult copepods,which prey on rotifers and newly stocked mola hatchlings.Maintain a Secchi disk depth of 2530 cm.These management procedures will create sufficient natural food in the ponds and can be conducive to fish stocking and healthier growth.3.2.Stocking mola brood or seeds Sourcing mola for stocking is a pivotal aspect of carpmola polyculture.Farmers can obtain mola from either a wild source or a hatchery(Figure 3).When hatchery-produced mola seeds are unavailable,a common practice involves collecting mature and sub-adult mola from the wild and stocking them in carp culture ponds.Optimal production for both mola and carp hinges on the stocking density in the grow-out ponds,which is influenced by the biomass and species composition of carps in polyculture with mola.In the following paragraphs,we discuss the various practices of stocking mola.14Stocking directyinto thepolyculture pondStocking first in thebroodstock pond thentransferring them to thepolyculture pondStocking3-or 4-day-oldspawn into the pondStocking 3-week-old fryinto the pondStocking wildmola broodStocking hatchery produced seedTypes ofmola stockingFigure 3.Types of mola stocking in a carp polyculture pond.Repeat this process at least three times within 10 days prior to harvesting,using soft seine nets while continuously spraying water from outside the net.Use soft seine nets for collection and a large mesh screening net(grader net)to separate mola broodfish from larger fish.Before the harvesting week,feed mola broodfish with fine rice bran or powdered commercial feed for strength.Transport the fish during early morning or late evening,when temperatures are low.Cease feeding the day before transportation.Transfer collected mola into a hapa installed in the grow-out ponds,and acclimatize them to the local pond conditions.Continuously shower the fish with water throughout the collection and conditioning process.Identify strong and healthy broodfish based on swimming behavior,and stock them in the grow-out ponds.Treat broodfish or fry of more than 1 g with potassium permanganate(KMnO4)or sodium chloride(NaCl)before stocking.Stocking density:Maintain a stocking ratio for IMCs of 3:4:3(surface feeder:column feeder:bottom feeder)and stock additional mola broodfish at 2550 kg/ha along with carp species.3.2.1.Stocking wild broodsSourcing mola broodfish:Mola is a self-recruiting fish species found in various waterbodies,including rivers,wetlands,ponds and paddy fields.Choose the mola brood source early in the process.Identify sources of mature mola broodfish,preferably from the same watersheds or fish farming clusters with good records or existing ponds with domesticated stocks.Collect mola from sources such as wetlands,beels and grow-out ponds with the help of local communities and farmers.Train local communities,grow-out farmers and seed traders on how to harvest wild mola brood,with minimal damage to the brood and the surrounding environment,as well as how to transport them live to the pond site.Hardening and transporting live mola:Carp grow-out ponds with naturally occurring mola populations could be viable sources of mola broodstock.Identify mola broodfish in farmers ponds and conduct repeated netting and releasing to ensure proper hardening before transporting them live(Saha et al.2014).15Box 2.Establishing mola broodstock ponds at the village level.Establishing mola broodstock ponds at the village or cluster level can serve as a valuable resource for ensuring the availability of mola broods year-round.These ponds are specifically designed to supply mola broods to the intended beneficiaries.Initially,mola is sourced from naturally occurring populations in ponds,canals,wetlands and rice fields.Subsequently,they are stocked at high densities in broodstock ponds for nursing until they reach maturity or near maturity.To transport mola from the brood ponds to recipient farmers,mobile seed traders can be trained.Although this process can be costly and labor-intensive,and comes with several disadvantages,it remains the most viable method for propagating mola culture in locations where hatchery-reared mola seeds are not available.3.2.2.Stocking hatchery-reared mola seed When stocking 3-day-old hatchlings into a nursery pond to produce 3-week-old fry,use a stocking density of 2 million per hectare(200/m2).This is for the purpose of nursery rearing only.When stocking 3-day-old hatchlings directly into a polyculture grow-out pond,stock them at 500,000 per hectare(50/m2).When stocking 3-week-old fry into a polyculture grow-out pond,use a stocking density of 50,000100,000 fry per hectare(510/m2).Box 3.Improved management guideline for stocking hatchery-reared mola seeds directly into a polyculture grow-out pond.Nursery and grow-out pond management includes draining the pond,then cleaning,liming,drying,gradually refilling,applying inorganic fertilizers and organic manure,and controlling predators.Completely dried ponds and freshly filled ponds are preferred.Before stocking mola hatchlings,net the nursery pond several times with a mosquito net to remove backswimmers,other predatory insects and their larvae.Make sure the grow-out pond is free from any predator fish as well as large zooplankton like copepods and predator insects.The best source of food for the tiny mouths of mola hatchlings is paramecium and rotifers.To develop these,spread dried grass around the shallow areas of the pond.Remove the decomposing grass after 10 days.Periodically apply agri by-products such as fermented MOC and rice bran.Apply inorganic fertilizer weekly at 2 g/m2(20 kg/ha)of urea or 4 g/m2(40 kg/ha)of SSP.Maintain a Secchi disk depth of 2530 cm.Since broadcast SSP sinks into the mud,keep it in a bag suspended below the waters surface in the middle of the pond.About 34 months after stocking the hatchlings,begin harvesting the mola periodically.Any escaped mola will breed and ensure that mola production continues.On average,mola will weigh 34 g after 3 months of culture.Stock advanced-size IMC fingerlings(average weight 300400 g)at the same time as the mola fry.These fish will grow to market size and be ready for harvest in 34 months.16Plate 3.Three-day-old mola spawn or hatchlings ready to stock.Photo credit:Sourabh Kumar Dubey/WorldFishPlate 4.Four-week-old mola fry for stocking.Photo credit:Rashmi Ranjan Das/WorldFish173.3.Post-stocking management In carpmola polyculture,post-stocking management is essential for ensuring optimal growth and health of the fish population.This phase involves several key activities,including providing feed to the fish,liming,fertilization,and monitoring water quality and fish health.Sustaining consistent plankton production in ponds,coupled with supplementary feed,can significantly enhance the production of both mola and carps.Below,we outline the specifics of post-stocking management.3.3.1.Supplementary feeding Supplementary feed is a good source of additional protein,carbohydrate and fat for fish.It accounts for 60p%of the total cost of production.Tailor feeding methods based on feed availability and costs,choosing from options such as floating pellets,sinking pellets,farm-made feed or a combination of commercially formulated and farm-made feed.Adjust feeding rates as recommended,and divide the feed quantity into multiple portions,supplying it three or four times a day.Initially,provide supplementary feed at 3%of the weight of the total fish biomass.Thereafter,use monthly sampling to increase the amount of feed according to the increasing biomass.Avoid feeding during high temperatures.3.3.2.Liming and fertilization Incorporate intermittent liming and fertilization practices during post-stocking management to enhance water quality and foster a robust natural food ecosystem within the pond,which is vital for the growth of mola.Depending on the water pH,lime(agricultural lime)the pond intermittently at a recommended rate of 200300 kg/ha to effectively regulate acidity levels.Use MOC as organic fertilizer at a rate of 200 kg/ha to bolster the production of natural food sources.Apply urea and SSP weekly,at rates of 2 g/m2(20 kg/ha)and 4 g/m2(40 kg/ha),respectively,to sustain healthy plankton growth.This will ensure optimal nutrient levels in the water column.Plate 5.A member of a WSHG applies supplementary feed in a carpmola polyculture pond in Odisha.Photo credit:Sourabh Kumar Dubey/WorldFish183.3.3.Monitoring and recordkeeping Conduct monthly sampling to evaluate the growth and health of cultured fish.Periodically monitor important water quality parameters such as temperature,dissolved oxygen,pH,etc.Inspect the fish for external parasites and lesions on the body surface,fins and gills.Stock the ponds with healthy,disease-free seeds.Disinfect all tools used in fish culture operations before use.Avoid overcrowding and restocking ponds with fish from unknown sources.Adhere to proper feeding,fertilization,liming and water quality management practices.Conduct routine screenings for signs of disease or stress.Alert the responsible authorities of any unusual mortalities,and assist in sample collection for laboratory testing.Follow the recommendations of the responsible authorities for disease management.Adopt recordkeeping and maintain a farm record book developed by the competent authorities.3.4.Mola harvesting strategiesImplementing various harvesting strategies is crucial for ensuring regular consumption of mola while effectively controlling overpopulation.Periodic harvesting helps carps grow faster and provides extra income beyond consumption.Harvesting mola is recognized as woman-friendly.This allows female household members to easily operate gill nets or cast nets to harvest mola from their homestead pond,thus ensuring the availability of micronutrient-rich food for household consumption.Below are several mola harvesting strategies employed in carpmola polyculture ponds.3.4.1.Partial harvesting Given their continuous breeding nature and prolonged breeding season from March to October,mola mature early and are highly fecund.As such,doing partial harvests is imperative to prevent overpopulation,which could otherwise impede overall production.Two to three months after stocking mola broodfish,initiate partial harvesting at regular intervals of 1530 days.For ponds stocked with hatchery-reared mola seed,initiate partial harvesting 34 months after stocking.Use a gill net,cast net or lift net for partial harvesting.Women can easily catch mola for daily cooking by broadcasting rice bran into the homestead pond to attract the fish and then using a cast net to harvest them.For a four-member household,a single partial harvest will ensure a minimum of 500 g of mola,and it can be done twice weekly.Any excess catch can be sold for income.3.4.2.Bulk harvesting Schedule bulk harvesting of mola twice a year based on production and market demands.The optimal periods for harvesting are(i)NovemberDecember,before winter,and(ii)AprilMay,prior to the monsoon season.When harvesting,first net the pond with a 1012 mm mesh seine net to collect fish such as IMCs and corral them into one corner of the pond.Then,net the pond in the opposite direction to harvest the mola,using a mosquito net or a net with a 56 mm mesh.Stop feeding 1 day before harvesting.Unharvested escaped mola will continue to reproduce in the pond,ensuring ongoing mola production.3.4.3.Regular harvesting for household consumption Mola obtained from a carpmola production system serves as a valuable nutritional supplement for household needs.Use gill nets with mesh sizes ranging from 0.6 to 0.75 cm to routinely harvest mola and SIS intended for household consumption.Additionally,consider using cast nets,lift nets or similar methods for harvesting.19Plate 6.Members of a WSHG conduct fish sampling as well as a partial harvest of mola in a community waterbody(GP tank)in Odisha.Photo credit:Sourabh Kumar Dubey/WorldFishPlate 7.A lift net is an ideal device to catch mola from ponds as well as from natural waterbodies.Photo credit:Sourabh Kumar Dubey/WorldFish203.5.Productivity of carpmola polyculture Carpmola polyculture is a holistic approach to developing sustainable aquaculture technology.It enhances the average productivity of high-value carp species for commercial purposes while also providing highly nutritious small fish for household consumption.This integrated approach improves the overall nutritional quality of the total production.A multitude of factors influence the productivity of mola within carpmola polyculture ponds:the quality of stocked broodfish,the presence of predatory fish,stocking density,the composition of carp species,pond size,fertilization levels and climatic conditions.It has been argued that introducing the phytoplankton-grazing mola might diminish food and plankton resources,directly impacting rohu and catla.However,research indicates that the carpmola polyculture system exhibits superior productivity and income compared to carp-only polyculture systems(Roy et al.2002 and 2003;Milstein et al.2008;Jahan et al.2015;Ali et al.2016;Karim et al.2016).Various reports from carpmola polyculture systems in Asia have demonstrated diverse levels of mola productivity based on stocking densities.In small-scale settings,farmers can typically obtain an average mola production of 150300 kg/ha(Dubey et al.2024).Depending on the stocking density for carps(250016,000/ha)in the carpmola polyculture system,annual carp production ranges from 0.7 to 3.7 t/ha(Dubey et al.2024).Evidence from Bangladesh indicates that integrating mola alongside commonly farmed carps in household ponds or larger waterbodies is technically straightforward.This integration can significantly enhance overall productivity to 3.6 t/ha per year,boost income from fish sales and enhance family nutrition(Thilsted and Wahab 2014).Box 4.Carpmola polyculture in ponds connected to rice fields.The practice of carpmola polyculture in ponds connected to rice fields is gaining momentum in India.During the monsoon months,rice fields effectively extend the habitat for fish,especially SIS,leading to an expansion in fish production.Rice fields offer a natural abundance of food organisms,particularly insect larvae and periphyton,which serve as vital nutrition for fish.By preying on insect larvae and controlling aquatic weeds,fish can increase the rice yield by 10%and straw yield by 15%,while obviating the need for pesticides.This approach not only reduces costs but also enhances profits.During the rainy season,fish migrate between the pond and the rice field,whereas in the dry season,when the water level in the rice field decreases,fish congregate in the pond,where they continue to grow and thrive.Source:adapted from Thilsted and Wahab(2014).21Plate 8.A carpmola polyculture pond connected to a rice field in Assam.Photo credit:Sourabh Kumar Dubey/WorldFishNatural sourcesInclusion of mola incarp polyculture:Basic featuresMola brood/seed sourcingMola brood/seed stockingand cultureHarvesting and marketingNurseryHatcheryBroodstock pondsNew pondPonds connected to rice fieldsCommunity waterbodiesExisting carp polyculture pondHousehold consumptionSale of dried fish and fish-based productsSale to supermarketsSale to local marketsFigure 4.Pathway for including mola in a carp polyculture system.22Access to information on operational costs and profitability is crucial for farmers and entrepreneurs,especially in models like carpmola polyculture.Providing comprehensive economic data empowers farmers and entrepreneurs to make informed choices,enhancing the sustainability and success of their ventures.Various factors influence farm economics and profitability of an aquaculture business,including the practices employed(ranging from low-input extensive to highly intensive methods),stocking levels(ranging from low to high intensity),input levels(such as lime,feed and fertilizers)and market dynamics(both domestic and export),along with other risk factors.Studies have consistently shown that cultivating carp in polyculture with mola yields a higher net profit than carp polyculture without mola(Roy et al.2002 and 2003;Milstein et al.2008;Jahan et al.2015;Ali et al.2016;Karim et al.2016).However,it is worth noting that operational costs tend to be higher in the carpmola polyculture system compared to systems solely focused on traditional low-input carp polyculture.Operational costs in carpmola polyculture are largely driven by expenses related to feed,seed and fertilizers.Additionally,since mola are frequently harvested for both consumption and sale,the harvesting costs are substantially higher in carpmola polyculture.Moreover,initial stocking of mola involves relatively expensive broodstock,leading to increased input costs in the first year.Nevertheless,in perennial ponds,mola typically reproduces at least three times a year,potentially reducing input costs in subsequent years.Furthermore,stocking hatchery-reared seed,which is priced similarly to carp,can significantly minimize the seed cost.Depending on seasonality,mola fetches high prices in markets,with a price range of INR 150 to 300 in states like Assam,Odisha and West Bengal.To provide contrasting perspectives,we present two economic scenarios of carpmola polyculture:(1)a moderate to high input model and(2)a low-input improved traditional model.The high input model is being implemented by the Government of Assam under the World Bank-funded Assam Agribusiness and Rural Transformation(APART)project,which promotes carpmola polyculture among farmers producer groups in homestead ponds.Conversely,the low-input improved traditional model has been adopted by the Fisheries and Animal Resources Development(FARD)department of the Government of Odisha,which promotes carpmola polyculture through WSHGs in community waterbodies.Both government schemes have been successful at increasing fish production,generating income and empowering women.4.Economics of carpmola polyculture234.1.Moderate to high input economic modelSl No.ItemQuantity(kg/ha)Rate(INR)Cost(INR)Cost(USD)*A.Operational cost*1.Pond preparationi.Lime250153750.0052.37ii.Organic fertilizer50000.52500.0034.91iii.Urea100121200.0016.76iv.SSP150121800.0025.142.Stockingi.Carp seed8000 seed648,000.00670.27ii.Mola broodfish5030015,000.00209.463.Post-stockingi.Feed600030180,000.002513.53ii.Lime250153750.0052.37iii.Raw cattle dung50000.52500.0034.91iv.Urea100121200.0016.76v.SSP150121800.0025.144.Total harvest 4000.0055.86Total operational cost(A)265,500.003707.48B.Revenue from fish sales(Carp 5000 kg x INR 150) (Mola 250 kg x INR 150)787,500.0010,996.69C.Operational profit(B A)522,000.007289.24D.Operational profit margin or ROI=(C/A)196%*European Commission Conversion rate December 2019 USD 1=INR 71.61245*Operational costs such as pond cleaning,dike repairing,labor,transportation and water management are considered as the farmers contribution.Source:APART,Government of Assam.Table 2.Polyculture of carps with mola in 1 ha of water area under the APART model(20192023)in Assam,India.4.2.Low-input improved traditional economic modelSl No.ItemsUnit(kg)Unit cost(INR)WSHGs contribution(INR)Govt.assistance(INR)Total cost(INR)Total cost(USD)A.Operational cost1Repairing pond dikes,de-weeding,removing sludge15000.005000.00-5000.0066.592Water management (pumping water,fertilizing,liming)15000.005000.00-5000.0066.593Number of advanced carp fingerlings (50100 g)including transportation270012.50-33,750.0033,750.00449.504Mola seed(kg)25400.00-10,000.0010,000.00133.195Formulated pellet feed (28%crude protein and 3t)FCR 1:1:1270032.0040,150.0046,250.0086,400.001150.736Farm labor and harvesting cost19850.009850.00-9850.00131.19A.Total operational cost60,000.0090,000.00150,000.001997.79B.Revenue from fish sales(at a market size of 1 kg)2500120.00300,000.003995.58C.Operational profit=(B A)150,000.001997.79D.Operational profit margin or ROI=(C/A)100%*European Commission Conversion rate December 2019 USD 1=INR 75.08292Source:FARD,Government of Odisha.Table 3.The Input Assistance to Women Self Help Groups for Pisciculture in Gram Panchayat Tanks program from 20212022 to 20232024 in Odisha,India.245.1.Innovative carpmola polyculture for economic growth and human nutrition:An initiative by the Assam governmentAs part of the World Bank-funded APART project,the Department of Fisheries in Assam has introduced an innovative approach:integrating mola fish farming with carp cultivation.Since the inception of the project in 20192020,APART has been implementing the carpmola polyculture scheme under the guidance of WorldFish.To increase public awareness about the nutritional benefits of mola,especially its importance in the diets of children and pregnant women,APART has been conducting awareness campaigns and training sessions across various locations and has developed various training manuals,such as BMP guidelines and leaflets.Subsequently,technical officials from the District Fisheries Department have identified fish farmers in promising areas and formed them to advance the project.Selected beneficiaries of the project have stocked their ponds with fingerling-sized seeds of six carp species,supplemented with a specified quantity(50 kg/ha)of mola broods sourced from selected providers.After 3 months,farmers begin partially harvesting their mola,which allows them to sell some of their fish in local markets and consume the rest at home.Molas natural breeding process has led to a twofold increase in the quantity harvested.Farmers continue to harvest mola three or four times a year,eventually harvesting their entire stock of mola along with their carp for domestic consumption.Encouraged by the profitable returns and minimal additional effort required,beneficiaries are eagerly planning to farm mola in the coming years.Additionally,recognizing the nutritional significance of mola for children and women,women have become motivated to participate in mola farming activities.They have even encouraged neighboring communities to adopt carpmola polyculture.Building on the success of the first year of APART,the Department of Fisheries expanded the project to all districts in 20202021,demonstrating 5.Success stories on scaling nutrition-sensitive aquaculture in Indiacarpmola polyculture in ponds,paddy fields and beel fisheries.The collaborative efforts of the Assam government and WorldFish have yielded promising results in mola farming,with women taking the lead in many instances.Based on the income that beneficiaries have generated over the past 2 years,carpmola polyculture has resulted in an average production of 5000 kg of carp and 300 kg of mola per hectare of water area.This data indicates that fish farmers can earn an additional income of over INR 40,000 from mola alone to supplement their domestic consumption needs.5.2.Nutrition-sensitive carpmola polyculture through womens groups:A successful policy intervention by the Odisha governmentOdishas rural landscape boasts numerous waterbodies,commonly known as village community ponds or multi-utility Gram Panchayat tanks,typically managed by Gram Panchayats(GPs)under the Panchayati Raj and Drinking Water(PR&DW)department.These public waterbodies constitute over 60%of closed aquatic resources in rural areas.In 2018,a collaborative effort and interdepartmental convergence among three key government departments in Odishathe PR&DW,the Women and Child Development Department,the Mission Shakti Department,and the FARD departmentinitiated a concerted push toward gender-and nutrition-sensitive aquaculture.With technical assistance from WorldFish,this partnership aimed to leverage the collective strengths of these departments by involving WSHGs in fish farming ventures within public waterbodies like GP tanks.The PR&DW spearheaded the initiative by introducing a favorable policy in 20182019,leasing out GP tanks to WSHGs on a long-term basis(35 years)across all 30 districts in Odisha.Building upon this foundation,FARD launched a gender-sensitive flagship program in the same year called 25Scientific Fish Farming in Gram Panchayat Tanks by WSHGs,also known as the Input Assistance to WSHGs for Pisciculture in GP Tanks program.This program was tailored to provide comprehensive support to WSHGs in their fish farming endeavors,with a particular emphasis on nutrition-sensitive carpmola polyculture technology in a community farming approach,with women as the primary stakeholders.Under the program,WSHGs received INR 90,000/ha in financial support,covering 60%of the operational expenses toward fish production.The WSHGs underwent extensive training on BMPs and received ongoing guidance throughout the fish farming process,ensuring sustainable and profitable operations through optimal use of public waterbodies.Total production averaged 1.71.9 t/ha,with mola production reaching nearly 155 kg/ha.WSHGs that adopted carpmola polyculture demonstrated higher production,income and household fish consumption rates compared to those practicing only carp polyculture.The programs impact was multifaceted,including improved food and nutritional security,gender equity and environmental sustainability in villages across Odisha.It has resulted in increased fish production and productivity of GP tanks across the state,subsequently enhancing income and consumption of nutrient-rich fish among local households.5.3.Mass seed production of mola to scale nutrition-sensitive aquaculture:A WorldFish initiative WorldFish has been instrumental in advancing nutrition-sensitive carpmola polyculture across South Asian countries,achieving substantial mola yields without compromising carp production.However,unlike conventional aquaculture practices reliant on hatchery-produced fish seed,these initiatives have encountered challenges because of the absence of reliable methods for mass mola seed production.Relying on wild sources to collect mola broodstock has proven unsustainable in the long run.To address this bottleneck,WorldFish has been implementing the Taking Nutrition-Sensitive CarpSIS Polyculture Technology to Scale project in India(20212024),with funding support from BMZ.A central objective is to develop scalable methodologies for mass seed production of essential small indigenous fish through hatchery-based breeding approaches.In 2022,WorldFish achieved a significant breakthrough by establishing a technical protocol for hatchery-based induced breeding and mass seed production of mola at partner hatcheries in Odisha,followed by Assam in the subsequent year.This pioneering effort involves administering hormone(synthetic gonadotropin-releasing hormone analogue)and manipulating the environment to stimulate seed production.A specific hormone dose was determined to optimize the breeding performance of mola,with males receiving 0.25 ml/kg of their weight and females receiving 0.5 ml/kg.Specially designed tanks with a double hapa arrangement were used for breeding,while a continuous supply of oxygen-rich water was provided through an aeration tower to enhance breeding performance and larval survival(Rajts et al.2023a).In Odisha,the partner hatchery either sold or distributed mola hatchlings or spawn and fry to carp farmers at regular intervals when they came to purchase carp seed.The price of mola seed was similar to that of carp seed(average INR 1000 for 100,000 mola hatchlings).Basic details of seed buyer farmers were recorded,and a follow-up survey was conducted to assess the production potential of hatchery-produced mola seed in homestead carp polyculture ponds.Farmers stocked mola spawn at an average density of 283,583/ha,while mola fry were stocked at an average density of 22,190/ha.Mola production began within 35 months of stocking seed,with 93%of farmers achieving successful mola production through hatchery-produced seed.On average,mola production reached 194 kg/ha,with 34%of farmers obtaining mola production of up to 200 kg/ha.Total fish production from carpmola polyculture ponds averaged 2831 kg/ha,with the majority of farmers producing 25003000 kg/ha.Farmers earned an additional INR 19,681/ha from mola sales,translating to INR 7354 per household,on average.In the reporting year,each household consumed an average of 14 kg of mola,with per capita mola consumption calculated at 3 kg per year.Stocking density and culture duration significantly influenced the production,income and household consumption of mola,highlighting the importance of optimizing pond size and stocking density to enhance mola production and income.266.1.Mixed vegetable curry with mola and other SISPlate 9.Vegetable curry mixed with mola.Photo credit:Baishnaba Charan Ratha/WorldFishPreparation Wash and cut all the vegetables,then set them aside.Heat the oil in a pan and add the sliced onions,ginger paste and garlic paste.Saut for a few minutes until the onions turn golden brown.Add the tomatoes,eggplant,bottle gourd and cabbage.Cook until the vegetables are soft and the oil separates from the mixture.Add the turmeric powder,coriander powder,fish masala powder,cumin powder,red chili powder and salt.Saut for 2 minutes to blend the spices.Add the chopped potatoes and cook for a few more minutes.Gently add the fried small fish and cook for 10 minutes,allowing the flavors to mix.Sprinkle the garam masala over the curry and mix well.Add hot water to the pan and bring to a boil.Reduce the heat and simmer for 45 minutes,or until the vegetables become tender and the flavors are well combined.Add the green leafy vegetables and cook for an additional 5 minutes.Garnish with fresh coriander leaves.Serve hot with steamed rice.6.Popular recipes using small fish and mola Ingredients Fried fresh small fish 250 g Cooking oil 100 ml Medium-sized onions,sliced 3 Ginger paste 1 tablespoon Garlic paste 1 tablespoon Turmeric powder tablespoon Fish masala powder tablespoon Garam masala tablespoon Cumin(jeera)powder tablespoon Coriander(dhania)powder tablespoon Red chili powder tablespoon Potato,chopped 50 g Cabbage 500 g Tomato 100 g Eggplant(brinjal)150 g Small bottle gourd 1 Salt to taste Green leafy vegetables Fresh coriander leaves for garnish276.3.Fresh mola fryPlate 11.Processed mola and punti mixed with turmeric powder,a traditional method of cooking SIS.Photo credit:Sourabh Kumar Dubey/WorldFishIngredients Fresh mola,dressed 250 g Turmeric powder tablespoon Green chilies 3 or 4(or to taste)Mustard oil 4 to 5 tablespoons Medium-sized onions 3 or 4 Salt to tastePreparation Wash the small fish thoroughly.Marinate the fish with the turmeric powder and salt.Set aside.Finely chop the onions and green chilies.In a flat frying pan,heat the mustard oil over medium heat.Once the oil is hot,add the marinated fish.Cook over medium heat,stirring constantly to prevent the fish from burning.When the fish start to turn brown,add the chopped onions and green chilies.Continue to cook until the onions turn brown and the fish are well cooked.Serve hot with steamed rice.Note:All recipes were sourced from WorldFishs fish receipe book(Sonowal et al.2022).6.2.Steamed mola in banana leaves Plate 10.Mass patotdiya is a delicacy cherished by the Assamese people.Photo credit:Sourabh Kumar Dubey/WorldFishPhoto credit:Nabamika SonowalIngredients Fresh small fish 250 g Medium-sized garlic clove 1 Ginger paste 1 tablespoon Curry leaves 1 bunch Medium-sized onion,sliced 1 Fresh coriander leaves 1 bunch Green chilies 5 or 6(adjust to taste)Mustard oil 2 to 3 tablespoons Salt to taste Banana leafPreparation Wash and clean the fresh small fish thoroughly.In a bowl,mix the fish with the mustard oil,garlic,ginger paste,curry leaves,onion,coriander leaves,green chilies and salt.Wrap the fish mixture in a banana leaf and tie it securely with a thread.Place the wrapped fish on hot charcoal or a hot tawa(griddle)and cook on both sides for 2530 minutes.Carefully open the banana leaf packet.Transfer the cooked fish to a plate or bowl.Mix thoroughly by hand.Serve hot with steamed rice.28Plate 12.A popular method of cooking mola for household consumption.Photo credit:Sourabh Kumar Dubey/WorldFishPlate 13.Making macha patra poda,an authentic Odisha recipe.Photo credit:Sourabh Kumar Dubey/WorldFish297.Conclusion and recommendationsIncluding nutrient-rich small indigenous fish,such as mola,into carp polyculture systems offers a promising solution to the challenges of undernutrition and limited income faced by small-scale aquaculture communities in India.By combining the nutritional benefits of mola with conventional carp farming,nutrition-sensitive aquaculture can enhance food security,diversify production and support livelihoods in aquaculture-dependent regions.As illustrated in Figure 5,the carpmola polyculture system directly contributes to SDGs 1 and 2 and indirectly supports SDGs 3,5 and 13.Integrating this system with agroecological approaches and decentralized renewable energy sources,such as solar-powered water pumps and aerators,can further enhance its sustainability and resilience.Through improved management practices outlined in this manualincluding pond preparation,water filling,stocking,supplementary feeding and post-stocking managementfarmers can optimize mola production alongside cash crops such as carps while maintaining a healthy pond ecosystem.Sustainable strategies like partial and bulk harvesting ensure continuous production and prevent overpopulation,providing a steady supply of nutrient-dense SIS for household consumption.Economic models demonstrate the profitability of carpmola polyculture,particularly in programs like APART in Assam and initiatives by the Odisha government supporting WSHGs.Success stories from Assam and Odisha highlight the positive impact of scaling nutrition-sensitive aquaculture,showing increased production,income and household consumption of nutrient-rich fish.Additionally,WorldFishs efforts to develop scalable methodologies for mass seed production of mola contribute to the sustainability and expansion of carpmola polyculture.A major challenge in scaling carpmola polyculture technology is the reliance on wild broodstock or the lack of hatchery-reared mola seeds.Harvesting mola brood from the wild can harm the ecosystem and interfere with the reproduction of other fish species,making it unsustainable long term(Rajts et al.2023b).Stocking wild breeders in seasonal ponds poses difficulties,as these ponds might dry up before the progeny reach marketable size and the presence of fish of various ages results in inconsistent market sizes.Moreover,introducing wild fish into farmers ponds risks transmitting pathogens,and mola broodstock collected from the wild often includes undesirable Carp-molapolyculture:Nutrition-sensitiveapproachAwarenessandcapacitybuildingImprovedmarketaccessResearchandinnovationWSHGsIndividualfarmerNGOsProducergroupD Diverse nutritionI Improved food securityE Enhanced livelihoodI Improved fsh productivityS Sustainable resource useC Cultural preservationC Climate resiliencyE Environmental sustainabilityS Social sustainabilitySupportpolicyinterventionIMPACTFigure 5.Carpmola polyculture as a nutrition-sensitive approach linked to the SDGs.30species such as chanda(Chanda nama),which prey on mola eggs and fry.In contrast,stocking hatchery-produced mola seeds offers several advantages,including uniform size and age of the fish,optimal stocking timing and density,reduced infection risk and higher survival rates.The nutrition-sensitive carpSIS polyculture model holds significant potential for replication through various government programs across India.This model is particularly suitable for women-centric initiatives,offering substantial opportunities for the economic empowerment of women.The initiative can be linked with the Lakhpati Didi program,implemented by the Ministry of Rural Development,Government of India,which aims to catalyze economic empowerment and financial independence among rural women.Research indicates that active participation of women in small-scale aquaculture not only boosts income and food security but also improves overall welfare outcomes.In northeastern Indian states such as Assam,Manipur and Tripura,mola and other SIS are highly sought after in dried form and are commonly used in traditional fermented dishes.Recently,there has been a growing trend in promoting dried fish and fish-based products in government school feeding programs in Assam and Odisha.Cultivating mola presents opportunities for new business ventures in the production of dried fish and processed fish-based products,opening new avenues for economic growth and innovation.To fully harness the potential of carpmola polyculture,the following recommendations are essential:Promote awareness and capacity building:Continue awareness campaigns and training sessions to educate farmers about the nutritional benefits and management practices of carpmola polyculture.Strengthen capacity-building efforts to enhance the skills of farmers,especially women,in managing ponds and harvesting fish.Establish a knowledge repository,develop a trainers pool and create an institutional framework for implementation.Maintain a multi-institutional approach to promote consumption:Promote small fish consumption for health benefits through collaboration between various government departments,such as the School and Education Department,Health and Family Welfare Department,Women and Child Development Department,and the Department of Fisheries.Support policy interventions:Advocate for supportive policies at the state and national levels to incentivize and scale up nutrition-sensitive aquaculture initiatives.Encourage collaboration between government departments,NGOs,research institutions and private sector actors to create an enabling environment for carpmola polyculture.Expand outreach and extension services:Extend nutrition-sensitive aquaculture programs to more regions and communities,particularly those with high rates of undernutrition and poverty.Use extension services to provide technical assistance,access to inputs,and market links to small-scale farmers.Invest in research and innovation:Allocate resources for research and innovation in hatchery-based mass seed production of mola to ensure the availability of quality seed stock for farmers.Explore innovative technologies and practices to optimize pond management,feeding regimens and disease control in carpmola polyculture systems.Facilitate market access:Strengthen value chains,improve infrastructure and promote market links for small-scale farmers to facilitate access to markets for mola and other fish products.Provide support for processing,storage and marketing initiatives to enhance the proposed value of carpmola polyculture.Monitor and evaluate impact:Establish monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to track the impact of nutrition-sensitive aquaculture interventions on nutrition outcomes,livelihoods and environmental sustainability.Use evidence-based findings to refine strategies and improve program effectiveness over time.Focus on digital and real-time monitoring systems and develop farm record books to comprehensively capture all farming-related information.By implementing these recommendations and building on the successes of existing initiatives,stakeholders can work together to unlock the full potential of carpmola polyculture in improving nutrition,enhancing livelihoods and promoting sustainable aquaculture development in India.31Ahern M,Thilsted SH and Oenema S.2021.The role of aquatic foods in sustainable healthy diets.Rome:UN Nutrition Secretariat.Ali H,Murshed-e-Jahan K,Belton B,Dhar GC and Rashid HO.2016.Factors determining the productivity of mola carplet(Amblypharyngodon mola,Hamilton,1822)in carp polyculture systems in Barisal district of Bangladesh.Aquaculture 465:198208.Alim MA,Wahab MA and Milstein A.2005.Effects of increasing the stocking density of large carps by 20%on“cash”carp-small fish polyculture of Bangladesh.Aquaculture Research 36(4):31725.doi:10.1111/j.1365-2109.2004.01199.xBogard JR,Thilsted SH,Marksa GC,Wahab A,Mostafa ARH,Jakobsen J and Stangoulis J.2015.Nutrient composition of important fish species in Bangladesh and potential contribution to recommended nutrient intakes.Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 42:12033.Byrd KA,Thilsted SH and Fiorella KJ.2020.Fish nutrient composition:A review of global data from poorly assessed inland and marine species.Public Health Nutrition 24(3):47686.Castine SA,Bogard JR,Barman BK,Karim M,Mokarrom Hossain MD,Kunda M,Mahfuzul Haque ABM,Phillips MJ and Thilsted SH.2017.Homestead pond polyculture can improve access to nutritious small fish.Food Security 9:785801.Dubey SK,Rajts F,Gogoi K,Das RR,Padiyar A,Belton B,Mohan CV and Bhadury P.2024.Mass scale seed production of indigenous small fish species:A promising solution to scale nutrition-sensitive aquaculture.In Sinha A,Roy A and Gogoi P,eds.Perspectives and Applications of Indigenous Small Fish in India.Singapore:Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.doi:10.1007/978-981-97-1586-2_5Fiedler JL,Lividini K,Drummond E and Thilsted SH.2016.Strengthening the contribution of aquaculture to food and nutrition security:The potential of a vitamin A-rich,small fish in Bangladesh.Aquaculture 452:291303.Horvath L,Tams G and Seagrave C.2002.Carp and Pond Fish Culture.London:Fishing News Books,Blackwell Scientific Publications Ltd.Islam MR,Yeasmin M,Sadia S,Ali MS,Haque AR and Roy VC.2023.Indigenous small fish:A potential source of valuable nutrients in the context of Bangladesh.Hydrobiology 2(1):21234.Jahan KM,Belton B,Ali H,Dhar GC and Ara I.2015.Aquaculture technologies in Bangladesh:An assessment of technical and economic performance and producer behavior.Penang,Malaysia:WorldFish.Program Report:2015-52.Jayasankar P.2018.Present status of freshwater aquaculture in India:A review.Indian Journal of Fisheries 65(4):15765.Kadir A,Wahab MA,Milstein A,Hossain MA and Seraji MTI.2007.Effects of silver carp and the small indigenous fish mola(Amblypharyngodon mola)and punti(Puntius sophore)on fish polyculture production.Aquaculture 273(4):52031.Karim M,Ullah H,Castine S,Islam MM,Keus HJ,Kunda M,Thilsted SH and Phillips M.2016.Carpmola productivity and fish consumption in small-scale homestead aquaculture in Bangladesh.Aquaculture International 25:86779.Kumar D.1992.Fish culture in undrainable ponds:A manual for extension.FAO Fisheries Technical Paper No.325.Rome:FAO.Mandal FB and Nandi NC.2015.Loss of indigenous small fish species in India:A case of concern.Journal of Environment and Sociobiology 12:3545.References32Milstein A,Wahab MA,Kadir A,Sagor MFH and Islam MA.2009.Effects of intervention in the water column and/or pond bottom through species composition on polycultures of large carps and small indigenous species.Aquaculture 286(3-4):24653.Mohanty BP,Behera BK and Sharma AP(2012).Nutritional significance of small indigenous fishes in human health.Bulletin No.162.Barrackpore,India:Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute,Indian Council of Agricultural Research.Nandi S,Majumder S and Saikia SK.2012.Small freshwater fish species(SFFs)culture:Issues from nutrient security,carp-SFF integration and feeding ecology.Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 23(3):28391.Rajts F and Shelley CC.2020.Mola(Amblypharyngodon mola)aquaculture in Bangladesh:Status and future needs.Penang,Malaysia:WorldFish.Program Report:2020-45.Rajts F,Dubey SK,Gogoi K,Das RR,Biswal SK,Padiyar AP,Rajendran S,Thilsted SH,Mohan CV and Belton B.2023a.Cracking the code of hatchery-based mass production of mola(Amblypharyngodon mola)seed for nutrition-sensitive aquaculture.Frontiers in Aquaculture 2:1271715.doi:10.3389/faquc.2023.1271715 Rajts F,Dubey SK,Belton B,Padiyar A and Thilsted SH.2023b.Current state of knowledge on induced breeding of nutrient-rich indigenous small fish species.WorldFish,Penang.Program Report:202317.Roos N,Islam MM and Thilsted SH.2003.Indigenous small fish species in Bangladesh:Contribution to vitamin A,calcium and iron Intakes.Journal of Nutrition 133(11):4021S-4026S.Roos N,Wahab MA,Hossain MAR and Thilsted SH.2007.Linking human nutrition and fisheries:Incorporating micronutrient-dense,indigenous small fish species in carp polyculture production in Bangladesh.Food and Nutrition Bulletin 28(2_suppl2):S280S293.Roy NC,Kohinoor AHM,Wahab MA and Thilsted SH.2002.Evaluation of performance of carp-SIS polyculture technology in the rural farmers pond.Asian Fisheries Science 15(1):4352.Roy NC,Wahab MA,Khatoon H and Thilsted SH.2003.Economics of carp-SIS polyculture in rural farmers pond.Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 6(1):6164.Saha MK,Eunus ATM and Barman BK.2014.Transportation of mola(Amblypharyngodon mola)brood fish for stocking in the homestead ponds of North West Bangladesh.In Wahab MA,Shah MS,Hossain MAR,Barman BK and Hoq ME,eds.Advances in Fisheries Research in Bangladesh:I.Proceedings of 5th Fisheries Conference&Research Fair 2012,Dhaka,Bangladesh,January 1819,2012,Bangladesh Agricultural Research Council.97104.Sonowal N,Beypi N,Baruah D,Rajendran S,Ratha BCR and Sarma S.2022.The fish recipe cookbook.Penang,Malaysia:WorldFish.Thilsted SH,Thorne-Lyman A,Webb P,Bogard JR,Subasinghe R,Phillips MJ and Allison EH.2016.Sustaining healthy diets:The role of capture fisheries and aquaculture for improving nutrition in the post-2015 era.Food Policy 61:12631.Thilsted SH.2012.The potential of nutrient-rich small fish species in aquaculture to improve human nutrition and health.In Subasinghe RP,Arthur JR,Bartley DM,De Silva SS,Halwart M,Hishamunda N,Mohan CV and Sorgeloos P,eds.Farming the waters for people and food.Proceedings of the Global Conference on Aquaculture 2010,Phuket,Thailand,September 2225,2010.5773.Thilsted SH and Wahab MA.2014.Pond polyculture technologies combat micronutrient deficiencies and increase household income in Bangladesh.CGIAR Research Program on Aquatic Agricultural Systems.Penang,Malaysia:WorldFish.Policy Brief:AAS-2014-09.Wahab MA,Alim MA and Milstein A.2003.Effects of adding the small fish punti(Puntius sophore Hamilton)and/or mola(Amblypharyngodon mola Hamilton)to a polyculture of large carp.Aquaculture Research 34(2):14963.Woynarovich E and Horvth L.1980.The artificial propagation of warm-water finfishes:Manual of extensions.FAO Fisheries Technical Paper.Rome:FAO.About WorldFish WorldFish is a leading international research organization working to transform aquatic food systems to reduce hunger,malnutrition and poverty.It collaborates with international,regional and national partners to co-develop and deliver scientific innovations,evidence for policy,and knowledge to enable equitable and inclusive impact for millions who depend on fish for their livelihoods.As a member of CGIAR,WorldFish contributes to building a food-and nutrition-secure future and restoring natural resources.Headquartered in Penang,Malaysia,with country offices across Africa,Asia and the Pacific,WorldFish strives to create resilient and inclusive food systems for shared prosperity.For more information,please visit www.worldfishcenter.org
2024-12-29
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DAIRY PROCESSING SPECIAL EDITIONIssue N 8-December 2024Research progress|Global insights|Expert opin.
2024-12-29
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Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 20241HarvestAnalysis|2024CANADAAlltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 20242Harvest Analysis|2024TABLE OF CONTENTS3.Introduction7.Alberta25.Quebec4.Key insights12.Saskatchewan28.Mycotoxin Management5.British Columbia21.Ontario17.ManitobaAlltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 20243Meeting the mycotoxin challengeWe are delighted to present the Alltech 2024 Canadian Harvest Analysis,your comprehensive resource for understanding this years mycotoxin landscape.Over 1,000 grain and forage samples from across Canada were analyzed,delivering valuable insights into the mycotoxin risks facing our agricultural industry.As we deepen our understanding of mycotoxins,their significant effects on animal health and performance become increasingly evident and with growing concerns about the impacts of weather on crop quality,weve seen unprecedented interest in this years program.The insights shared in this report are designed to help you navigate these challenges and implement effective mycotoxin control strategies.This years analysis combines a national English-language report with a dedicated French-language Quebec report,providing tailored insights for the diverse needs of Canadas agricultural regions.Whether your goal is to produce the highest-quality feed or optimize livestock performance,the Alltech team is here to support you.With our dedication to advancing agriculture and a focus on empowering you with actionable data,we are confident this report will help drive your success in the months ahead.Yours sincerely,Stuart McGregor,Vice President of Commercial Business,Alltech Canada 4Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024What are this years key insights?1,100new crop samples tested in total between Alltech 37 and SGSSample date range:01/07/2024-25/11/20246provinces analysed across CanadaAcross Canada,corn silage samples consistently showed the presence of multiple Fusarium mycotoxins,including deoxynivalenol,zearalenone,and T2/HT2-toxins.These mycotoxins,at moderate to higher risk levels,pose significant challenges to dairy cows by impacting gut health,immunity,reproduction,and overall performance.Regional variations were observed,with certain provinces experiencing higher risk profiles,as reflected in the Alltech REQ.Wheat samples across Canada generally showed a lower occurrence and content of mycotoxins.However,elevated levels of deoxynivalenol were detected in some samples,particularly in Ontario,where additional mycotoxins such as zearalenone and T2/HT2-toxins were also present.These mycotoxins have the potential to impact gut health,immunity,reproduction,and overall performance,highlighting the need for targeted monitoring and management.Barley silage samples in Alberta and Saskatchewan showed a higher occurrence of zearalenone,along with the presence of aflatoxins and T2/HT2-toxins.While deoxynivalenol occurrence was lower,there remains a potential for higher concentrations.The overall Alltech REQ risk was at a moderate level for dairy cows,indicating a need for ongoing monitoring to mitigate potential impacts on health and performance.Barley samples across Canada showed a lower overall occurrence of mycotoxins.However,in Manitoba,the presence of deoxynivalenol and T2/HT2-toxins was detected,with some samples containing higher risk levels.These mycotoxins could potentially impact animal health and performance,highlighting the importance of continued monitoring to ensure safety and quality.Corn grain samples analyzed in Manitoba and Ontario showed the presence of deoxynivalenol,zearalenone,and T2/HT2-toxins,with all three detected at higher risk levels in some cases.These mycotoxins pose a significant risk to gut health,immunity,reproduction,and overall performance,highlighting the need for monitoring and mitigation strategies to protect dairy cow health and productivity.5Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024British Columbia6Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Corn silage18/09/2024-20/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY102 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumT2/HT2 Toxins22878.41,584Deoxynivalenol60046.15,100Zearalenone5531.7967BRITISH COLUMBIAAbbotsfordVancouverAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADBritish ColumbiaCalf/heiferBeefDairy Cows*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh34!7E%8P%-0.54 kg/cow/day77.26%Estimated daily milk loss per cowPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)7Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Alberta8Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Barley02/07/2024-19/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY23 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumDeoxynivalenol7598.715,600Aflatoxins003T2/HT2 Toxins2050Zearalenone3050EdmontonALBERTASASKATCHEWANCalgaryAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADAlbertaCalf/heiferBeefSow/giltBreederDairy CowsNurseryStarterGrow finishBroiler*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh96.0%4.0.0%4.0.0%4.0.0.0%4.0.0.0%4.0.0.0.0.0 x.0%4.0%4.0%4.0%4.0%4.0%4.0.0.0%-0.13 kg/cow/day-25.67 grams/day-1.31 grams/day19.03%0.041.85%Estimated daily milk loss per cowEstimated loss in ADGEstimated loss in ADGPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Estimated change in FCREstimated change in FCR9Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Wheat02/07/2024-15/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY28 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumT2/HT2 Toxins179.1109Zearalenone148.353Deoxynivalenol1167.1999Aflatoxins003EdmontonALBERTASASKATCHEWANCalgaryAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADAlbertaSow/giltBreederNurseryStarterGrow finishBroiler*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh71uu.0.0q%4%4%4.0!%-0.4 kg/cow/day-6.8 grams/day-0.41 grams/day5.51%0.010.58%Estimated daily milk loss per cowEstimated loss in ADGEstimated loss in ADGPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Estimated change in FCREstimated change in FCRCalf/heiferBeefDairy Cows93%7q%7!Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Barley Silage09/07/2024-15/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY35 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumZearalenone13864.3448Aflatoxins350.010T2/HT2 Toxins4540.9159Deoxynivalenol2872.94,142EdmontonALBERTASASKATCHEWANCalgaryAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADAlberta*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh-0.18 kg/cow/day25.27%Estimated daily milk loss per cowPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Calf/heiferBeefDairy Cows60%911%6c7IAlltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Corn silage02/07/2024-19/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY28 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumZearalenone18296.3765Aflatoxins550.07T2/HT2 Toxins8350.0421Deoxynivalenol43441.41.994EdmontonALBERTASASKATCHEWANCalgaryAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADAlberta*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh-0.3 kg/cow/day43.41%Estimated daily milk loss per cowPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Calf/heiferBeefDairy Cows37%3%3W#Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Saskatchewan13Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Barley04/07/2024-16/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY40 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumT2/HT2 Toxins127.168Deoxynivalenol1105.1569Aflatoxins003Zearalenone13050SASKATCHEWANReginaSaskatoonAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADSaskatchewanSow/giltBreederNurseryStarterGrow finishBroiler*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh78#u%8%8%3#%-0.03 kg/cow/day-5.06 grams/day-0.3 grams/day4.06%0.010.43%Estimated daily milk loss per cowEstimated loss in ADGEstimated loss in ADGPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Estimated change in FCREstimated change in FCRCalf/heiferBeefDairy Cows97e%3%3%33Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Wheat02/07/2024-15/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY28 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumDeoxynivalenol19218.41,008Aflatoxins003T2/HT2 Toxins3050Zearalenone9050SASKATCHEWANReginaSaskatoonAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADSaskatchewanBreederStarterBroiler*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh88e%23%Sow/giltNurseryGrow finish63555yy%-0.03 kg/cow/day-6.35 grams/day-0.32 grams/day4.71%0.010.45%Estimated daily milk loss per cowEstimated loss in ADGEstimated loss in ADGPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Estimated change in FCREstimated change in FCRCalf/heiferBeefDairy Cows98%2%2%2%2%2%2BVAlltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Barley silage12/07/2024-22/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY67 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumZearalenone14177.8300Aflatoxins675.08T2/HT2 Toxins5956.9185Deoxynivalenol52935.82,811SASKATCHEWANReginaSaskatoonAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADSaskatchewan*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh-0.22 kg/cow/day31.45%Estimated daily milk loss per cowPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Calf/heiferBeefDairy Cows52%7uR53Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Corn silage07/10/2024-29/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY20 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumZearalenone149100.0343T2/HT2 Toxins24275.01,526Deoxynivalenol86655.05,688Aflatoxins433.36SASKATCHEWANReginaSaskatoonAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADSaskatchewan*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh-0.63 kg/cow/day90.82%Estimated daily milk loss per cowPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Calf/heiferBeefDairy Cows50PEPPAlltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Manitoba18Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Barley13/08/2024-14/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY38 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumDeoxynivalenol42839.53,700T2/HT2 Toxins1811.154Zearalenone190.050MANITOBAWinnipegAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADManitobaSow/giltBreederNurseryStarterGrow finishBroiler*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh37B!P)7!ta9%5%59!4G%-0.09 kg/cow/day-16.22 grams/day-0.86 grams/day12.31%0.021.22%Estimated daily milk loss per cowEstimated loss in ADGEstimated loss in ADGPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Estimated change in FCREstimated change in FCRCalf/heiferBeefDairy Cows84%34v%3!$BAlltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Corn16/09/2024-29/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY56 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumT2/HT2 Toxins9329.61,136Zearalenone4018.2557Deoxynivalenol2655.55,300Aflatoxins103MANITOBAWinnipegAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADManitobaSow/giltBreederNurseryStarterGrow finishBroiler*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh55a0%hhyq%9!%-0.14 kg/cow/day-22.79 grams/day-1.63 grams/day20.03%0.032.31%Estimated daily milk loss per cowEstimated loss in ADGEstimated loss in ADGPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Estimated change in FCREstimated change in FCRCalf/heiferBeefDairy Cows82%90w%9C Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Wheat20/08/2024-06/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY24 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumDeoxynivalenol26526.11,120Zearalenone2712.556T2/HT2 Toxins16050MANITOBAWinnipegAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADManitobaSow/giltBreederNurseryStarterGrow finishBroiler*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh17XTT!uc%838%8%-0.06 kg/cow/day-11.27 grams/day-0.59 grams/day8.58%0.020.83%Estimated daily milk loss per cowEstimated loss in ADGEstimated loss in ADGPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Estimated change in FCREstimated change in FCRCalf/heiferBeefDairy Cows92%8y!%)3!FP!Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Ontario22Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Corn06/09/2024-29/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY313 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumDeoxynivalenol83962.110,167Zearalenone7830.0780T2/HT2 Toxins1210.571Aflatoxins003MICHIGANNEW YORKVTMASSDetroitTorontoOttawaMontrealAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADOntarioSow/giltBreederNurseryStarterGrow finishBroiler*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh49&4&GG(%-0.15 kg/cow/day-30.1 grams/day-1.46 grams/day22.08%0.042.07%Estimated daily milk loss per cowEstimated loss in ADGEstimated loss in ADGPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Estimated change in FCREstimated change in FCRCalf/heiferBeefDairy Cows81%7Qi & #7$&A4%cI#Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Wheat03/07/2024-26/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY179 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumDeoxynivalenol54152.33,400Zearalenone1432.492T2/HT2 Toxins67.050Aflatoxins3E-50.03MICHIGANNEW YORKVTMASSDetroitTorontoOttawaMontrealAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADOntarioSow/giltBreederNurseryStarterGrow finishBroiler*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh50%6UI%7%6%0%-0.1 kg/cow/day-20.02 grams/day-1 grams/day14.87%0.031.42%Estimated daily milk loss per cowEstimated loss in ADGEstimated loss in ADGPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Estimated change in FCREstimated change in FCRCalf/heiferBeefDairy Cows85%2Pq%4(%HcF%71&$Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Corn silage12/08/2024-29/11/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY199 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumZearalenone36099.31,956Deoxynivalenol1,73081.89,943T2/HT2 Toxins11569.61,247Aflatoxins333.37MICHIGANNEW YORKVTMASSDetroitTorontoOttawaMontrealAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADOntario*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh-0.6 kg/cow/day86.18%Estimated daily milk loss per cowPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Calf/heiferBeefDairy Cows96%1%3%86Fa2%Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Quebec26Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Corn silage17/09/2024-31/10/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY69 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumZearalenone30291.31,394Deoxynivalenol99369.66,782T2/HT2 Toxins4927.5319QubecTrois-RiviresMontrealSherbrookeONTARIOAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADQuebec*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh-0.46 kg/cow/day66.95%Estimated daily milk loss per cowPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Calf/heiferBeefDairy Cows43%1CF&0Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 2024Haylage09/07/2024-08/10/2024Sample data rangeDD/MM/YYYY45 Samples analyzed by Alltech RAPIREADOccurrence(%)and average and maximum mycotoxin concentrations(ppb)Mycotoxin groupAverageOccurence(%)MaximumZearalenone12395.6236Deoxynivalenol23222.2519T2/HT2 Toxins93.379QubecTrois-RiviresSherbrookeMontrealONTARIOAverage total risk(Alltech REQ)assessment forsamples analyzed with Alltech RAPIREADQuebec*Percentage of samples at lower,moderate or higher risk for each species.*LOQ:Limit of quantification.LowModerateHigh-0.14 kg/cow/day20.26%Estimated daily milk loss per cowPotential change in somatic cell count(SCC)Calf/heiferBeefDairy Cows91%9.0%4.0s(Alltech Harvest Analysis|CANADA 20240204050301A proven program from Alltech Mycotoxin ManagementAlltech believes that effective mycotoxin management is about seeing the whole challenge,from the farm to the feed mill and from risk assessment to feed management.To effectively manage the inevitability of feed mycotoxin contamination,it is crucial to understand the level of mycotoxin challenge so that the right steps can be taken to mitigate any adverse effects on animal performance,production efficiency and food safety.Learn more about Alltech Mycotoxin Management,our services and solutions and the latest information on the threat of mycotoxins at .The mycotoxin testing methods used across both the Alltech 37 and SGS laboratories will differ and utilise separate limits of quantification(LOQ).The mycotoxin occurrence numbers in corn reported on page 6 are based on a higher LOQ than the wheat and barley data on pages 8 and 10.RiskeducationRiskidentificationRiskquantificationRiskmitigationRiskevaluationHarvest analysis programsPodcasts and Alltech 37 Alltech RAPIREADMycotoxin Management PortalAlltech PROTECT(REQ)Alltech DIET EstimatorProven 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In partnership withCGIAR Initiative onFragility to Resilience in Report Central and West Asia and North Africa Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in MoroccoCurrent status and opportunitiesMohamed Naji2024ContentsAcronyms 4List of tables 5List of figures 5List of plates 5Executive summary 6Introduction 8Chapter1.Overview of Moroccan aquaculture 91.The history of aquaculture in Morocco 92.Moroccan inland fish farming species 102.1.Cold-water fish 102.2.Warm-water fish 103.Aquaculture production 104.Alignment with national sectoral strategies 124.1.New development model for inland fisheries and aquaculture(NDM-IFA)2023-2030 124.2.Agricultural strategy 2020-2030 125.Policy Support for aquaculture and IAA in Morocco 136.Stakeholders 136.1.National Water and Forest Agency(NWFA)136.2.Department of Agriculture 136.3.National Office for Food Safety(NOFS)136.4.Regional Investment Centers(RIC)136.5.Training and research institutions 146.6.Office for Vocational Training and Work Promotion(OVTWP)146.7.Regional and provincial boards 146.8.Financial institutions 142024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 2Chapter 2.Status of integrated agricultureaquaculture 157.Fry supply for IAA 157.1.Africarp Company 157.2.Smir Company 157.3.Asmak Nile Company 158.IAA SWOT analysis 169.What model for IAA in Morocco?169.1.Fertilization regime of crops 179.2.Fish farming in ponds without aeration 199.3.Fish farming in ponds with aeration 199.4.Fish farming in floating cages in large ponds(Cat.3)209.5.Fish farming in ponds ancillary to the main pond 2210.Promotion of IAA in Morocco 2310.1.Development of resilient production systems 2410.2.Creation of an entrepreneurial ecosystem 2410.3.Institutional and organizational strengthening 2510.4.Training and capacity building 2510.5.VC and market development for IAA 26References 272024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 3AcronymsNHSOFP National Health Safety Office of Food Products ha HectareIAA Integrated AgricultureAquacultureIFA Inland Fisheries and AquacultureMAD Moroccan dirham(0,11 USD)NAAD National Agency for Aquaculture DevelopmentNDM-IFA New development model for inland fisheries and aquacultureNIHD National Initiative for Human DevelopmentNIWSP National irrigation water saving programNWFA National Water and Forest AgencyOCD Office for Cooperation DevelopmentONEE National Electricity and Drinking Water BoardOVTWP Office for Vocational Training and Work PromotionRAS Recirculating aquaculture systemRIC Regional investment centerSWOT Strengths,weaknesses,opportunities,and threatsUSD American dollarVC Value chainWBA Water Basin Agency 2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 4List of figuresFigure 1.Breakdown of fry production by species in year 2021(NWFA,2022)10Figure 2.Breakdown of aquaculture production by species(average 2016-2020)11Figure 3.Model for IAA operation in medium-sized basins(Cat.2)20Figure 4.Model for IAA operation in large basins(Cat.3)22Figure 5.Model for IAA operation in auxiliary basins 22Figure 6.Different types of irrigated perimeters in Morocco 23List of tablesTable 1.Number of fish fry production in Morocco between 2017 and 2021 9Table 2.Aquaculture production trend by species and total 11Table 3.SWOT matrix for IAA in Morocco 16Table 4.Examples of plant crops that can be integrated with aquaculture 17Table 5.Classification of storage basins by size 17List of platesPlate 1.Different types of aquaculture in Morocco 11Plate 2.Silver carp fry 15Plate 3.SMIR aquaculture farm 15Plate 4.Asmak Nile aquaculture farm 15Plate 5.Irrigation basin with a volume of less than 1000 m3(Cat.1)18Plate 6.Irrigation basin with a volume of between 1000 m3 and 5000 m3(Cat.2)18Plate 7.Irrigation basin with a volume greater than 5000 m3(Cat.3)18Plate 8.Development potential for IAA in the Tafilalet oasis zone 19Plate 9.Cage models for large irrigation basins 20Plate 10.Circular cage model in an irrigation basin 212024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 5Executive summaryThe inland fisheries and aquaculture sector in MoroccoMorocco is endowed with substantial and diversified water resources that are conducive to inland fisheries and aquaculture(IFA).Overall,water is relatively available,but allocation trade-offs are necessary.Inland fish production is segmented into two categories:culture-based fisheries,which are carried out by the hatcheries of the National Water,and Forest Agency(NWFA),and production aquaculture,which is operated by the private sector.Private-sector aquaculture production is around 1,000 t/year.It is ensured by around ten companies and mainly concerns eel,tilapia and rainbow trout.A program to promote floating cage aquaculture in dam reservoirs has supported 11 aquaculture cooperatives.Their production capacity is estimated at over 500 t/year.Presently,freshwater fish production is dominated by extensive fish farming,based on restocking operations.The amount of fry produced annually by NWFA hatcheries,all species combined,is around 20 million(NWFA,2022).The annual production resulting from these restocking operations is estimated at around 15,000 tonnes of freshwater fish per year(NWFA,2022).Fish species reared in Morocco involve two categories of fish species:cold-water fish and warm-water fish.Historically,inland aquaculture has focused on the production of cold-water fish,such as rainbow trout and pike,for restocking natural environments.The semi-arid desert climate prevailing in much of Morocco calls for the adoption of new aquaculture production systems based on water conservation,the use of non-conventional waters and the practice of aquaculture integrated with other activities,notably agriculture.In this regard,hydro-agricultural infrastructures(dams,irrigation water storage basins,irrigation canals,etc.),which are designed as part of the agricultural sector strategy,offer considerable potential for the development of integrated agricultureaquaculture(IAA).Warm water fish are mainly represented by cyprinids and tilapia.The scarcity of freshwater raises the issue of arbitration in its utilization between the main users,i.e.agriculture,household consumption and industry.Generally speaking,the use of water for conventional aquaculture purposes exacerbates this usage conflict,unlike IAA,which is perfectly consistent with the main public policies involved in water resource management.Status of integrated agricultureaquacultureThe development of aquaculture integrated with agriculture is fully compatible with Moroccos sectoral strategies affecting water resources,in particular the agricultural sector strategy(Green generation 2020-2030)and the new development model for inland fisheries and aquaculture(NDM-IFA)(2023-2030).There are many stakeholders involved in IAA.Their roles are complementary in the process of developing this new economic sector within agricultural perimeters.At the present time,the integration of aquaculture and agriculture is limited to the introduction of carp and tilapia fry into hydro-agricultural facilities(irrigation canals and storage basins)to prevent algal blooms.In other words,this is,for the time being,extensive aquaculture,which does not rely on external feed.Consequently,fish stocking densities are low.Fish harvests are consumed locally.The main strengths,weaknesses,opportunities and threats for IAA in Morocco are as follows:Strengths Moroccos climatic conditions are favorable for the development of warm-water species aquaculture integrated with agriculture,including in desert areas.Inland aquaculture is considered by the inland fishing law as an activity that can benefit from public aid and subsidies for its development.There are thousands of water storage basins and an extensive network of pipes that can be used for IAA.The ponds are equipped with the appropriate materials for intensified fish farming(pumping stations,water filtration systems,solar energy,etc.).Weaknesses Farmers exhibit a deficit in expertise and practical knowledge regarding intensive aquaculture methods.Profitability is uncertain due to nascent markets for IAA products.Consumer interest in products derived from inland aquaculture remains moderate.There is an absence of a comprehensive strategy aimed at promoting IAA products in the market.There is a lack of specific regulations for IAA systems.There is a general lack of support and promotion for IAA systems.2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 6Opportunities The States sectoral policy modernizes agriculture and promotes the use of irrigation water and improved productivity.The new development model for IFA has identified integrated aquaculture as a strategic development priority.Demand for fish is growing steadily.The NWFA has decided to set up new fish hatcheries in irrigated areas to meet farmers fry needs.Threats The impact of climate change is being felt increasinglyrecurrent droughts,drying up of rivers and lakes,increasing salinity of water,etc.While IAA can enhance resilience,climate change poses significant threats There are potential conflicts with existing water use and agricultural policies.Potential environmental impacts could threaten IAA sustainability(risk of nutrient pollution,potential introduction of non-native species into local ecosystems,etc.).What model of IAA in Morocco?On a small scale,the integration of agriculture and aquaculture offers an opportunity to develop sustainable agriculture.The combination of plant crops and fish helps to:i)diversify and increase production;ii)improve the use of water resources;and iii)preserve the environment.As part of the policy to modernize agriculture,the sectoral strategy,through the National Irrigation Water Saving Program(NIWSP),has enabled massive conversion from surface irrigation to localized irrigation,by setting up major hydro-agricultural facilities,notably irrigation canals and water storage basins.These agricultural infrastructures and facilities cover a large part of Moroccos territory and constitute real receptacles for the development of integrated aquaculture in extensive or intensive modes.Unlike other integration models in some North African countries,where initial investments are primarily focused on the development of aquaculture farms(aquaculture drainage serves to irrigate agricultural plots),the Moroccan model is mainly geared toward leveraging investments already initiated by farmers with financial support from the public authorities.These conditions have made it possible to develop aquaculture for Nile tilapia,silver carp,grass carp and common carp.As for the vegetable component,the range of crops that can be grown in IAA systems is very broad.This is made possible by the quality of the water used,which is very often that of dam reservoirs and groundwater.Furthermore,the use of ponds for aquaculture purposes should take into account the intensification levels targeted.These will determine the type of aquaculture equipment to be implemented on farms,and the types of technical itineraries to be followed.In its NDM-IFA 2023-2030,the NWFA has adopted a new development approach for the aquaculture sector.According to the NWFAs new strategy,IAA development will be based on a value chain(VC)approach.This implies a good level of control over input supplies,particularly fry,so that aquaculture production is sustainable.The VC method will contribute to a better creation of added value and more equitable distribution among the various players in this sector.2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 7IntroductionContextMorocco is endowed with substantial and diversified water resources that are conducive to IFA.Moreover,Moroccos geographical location gives it a certain diversity in terms of climatic conditions and aquatic fauna.This natural diversity is evident in the presence of numerous waterways,including rivers,natural lakes,man-made water bodies,and reservoirs created by dams.The fish population is also diversified.It is composed of indigenous species and introduced and acclimatized ones.Around thirty freshwater animal species have been introduced and acclimatized.The main species cultivated worldwide are present in Morocco,notably temperate-water species such as rainbow trout and warm-water species such as carp and tilapia.In fact,the diversity of climatic regions means that Morocco has two types of water for fish farming:1)cold water in the high mountains and humid and sub-humid regions;and 2)warm water in arid,semi-arid and desert zones.Aquaculture has traditionally focused on the production of cold-water fish,such as rainbow trout and pike,for restocking natural environments.Morocco is considered a water-stressed country,i.e.water availability is less than 600 m per capita per year.As a result,compromises have to be made in water allocation,particularly between agriculture and urban use,and to some extent for fish farming.The semi-arid and desert climate prevailing in most regions of Morocco calls for the adoption of water efficient aquaculture production systems based on water saving,the use of non-conventional waters and the practice of aquaculture integrated with other activities,notably agriculture.Therefore,new approaches and production systems are becoming a necessity.In this perspective,the hydro-agricultural infrastructures(dams,irrigation water storage basins,irrigation canals,etc.)designed as part of the agricultural sector strategy offer huge potential for the development of aquaculture integrated with agriculture.Integration relies on the sharing of water resources,feed,management,etc.,with other activities(often agricultural or agro-industrial)or their infrastructures,such as wastewater,thermal power stations,etc.The integration of aquaculture into wider agricultural systems is seen as a means of increasing food production and preserving the environment.This work was conducted as a component of Work Package 4(WP4)within the CGIAR Initiative“From Fragility to Resilience in Central and West Asia and North Africa:Integrated Systems for Food,Land,Water,and Energy in Climate-Resilient Landscapes.”The study was specifically initiated following a Workshop on Integrated Aquaculture Agriculture(IAA)held in Morocco on November 15,2023,at ICARDAs Rabat facility.This workshop,supported by The National Agency for Water and Forests,convened a diverse group of relevant stakeholders to address pertinent issues in the field.”It seeks to clarify the limits to growth and enhance the long-term potential for sustainable livelihoods by strengthening inclusive policies and governance for integrated management of the entire food,land,water and energy nexus.One of the expected results of WP4 is:“Guidelines on the integration and intensification of aquaculture(fish farming)and agriculture have been developed.”ObjectivesThe purpose of this study is to assess the potential for development of IAA in Morocco and the challenges it must overcome to strengthen its resilience and position it on the path to sustainable growth.The in-depth examination of the Moroccan situation should:Provide a better understanding of IAA in Morocco and identify/map key players and governance.Identify and document knowledge gaps,bottlenecks and opportunities for the development of IAA in Morocco.Identify technologies and innovations related to IAA in Morocco,as well as international lessons learned and best practices.The final objective is to provide recommendations to WorldFish and CGIAR on potential interventions and innovations to improve the performance of IAA farms.The consultant carried out an assessment and an analytical report on IAA systems in Morocco,drawing from multiple information sources and engaging in a series of interviews with both public and private stakeholders.Notably,the consultant relied extensively on the recommendations outlined in the new development model for inland aquaculture and fisheries(2023-2030),launched by the National Water and Forest Agency in its role as the governing body responsible for inland aquaculture.The assessment and analytical report covered the following objectives:Introduce the current situation of IAA in Morocco through phone interviews and field visits with various stakeholders.Review water resources and water use policy,with particular reference to the agricultural sector strategy.Outline bottlenecks and opportunities in IAA systems.Draw up recommendations and strategic actions to improve the status of IAA in Morocco.ApproachThe study was carried out over 20 days of office work and three days of field visits.The diagnostic was based on:Literature review and exploitation of grey literature;Capitalization on work previously carried out by the administration and in which the consultant took part;Interviews and field visits previously organized by the consultant on the IAA issue;and Telephone interviews with private players undertaken as part of this assignment.StructureThis report is divided into two main sections:The first one provides an overview of Moroccos natural potential in terms of IFA and the management of this sector.The second part analyzes Moroccos potential for IAA.2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 8Chapter1.Overview of Moroccan aquaculture1.The history of aquaculture in MoroccoSince the beginning of the last century,the water and forestry administration has made significant efforts to improve fish resources and enhance the value of aquatic resources through fishing and fish farming.A closer look at the development trajectory of IFA activities reveals changes in the way the sector is managed.In Morocco,inland fishing is divided into two different categories:recreational fishing and commercial fishing.The latter is practiced mainly in dam reservoirs.Commercial fishing in inland waters is based on restocking water bodies.Over 25 million fry are released each year to ensure the development and sustainability of fisheries productivity.Inland fish production is divided into two types:restocking culture-based fisheries,carried out by NWFA hatcheries,and aquaculture production,managed by the private sector.Private-sector aquaculture production is around 1,000 t/year.It is ensured by around ten companies and mainly concerns eel,tilapia and rainbow trout.A program to promote floating cage aquaculture has supported 11 aquaculture cooperatives.Their production capacity is estimated at over 500 t/year(NWFA,2024).The IFA sector faces several obstacles and difficulties,such as competition with the supply of marine products,water scarcity in inland areas and limited technical capacity.In addition,species raised in inland waters suffer from low popularity in domestic markets,and they remain unknown products among the majority of households.Inland fish farming began in Morocco in 1924,when a salmon farming center was set up to develop recreational fishing in the Middle Atlas Mountains.Under the impact of climate change,characterized by more recurrent droughts and floods,the habitats of salmon-farming waters have deteriorated.Consequently,the new approach of the department in charge of water and forests focused on promoting and structuring climate-sensitive aquaculture.This has involved,on the one hand,the selection of more resilient warm-water species such as carp and tilapia and,on the other,the promotion of innovative aquaculture practices such as IAA,the recirculating aquaculture system and multi-trophic aquaculture.In the 80s,warm-water fish farming began with the creation of a carp and tilapia fry production station.The private sector only began to take an interest in aquaculture in the 90s,with the establishment of private farms for the production of rainbow trout,carp,eel and tilapia.At present,freshwater fish production is dominated by extensive fish farming,based on restocking operations.The number of fry produced annually by NWFA hatcheries,all species combined,is around 20 million(see Table 1)(NWFA,2022).Table 1.Number of fish fry production in Morocco between 2017 and 2021Species20172018201920202021Rainbow trout2,290,0002,389,0002,400,0002,370,0002,225,000Pike1,800,0001,400,0001,200,0001,300,000825,000Black bass3,880,0004,267,0004,212,0003,150,0003,560,000Silver carp11,250,00013,300,00013,785,00012,500,00012,250,000Grass carp700,0001,100,0001,685,000 2,400,000Common carp2,500,0002,800,0002,555,0002,500,0002,650,000Total 22,420,000 25,256,000 25,837,000 21,820,000 23,910,000 Source:NWFA,20222024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 9Carnivorous species,such as rainbow trout and pike,are mainly released into rivers and natural lakes to promote sport fishing.In dam reservoirs,90%of the fry spilled are cyprinids,notably the silver carp Hypophthalmichthys molitrix.These restocking operations enable the development and sustainability of commercial fishing,supply riparian populations with animal proteins,promote recreational fishing and improve water quality through biological control of eutrophication(Laamiri,2014).The annual production resulting from these restocking operations is estimated at around 15,000 tonnes of freshwater fish per year(NWFA,2022).Figure 1.Breakdown of fry production by species in year 2021(NWFA,2022)Rainbow troutPikeBlack bassSilver carpGrass carpCommon carp2.Moroccan inland fish farming speciesCultured fish species are classified into two types of species:cold-water fish and warm-water ones.2.1.Cold-water fishCold-water fish are mainly represented by salmonids.Two trout species populate Moroccan lakes and rivers:the fario trout(Salmo trutta macrostigma)and the rainbow trout(Oncorhynchus mykiss).The fario trout is an endemic species that lives in the streams of the Rif,Middle Atlas and High Atlas Mountains,as well as in certain high-altitude lakes.Rainbow trout was introduced to Morocco in 1925 to diversify recreational fishing products.Trout fry production is around one million individuals per year.These fry are intended for restocking fishing grounds(NWFA,2022).Pike(Esox lucius)have also been introduced to Morocco.Today,artificial reproduction of this species is perfectly mastered.Annual production of pike fry is around one million individuals(NWFA,2022).Other fish species have been introduced into Morocco,including tench(Tinca tinca)in 1934,pike-perch(Stezostedion lucioperca)and perch(Perca fluviatilis)in 1939(Mouslih,1987).2.2.Warm-water fishWarm-water fish are mainly represented by cyprinids.The first introduction into Moroccan waters took place in 1924.It involved the common carp(Cyprinus carpio)introduced from France to restock natural lakes.Other cyprinid species have also been introduced into Morocco.These are the herbivorous carp(Ctenopharyngodon idella)and the silver carp(Hypophtalmichthys molitrix),both imported from Hungary to combat eutrophication in irrigation canals.Annual production of cyprinid fry,all species combined,is around 10 million individuals.They are currently destined for restocking lakes and dam reservoirs.In 2004,tilapia(Oreochromis niloticus)was introduced into Morocco for aquaculture purposes.This species has become the main target species for inland aquaculture development programs,including IAA.Alongside restocking aquaculture,production or commercial aquaculture is becoming increasingly important3.Aquaculture productionAquaculture production is currently handled by some fifteen private companies.Their annual production is estimated at 1,000 tonnes.Production is divided between eel(350 tonnes),tilapia(400 tonnes)and rainbow trout(200 tonnes)(see Plate 1).2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 10From 2018,the Department of Water and Forests had set up a support program for cooperatives to promote small-scale aquaculture in floating cages in dam reservoirs.The program consists of:Drawing up aquaculture development plans for the water bodies involved in aquaculture development,with a view to estimating production capacities and suitable areas for the installation of floating cages.Granting of floating cages to cooperative members (right of use).Supplying tilapia fry and fish feed to aquaculture cooperatives.Equipping cooperatives with boats and equipment for handling and packaging fish.Technical assistance and training for cooperatives in aquaculture techniques.In recent years,total production and production by species have not changed significantly(see Table 1).Out of a total of around 800 tonnes,xme from salmon farming,y%from tilapia farming and 36%from anguilliculture.Out of a total of around 800 tonnes,21me from salmon farming,43%from tilapia farming and 36%from anguilliculture.Photo 1.Different types of aquaculture in MoroccoTilapia pond aquacultureTrout aquaculture in racewaysEel aquaculture in RASAquaculture of tilapia in floating cagesTable 2.Aquaculture production trend by species and total MAD:Moroccan dirhamSpecies20162017201820192020TonneM MADTonneM MADTonneM MADTonneM MADTonneM MADSalmon farming1005100510052001025012.5Tilapia farming2506.23007.53007.536093157.8Anguilliculture28242274412603924336.424036Total63253.267453.566051.580355.480543.8Source:NWFA,2021Figure 2.Breakdown of aquaculture production by species(average 2016-2020)Salmon farmingTilapia farmingAnguilliculture2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 114.Alignment with national sectoral strategiesAccording to a World Bank(2017)report,Morocco faces significant challenges related to water scarcity.Morocco is classified as a water-stressed country.The country is especially susceptible to the effects of climate change,with forecasts suggesting a future characterized by reduced rainfall and rising temperatures,as highlighted by Schilling et al.(2012)in their study on climate change vulnerability in North Africa.Compounding this environmental pressure is the demographic factor;Ouassissou et al.(2019)pointed out that Moroccos expanding population is placing increasing strain on water resources that are already under significant stress.Furthermore,the agricultural sector plays a dominant role in water consumption.The Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO,2015)reports that agriculture accounts for approximately 87%of Moroccos total water usage.While not as water-intensive as agriculture,certain industries(e.g.phosphate mining)require significant water resources.This combination of climatic shifts,population dynamics,and agricultural and industry demands creates a complex and pressing water scarcity challenge for the nation.In light of Moroccos water scarcity challenges,while conventional aquaculture might exacerbate water scarcity issues in Morocco,IAA presents a promising alternative that aligns with the countrys water management goals.IAA systems present a promising,more sustainable alternative for water use in the agricultural sector.These systems offer several potential benefits that could address Moroccos specific needs.Goddek et al.(2015)highlight the remarkable water efficiency of IAA systems,which can reduce water usage by up to 90%compared to conventional agriculture methods.This aligns perfectly with Moroccos National Water Strategy,which emphasizes the need for improved water use efficiency(Ministry of Energy,Mines,Water and Environment,2009).Beyond water conservation,IAA systems provide additional advantages.Ghamkhar et al.(2020)note that these systems facilitate nutrient recycling between fish and crops,potentially enhancing soil health while reducing reliance on chemical fertilizers.Choukr-Allah et al.(2017)suggest that implementing IAA could contribute to the diversification of Moroccos agricultural production,potentially bolstering food security and improving rural livelihoods.Furthermore,Khechba et al.(2021)argue that the water-efficient,closed-loop nature of IAA systems could enhance the resilience of Moroccan agriculture in the face of climate change impacts.Collectively,these benefits position IAA as a multifaceted solution to several of Moroccos agricultural and water management challenges.Despite the potential benefits of IAA systems,their successful implementation in Morocco would require addressing various technical,economic,and policy challenges.Nasr-Alla et al.(2012)emphasized the critical need for capacity building and knowledge transfer to ensure effective implementation of IAA systems,highlighting a potential gap in technical expertise.Financial considerations also pose a challenge,as Goddek et al.(2015)point out that the substantial upfront costs associated with establishing IAA systems could present a significant barrier,particularly for small-scale farmers.On the regulatory front,Choukr-Allah et al.(2017)argue that Morocco would need to develop a comprehensive policy framework specifically tailored to IAA to ensure its sustainable implementation and integration into the existing agricultural landscape.Additionally,Ghamkhar et al.(2020)raise the issue of market dynamics,suggesting that there may be a need to cultivate markets for IAA products and educate consumers about their benefits to ensure economic viability.These challenges spanning technical,financial,regulatory,and market domains underscore the complexity of introducing IAA systems in Morocco,despite their potential advantages.4.1.New development model for inland fisheries and aquaculture(NDM-IFA)2023-2030IAA is one of the strategic priorities to be developed within the framework of the NDM-IFA(2023-2030).This strategy aims to achieve aquaculture production of 25,000 tons per year by 2030.This production would be ensured mainly by IAA.Accordingly,the national strategy for aquaculture development has identified a series of priority actions.These actions are structured in a technical and financial support services approach,which aims to:Promote new inland fish farming models such as integrated aquaculture;Develop financial and non-financial support mechanisms for aquaculture companies,cooperatives and farms to ensure the sectors development and its resilience against climate change.Develop a support program for entrepreneurship and self-employment in target areas.Set up a vocational and continuing training system that meets the quality requirements expressed by private operators.4.2.Agricultural strategy 2020-2030The first pillar of the“green generation”2020-2030 agricultural strategy is to contribute to the emergence of an agricultural middle class and to further structure farmers around high-performance agricultural organizations.The second pillar of the strategy aims to ensure the sustainability of agricultural development,through specific actions in production sectors,distribution channels and the preservation of natural resources.Implementing this second foundation means consolidating agricultural sectors,improving and modernizing distribution channels for agricultural products,enhancing quality and innovation capacity and,last but not least,creating a more resilient and eco-efficient agriculture.The agricultural strategy aims to double water efficiency(added value per m3 of water)through:i)implementation of the national drinking water supply and irrigation program;ii)2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 12continuation of irrigation and agricultural land development programs;and iii)mobilization of non-conventional water resources.This optimization of water resources is backed up by the promotion of renewable energies through support for farmers energy transition to renewable energies.In this context,it would be profitable and easier to introduce aquatic species farming to farmers who are seeking additional income.IAA systems will enable all available water to be used rationally and profitably.Additional aquaculture investments in hydraulic infrastructures will offer a great opportunity to increase water productivity in irrigation systems.This integrated aquaculture approach can be implemented in two different ways:1)on the one hand,through simple systems(extensive or semi-intensive polyculture)requiring little investment(use of existing structures,limited inputs);2)secondly,by taking advantage of the policy of modernizing agriculture,which has led to the creation of thousands of water storage basins,making them very suitable for the integration of aquaculture.These irrigation basins,whose surface area generally varies between 0.5 and 1 ha,are a real asset for the development of aquaculture.5.Policy Support for aquaculture and IAA in MoroccoSince 2015,Morocco has had a new legal framework(specifically law n130-12)governing the practice of inland fish farming.According to this legislation,the development of inland aquaculture must take place within the framework of“regional development and management schemes.”These schemes have a number of objectives,such as the sustainable exploitation of fish resources and the transition of aquaculture from restocking to commercial aquaculture production.In connection with integrated aquaculture,law n130-12 redefines inland aquaculture as any activity involving the rearing of aquatic organisms in fixed or mobile structures,immersed or permanent,located on the public hydraulic domain or on private property,and using subterranean or surface water.Through this law,the State has explicitly expressed its desire to encourage the development of the aquaculture sector,considering it to be a primary sector activity in the same way as agriculture.Consequently,like any other animal breeding activity,aquaculture could benefit from State support and encouragement in all forms,notably through financial aid and technical and scientific assistance.6.StakeholdersThere are many stakeholders involved in IAA.Their roles are complementary in the process of developing this new economic sector within agricultural perimeters.We have identified:i)the institutional stakeholders who come under the different administrative authorities,ii)stakeholders who represent elected bodies,and iii)stakeholders who belong to the private sector.6.1.National Water and Forest Agency(NWFA)Newly created as part of the“Forts du Maroc 2020-2030”(Forests of Morocco 2020-2030)strategy,the NWFAs missions include implementing the strategic orientations of the States policy in the fields of IFA through the NDM-IFA(2020-2030).Furthermore,the NWFAs missions include the management and promotion of aquaculture activities in continental waters.To this end,the NWFAs regional and provincial directorates are responsible for ensuring the application of legislation and regulations relating to the management of this sector,particularly with regard to the issuing of permits for the establishment of aquaculture units,technical assistance and the support and monitoring of aquaculture projects.6.2.Department of AgricultureThe mission of the regional and provincial agricultural departments is to draw up and implement physical and budgetary programs for their areas of action,in line with the Departments strategy,with a view to contributing to the implementation of the national agricultural and rural development program.For this purpose,the agricultural departments are responsible for supporting the development and modernization of agriculture.In this context,they oversee a support program targeting farmers,consisting in the development of their plots of land through the installation of irrigation water storage basins.6.3.National Office for Food Safety(NOFS)The mission of this office is to protect consumer health and preserve animal and plant health.For this purpose,the NOFS is responsible,among other things,for:i)ensuring the sanitary surveillance of animals and controlling their identification and movements,ii)applying current regulations on veterinary health;iii)and issuing sanitary authorizations or approvals for establishments in which aquaculture products are produced,processed,handled,transported,stored or preserved.6.4.Regional Investment Centers(RIC)The mission of the RICs is to provide comprehensive support for businesses,particularly small and medium-sized enterprises(SMEs)and very small enterprises(VSEs).RICs also contribute to the implementation of investment promotion strategies and integrated development offers,in line with national public policies.2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 136.5.Training and research institutionsThe Hassan II Agronomic and Veterinary Institute(AVI)provides training for senior executives in the fields of agriculture and aquaculture,with a particular focus on the aquaculture sector.The AVI is constantly adapting its training curricula and research programs to keep pace with the sectors needs,issues and development challenges.There are also other degree courses in aquaculture offered by national faculties(bachelors and masters levels).6.6.Office for Vocational Training and Work Promotion(OVTWP)The OVTWPs mission is to meet the needs of economic operators for qualified human resources.In some of its centers,this public institution provides specialized training for aquaculture technicians,which are responsible for managing aquaculture operations.6.7.Regional and provincial boardsThese are directly elected bodies.The mission of the regional council(and the provincial councils that make it up)is to promote,organize,coordinate,and monitor the integrated and sustainable development of the region under its jurisdiction,and in particular to improve its economic competitiveness and territorial attractiveness.The regional council is also responsible for adopting measures to encourage business and its environment,with a view to accelerating the establishment of wealth-and employment-generating activities.The Regional Council is also responsible for optimizing the use and development of natural resources and contributing to sustainable development,considering the States general and sectoral policies and strategies in these fields.6.8.Financial institutionsFinancial institutions have several programs to support entrepreneurship,particularly in rural areas.These programs are aimed particularly at young people and cooperatives.For example,the National Initiative for Human Development(NIHD)is a support program that can potentially help young entrepreneurs set up fish farming projects.2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 14Chapter 2.Status of integrated agricultureaquaculture Current integration between aquaculture and agriculture is limited to the introduction of carp and tilapia fry into hydro-agricultural facilities(irrigation canals and storage basins)to control algal blooms.In other words,this is,for the time being,extensive aquaculture that does not rely on external feed.Consequently,fish stocking densities are low.Fish harvests are consumed locally.7.Fry supply for IAAFish fry are purchased from three specialist companies:Africarp,Smir and Asmak Nile.7.1.Africarp CompanyPhoto 2.Silver carp fryAfricarp is in northern Morocco,downstream from the Oued El Makhazine dam.Its total surface area is 8 ha.It comprises 30 ponds with an annual production of 1 to 1.4 million carp fry(see Plate 2).The fry are completely discharged into water bodies and hydro-agricultural infrastructures.Between 200,000 and 450,000 fry of grass and silver carp are destined for restocking irrigation canals.Between 100,000 and 120,000 silver carp fry are requested by farmers for their water storage basins.Annual fish production from these pond stocking operations is estimated at 250 tonnes.7.2.Smir CompanySmir is in northern Morocco.Since its creation,this fish farm has specialized in the production of Chinese carp fry for restocking dam reservoirs as part of the national program to combat eutrophication.The farm covers an area of 8 ha and contains 11 aquaculture ponds covering an area of 4 ha(see Plate 3).The company currently produces between 800,000 and 1 million silver carp fry per year.Almost all of these fry are discharged into water bodies and hydro-agricultural infrastructures.A portion of the fry,estimated at 2%,is allocated to farmers to stock their irrigation water storage basins.Fish production from this operation is estimated at 40 tonnes per year.Photo 3.SMIR aquaculture farm7.3.Asmak Nile CompanyAsmak Nile is in central Morocco,in the agricultural region of Bni Mellal.The farm specializes in the production of warm-water fish(tilapia and carp).It has 24 earthen ponds and 20 concrete basins under glass(see Plate 4).The latter are used for tilapia conditioning.The farm produces around 100 tonnes of tilapia a year,which is marketed locally.The farm also produces carp and tilapia fry for farmers.On average,120,000 tilapia fry and 200,000 carp fry are sold to farmers for biological cleaning of ponds and irrigation channels.Aquaculture production from these operations is estimated at 30 tonnes of tilapia and 400 tonnes of carp per year.Photo 4.Asmak Nile aquaculture farm2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 15There are three aquaculture companies in Morocco whose activities are currently linked to,but not completely integrated with,agriculture.Some of the water from these fish farms can be used for irrigation.The current form of integration is limited to the stocking of hydro-agricultural facilities(canals and water storage basins used for irrigation),with the sole aim of protecting them against the proliferation of algal biomass.This results in low stocking densities in the ponds.Aquaculture is practiced extensively,without the use of artificial feeds.Annual fry orders for the three above-mentioned companies amount to around 350,000 carp fry and 200,000 tilapia fry.The total production from this integration is estimated at 700 tonnes of carp and 30 tonnes of tilapia.8.IAA SWOT analysisThe following SWOT matrix(see Table 2)summarizes the main strengths,weaknesses,opportunities,and threats for IAA in Morocco.Table 3.SWOT matrix for IAA in MoroccoStrengthsWeaknesses Moroccan climatic conditions are favorable for the development of warm-water species aquaculture integrated with agriculture,including in desert areas.Inland aquaculture is considered by the law on inland fishing as eligible for state aid and subsidies for its development.There are thousands of water storage basins and an extensive network of channels that can be used for integrated aquaculture.The ponds are equipped with the appropriate materials for intensified fish farming(pumping stations,water filtration systems,solar energy,etc.).Farmers exhibit a deficit in expertise and practical knowledge regarding intensive aquaculture methods.Profitability is uncertain due to nascent markets for IAA products.Consumer interest in products derived from aquaculture remains moderate.There is an absence of a comprehensive strategy aimed at promoting IAA products in the market.There is a lack of specific regulations for IAA systems.There is a general lack of support and promotion for IAA systems.OpportunitiesThreats The States sectoral policy aimed at modernizing agriculture,promoting the use of irrigation water and improving its productivity.The NDM-IFA(2020-2030)has identified integrated aquaculture as a strategic development priority.Demand for fish is growing steadily.The NWFA has opted to set up new fish hatcheries in irrigated areas to meet farmers fry needs.The impact of climate change is increasingly evident,manifesting through recurrent droughts,the drying up of rivers and lakes,and rising salinity levels in water sources.While IAA can enhance resilience,climate change poses significant threats.There are potential conflicts with existing water use and agricultural policies.Potential environmental impacts could threaten IAA sustainability(risk of nutrient pollution,potential introduction of non-native species into local ecosystems,etc.).9.What model for IAA in Morocco?For small-scale farmers,the integration of agriculture and aquaculture offers an opportunity for developing sustainable agriculture.The combination of plant crops and fish helps to:i)diversify and increase production;ii)improve the use of water resources;and iii)preserve the environment.As part of the policy to modernize agriculture,the sectoral strategy,through the NIWSP,has enabled a massive conversion from surface irrigation to localized irrigation,by setting up major hydro-agricultural facilities,notably irrigation canals and water storage basins.These agricultural infrastructures and facilities cover a large part of Moroccos territory and constitute real opportunities for the development of IAA in extensive or intensive ways.Unlike other integration models in some North African countries,where initial investments are primarily focused on the development of aquaculture farms(aquaculture drainage water is used to irrigate agricultural plots),the Moroccan model is mainly geared toward leveraging investments already initiated by farmers with financial support from the public authorities.2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 16The storage ponds set up in this context offer favorable conditions for the integration of fish culture,namely:Water temperatures are appropriate for optimal fish growth,mainly between April and November;The end of the cycle for certain plant crops(which are irrigated by this integrated system)generally coincides with the end of the tilapia aquaculture cycle,which corresponds to the month of November;The diversity of irrigation water storage basin surfaces means that several aquaculture techniques can be considered,depending on the desired level of intensification;Generally speaking,the volume of water flowing through the ponds is sufficient for intensive aquaculture.These combined conditions make it possible to develop aquaculture with Nile tilapia,silver carp,grass carp and common carp.Thanks to their different,even complementary diets,these species can be cultivated in monoculture and polyculture.Tilapia is suitable for intensive aquaculture if an extruded artificial feed is used.As a filter-feeder,silver carp can be used as a biological support for cleaning ponds and combating eutrophication.As for the plant component,the crops grown in IAA systems are very broad(see Table 3).This is made possible by the quality of the water used,which is very often that of dam reservoirs and groundwater.Table 4.Examples of plant crops that can be integrated with aquacultureVegetable and fruit cropsFruit treesCover cropsTomatoAvocado Alfalfa PepperCitrusMaizeEggplantDate palmSunflowerCucumberOlive treeEtc.MelonCarob treeEtc.PomegranateThe selection of crops cultivated is contingent upon the prevailing climatic conditions in the area where the farms are situated.The choice of crops is also predefined according to farmers production objectives and constraints.It does not depend on aquaculture fish species.These are integrated into farms a posteriori and must adapt to the availability of irrigation water.Warm-water species such as tilapia can only be farmed from spring onward.The single production cycle spans the entire warm season,generally ending in October.Beyond this month,low temperatures mean that farming has to be suspended,or else recourse is had to greenhouse heating.Groundwater temperature is moderate around the year,which could help keep fish growing for an extended duration around several weeks.9.1.Fertilization regime of cropsCrops are fertilized by direct application of solid fertilizers or by fertigation.In most cases,water storage basins feed drip irrigation systems.IAA is expected to provide additional fertilizer from the decomposition of remaining feed and fish excrement.The choice of agricultureaquaculture integration model is based on the size of the irrigation water storage basins.This,in turn,is conditioned by the size of the areas to be irrigated and the species to be cultivated.Basins are segmented into three categories:small,medium and large basins(see Table 4).Table 5.Classification of storage basins by sizeBasin categoryBasin water volumeIllustrationCat.1Small 5000 m3Plate 72024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 17Photo 5.Irrigation basin with a volume of less than 1000 m3(Cat.1)Photo 6.Irrigation basin with a volume of between 1000 m3 and 5000 m3(Cat.2)Photo 7.Irrigation basin with a volume greater than 5000 m3(Cat.3)2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 18This type of open pond is found in all the irrigated areas of Morocco.Their numbers run into the thousands.Based on the results of trials carried out in Morocco,we can assume that the total production capacity of all the basins would easily exceed several thousand tons(Elouadih,2019).The desert plains of the Tafilalet region,for example,have undergone major hydro-agricultural development to develop date palm plantations(see Plate 8).Photo 8.Development potential for IAA in the Tafilalet oasis zoneThe implementation of aquaculture in pond systems should be designed with consideration of the intended intensity levels.These intensity levels will guide the selection of appropriate aquaculture equipment for the farms and inform the technical protocols to be implemented.In our analysis,we have outlined four potential scenarios:1.Fish farming in ponds without aeration;2.Fish farming in ponds with aeration;3.Fish farming in floating cages;4.Fish farming in ponds ancillary to the main pond.9.2.Fish farming in ponds without aerationThis technique is designed for farmers who do not wish to invest in aquaculture equipment.Fry are directly stocked into ponds and fed artificially.The rate at which the pond water is renewed is determined by the needs of the crop plants and the need to oxygenate the water to maintain optimal conditions for fish growth.9.3.Fish farming in ponds with aeration Intensifying fish farming in irrigation ponds requires the establishment of a favorable environment for its development,particularly in terms of water quality(see Figure 3).In this respect,pond aeration is a key factor in increasing production capacity.The use of aerators offers multiple advantages:Ensure regular aeration for several hours a day.This aeration would help ensure optimal fish habitat,by raising dissolved oxygen levels to above 3 mg/l.Improve pond oxygen balance by increasing the amount of oxygen stored in the water.Stimulate mineralization of organic sediments deposited at the bottom of the pond.Produce healthy fish with improved feed conversion and growth rates.Increase the natural food supply in the pond by providing a better environment for zooplankton development.Most of todays ponds are equipped with solar panels to meet their energy needs.The electricity generated is also used to operate the aerators during the day.During the night,it is necessary to tap into the electrical grid for 23 hours before daybreak.Agricultural ponds are also equipped with sand filters to alleviate the problem of suspended solids in the water.This measure preserves drip irrigation equipment.Filters are also useful for filtering water discharged from fish ponds.2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 19Figure 3.Model for IAA operation in medium-sized basins(Cat.2)9.4.Fish farming in floating cages in large ponds(Cat.3)Large irrigation ponds are fairly deep reservoirs(over 7 m deep).Aquaculture practices need to be adapted to this kind of infrastructure,which can be tricky to empty for maintenance or fish harvesting.In this case,the best practice would be to use floating cages to confine the fish to controlled spaces,thereby facilitating feeding and maintenance(see Plate 9).Photo 9.Cage models for large irrigation basins2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 20Photo 10.Circular cage model in an irrigation basinCircular cages made of high-density polyethylene were tested in a water storage basin in the Rabat region,as part of a research project carried out by the Hassan II Agronomy and Veterinary Institute(Plate 10).These cages have a long service life and are easy to make.However,they are difficult to manage and require a boat for service.Irrigation water storage basins are equipped with mechanical filters(generally sand filters combined with disk filters)to prevent clogging of the drippers.The addition of feed will lead to an increase in suspended matter in the pond water,hence the importance of regular maintenance of the irrigation system through the following practices:Bleed drip lines at least once a month.Regularly backwash filter(s)and check that all components are working as intended.Replace faulty drippers.At the end of the production cycle,use suitable products to maintain and rinse the irrigation system.Almost all agricultural farms use solar energy to cover their electricity needs and to operate water aerators at pond level (see Figure 3).2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 21Figure 4.Model for IAA operation in large basins(Cat.3)9.5.Fish farming in ponds ancillary to the main pondOn some farms,the implementation of a series of earthen or concrete ponds,connected to the main one,will enable additional aquaculture production(see Figure 4).Figure 5.Model for IAA operation in auxiliary basins2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 22When considering aquaculture intensification,it is crucial to conduct a thorough economic analysis and return on investment(ROI)study specific to the local context,species,and market conditions.While intensification can lead to higher productivity and potentially higher profits,it also comes with increased costs and risks that need to be carefully evaluated.Financial viability assessments have been conducted for the aforementioned scenarios,all yielding positive ROI.However,these favorable outcomes are contingent upon excluding depreciation expenses for pond infrastructure and pumping equipment,as well as the energy costs associated with water pumping.The profitability calculations only factor in costs related to aquaculture-specific investments(such as aerators,feed dispensers,cages,and service boats)and operational expenses(including feed,wages,and miscellaneous services).Under these conditions,Internal Rate of Return(IRR)values are typically positive,often exceeding 10%.When pond development and water pumping costs are incorporated into the calculations,IRR values become low or negative.Therefore,the integration of aquaculture with agriculture provides an opportunity to enhance the economic value of existing agricultural infrastructure by generating additional revenue streams.10.Promotion of IAA in MoroccoIt is very difficult to provide a reliable estimate of the production potential of agriculture-integrated aquaculture.However,by examining the amount of agricultural facilities that have been implemented,in particular water storage basins for crop irrigation,we can draw up an idea of production capacity from a purely technical point of view,which does not take into account the markets absorption capacity.In Morocco,irrigated land is estimated at over 1.5 million h in years with normal rainfall,of which over 500,000 ha use drip irrigation techniques.This method,which often uses groundwater,requires the construction of water storage basins.Statistics on the number and total volume of these basins are not available.However,it is safe to assume that thousands of basins are spread across all regions of Morocco(see Figure 5).The NWFA had adopted a new development approach for the aquaculture sector in its NDM-IFA(2023-2030).According to the NWFAs new strategy,IAA development will rely on VC principles.This implies a good level of control over input supplies,particularly fry,so that aquaculture production is sustainable.The VC approach will contribute to a higher level of value-added creation and a more equitable distribution among the various players in the VC.Figure 6.Different types of irrigated perimeters in MoroccoSource:Irrigation and Agricultural Spatial Planning Department2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 23According to the NDM-IFA(2023-2030),promoting IAA will require action at three complementary levels:Level 1:Foster the development of resilient aquaculture production systems,including in desert and arid environments.Level 2:Establish an entrepreneurial ecosystem supporting regional aquaculture value chains.Level 3:Provide support to institutional players and professional organizations.We are proposing recommendations for developing the IAA subsector based on the IAA development recommendations already included in the strategy of the NWFA,together with the results of the analysis carried out in this study.The new plan for the promotion of the IAA subsector is structured around five major axes:1.Development of resilient production systems;2.Creation of an entrepreneurial ecosystem;3.Institutional and organizational strengthening;4.Training and capacity building;5.Value chain and market development.10.1.Development of resilient production systemsMoroccos strategy for developing resilient IAA production systems is multifaceted,addressing economic,food security,environmental,and technological aspects:Promoting diversification of economic activities and sustainable income generationThe NWFA is encouraging farmers to integrate aquaculture with existing agricultural practices.This diversification reduces dependency on a single income source,making rural livelihoods more resilient to market fluctuations or crop failures.For instance,farmers might combine tilapia farming with vegetable cultivation,creating multiple income streams and utilizing resources more efficiently.This approach not only enhances economic resilience but also promotes sustainable land and water use.Strengthening food security in rural areas IAA systems are being promoted as a means to enhance local food production and diversity.By producing both fish and crops,these systems provide a more varied and nutritious local food supply.This local production reduces vulnerability to supply chain disruptions and price fluctuations in external markets.The NWFA is focusing on species and crop combinations that are culturally appropriate and nutritionally beneficial,ensuring that the strengthened food security aligns with local dietary preferences and needs.Supporting adaptation to environmental challenges,particularly in arid and desert areasMoroccos diverse climate,including arid and desert regions,presents unique challenges for agriculture.The NWFA is developing IAA systems specifically adapted to these harsh conditions.This includes designing water-efficient aquaculture systems,selecting drought-resistant crop species,and implementing innovative water harvesting techniques.By adapting IAA to these challenging environments,Morocco is expanding food production possibilities in previously marginal areas,enhancing overall agricultural resilience.Capacity building of fish farmers Recognizing that human capacity is crucial for system resilience,the NWFA is planning to implement comprehensive training programs for fish farmers.These programs cover not only technical aspects of aquaculture but also business management,climate-smart agriculture practices,and adaptive strategies for environmental challenges.By enhancing farmers skills and knowledge,the agency is creating a workforce capable of managing complex IAA systems and adapting to changing conditions.Supporting access to inputs and technologies Resilient production systems require appropriate inputs and technologies.The NWFA is facilitating access to quality fish fingerlings,feed,and equipment adapted to local conditions.It is also promoting the adoption of technologies that enhance system resilience,such as solar-powered pumps for water circulation,sensors for water quality monitoring,and mobile apps for market information.By ensuring access to these resources,the agency will enable farmers to implement and maintain resilient IAA systems effectively.Fostering the development of resilient aquaculture systems,including in desert and arid environments The NWFA intends to promote research and development for innovative aquaculture systems designed to withstand Moroccos harsh environment.Through this comprehensive approach,Morocco aims to develop IAA production systems that are not only productive but also resilient to economic,environmental,and social challenges.By addressing diverse aspects from economic diversification to technological adoption,the strategy aims to create a robust IAA sector capable of thriving in Moroccos varied landscapes and contributing significantly to sustainable rural development and food security.10.2.Creation of an entrepreneurial ecosystemThe NWFA is focusing on developing an entrepreneurial ecosystem to support the growth of its aquaculture sector.This strategy should encompass several key initiatives:2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 24Identifying commercial and entrepreneurial opportunities in regional aquaculture value chains The NWFA should conduct comprehensive market analyses to identify promising opportunities within the aquaculture VC.This includes assessing potential markets for various aquaculture products,identifying high-demand species,and exploring value-added processing opportunities.Promoting entrepreneurship in aquacultureTo encourage more individuals and businesses to enter the aquaculture sector,the NWFA is intending to implement a range of promotional activities.These include organizing awareness campaigns about the potential of aquaculture,hosting entrepreneurship workshops and seminars,and showcasing success stories of aquaculture entrepreneurs.Facilitating access to financing for aquaculture activitiesRecognizing that access to capital is crucial for entrepreneurial success,the NWFA should work to improve financial access for aquaculture ventures.This involves partnering with financial institutions to develop aquaculture-specific loan products,establishing guaranteed funds to reduce lending risks,and providing guidance on accessing existing agricultural financing schemes.Promote research and innovation in the field of aquaculture To drive technological advancement and efficiency in the sector,the NWFA should actively promote research and innovation.This includes funding aquaculture research projects at universities and research institutions,facilitating partnerships between researchers and industry players,and organizing innovation challenges to solve specific aquaculture challenges.Establish centers of excellence for aquaculture production and training To provide comprehensive support to aquaculture entrepreneurs across the country,the NWFA should establish regional centers of excellence.These centers will serve as hubs for aquaculture knowledge,innovation,and entrepreneurship in each region.They will offer state-of-the-art facilities for aquaculture production,conduct region-specific research,and provide hands-on training programs.These centers will also act as networking hubs,fostering collaboration between entrepreneurs,researchers,investors,and other stakeholders in the aquaculture ecosystem.10.3.Institutional and organizational strengtheningMorocco should implement a comprehensive strategy to strengthen the institutional and organizational framework supporting IAA.This strategy could encompass several major initiatives:Strengthening professional associations and organizations involved in aquacultureThe NWFA is committed to bolstering aquaculture-related professional bodies.This involves providing support for their establishment,growth,and effective operation.These empowered associations will serve as crucial intermediaries between farmers and government institutions,facilitating knowledge sharing,advocating for the sectors needs,and contributing to policy development.Enhancing inter-institutional coordination Recognizing that IAA success depends on cross-sector collaboration,the NWFA is improving coordination between various government agencies.This includes fostering partnerships between entities responsible for agriculture,water management,environmental protection,and economic development.Enhanced coordination ensures a more coherent approach to IAA development,reducing potential conflicts in policy implementation and maximizing resource efficiency.Developing a specific legal framework for IAA Understanding IAAs unique nature,the NWFA should develop a tailored legal framework.This would address critical issues such as water rights,land use regulations,environmental protection standards,and quality control measures for IAA products.Clear,specific regulations provide legal certainty for investors and operators,ensure environmental sustainability,and protect consumer interests,while streamlining licensing and approval processes for IAA projects.10.4.Training and capacity buildingThe NWFAs strategy for developing the IAA sector places significant emphasis on training and capacity building.This approach aims to create a skilled workforce capable of implementing and managing sustainable IAA systems across the countrys diverse environments.Implementing an aquaculture training program covering the entire technical itinerary The NWFA will develop a comprehensive aquaculture training program that covers all aspects of the production cycle.This program includes modules on site selection and system design,water quality management,fish health and disease prevention,feed management,harvesting techniques,and post-harvest handling.The training also incorporates aspects specific to integrated systems,such as nutrient cycling between fish and crops.By providing this end-to-end technical knowledge,the NWFA should ensure that practitioners have a holistic understanding of IAA systems,enabling them to manage these complex operations effectively and sustainably.2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 25Offering supervised professional internshipsTo bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application,the NWFA will establish a program of supervised professional internships.The internships are structured to expose participants to various aspects of IAA operations,from daily management tasks to problem-solving real-world challenges.This practical experience is crucial for building confidence and competence among new entrants to the sector,ensuring they are well-prepared for the realities of managing IAA systems.Introducing IAA modules in educational programs at universities and vocational schoolsRecognizing the need for long-term capacity building,the NWFA will have to work with educational institutions to integrate IAA modules into relevant curricula.This includes collaborating with agricultural universities to develop specialized courses in aquaculture and integrated farming systems,as well as introducing IAA concepts in vocational agriculture programs.Developing comprehensive training programs for farmers The NWFA should create tailored training programs for existing farmers interested in adopting or improving IAA practices.These programs are designed to be accessible and relevant to farmers with varying levels of education and experience.Creating a network of IAA extension officersTo provide ongoing support and knowledge transfer,the NWFA should establish a network of specialized IAA extension officers.These officers are trained experts in IAA systems,equipped with the latest knowledge and best practices.The extension officers provide on-site consultations,organize farmer field schools,and help troubleshoot issues as they arise.This network ensures that farmers have access to continuous support and up-to-date information,crucial for the long-term success and adaptation of IAA systems across Moroccos diverse agricultural landscapes.10.5.VC and market development for IAABy addressing every stage of the VC,from input supply to marketing,and fostering cooperation among producers,the NFWA strategy should create a resilient industry that can thrive in both domestic and international markets.Adopting a VC approach for IAA developmentThe NWFA is implementing a holistic VC approach to IAA development.This involves mapping out and analyzing each stage of the IAA VC,from input supply to production,processing,and marketing.By understanding the entire chain,the NWFA can identify bottlenecks,inefficiencies,and opportunities for value addition.This approach ensures that interventions are targeted and effective,improving the overall efficiency and competitiveness of Moroccos IAA sector.It also helps in creating stronger links between different actors in the chain,fostering a more integrated and resilient industry.Ensuring control over input supplies,particularly fry production Recognizing the critical importance of quality inputs,the NWFA invests in strengthening the fry production system in Morocco.This involves establishing state-of-the-art hatcheries in strategic locations across the country.These facilities will produce high-quality,disease-resistant fry of various species suited to Moroccos diverse aquaculture environments.By ensuring local control over fry production,Morocco can lower costs for farmers,and maintain better control over the genetic quality of fish stocks.This step is crucial for the long-term sustainability and competitiveness of the IAA sector.Providing facilities for packaging and adding value to aquaculture products To increase the value and marketability of IAA products,the NWFA should support the development of processing and packaging facilities.These facilities will enable producers to transform raw fish and integrated crops into higher-value products such as filleted fish,ready-to-cook meals,or preserved products.By adding value locally,Morocco can capture a larger share of the final product value,create additional employment opportunities,and develop products that meet the demands of both domestic and export markets.The NWFA should also provide training in food safety and quality standards to ensure that processed products meet sanitary requirements.Supporting the creation of farmer cooperatives to improve market access The NWFA should encourage and support the formation of farmer cooperatives specialized in IAA.These cooperatives allow small-scale producers to pool their resources,achieve economies of scale,and increase their bargaining power in the market.By working together,farmers can invest in shared processing and storage facilities,negotiate better prices for inputs and outputs,and access markets that might be out of reach for individual small-scale producers.The NWFA will provide technical assistance and capacity building to these cooperatives to ensure their effective management and long-term sustainability.Conducting market research to identify high-value IAA products with strong domestic and export potentialTo guide the development of the IAA sector,the NWFA should invest in comprehensive market research.This research aims to identify high-value fish species and integrated crops that have strong demand in both domestic and export markets.It also examines consumer preferences,pricing trends,and potential niche markets for specialized IAA products.By basing production decisions on solid market intelligence,Morocco can ensure that its IAA sector is aligned with market demands,maximizing returns for producers and contributing to the countrys export earnings.2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 26ReferencesChoukr-Allah,R.,et al.2017.The Souss-Massa River Basin,Morocco.In:Handbook of Drought and Water Scarcity:Environmental Impacts and Analysis of Drought and Water Scarcity.Corner,R.,Fersoy,H.,Crespi,V.(eds).2020,Integrated agri-aquaculture in desert and arid lands-Learning from case studies from Algeria,Egypt and Oman,FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular,No.1195,Cairo,FAO.Elouadih,A.,2019.Tilapia breeding trial in irrigation reservoirs in Rabat region.Final year thesis.Hassan II Agronomic and Veterinary Institute.Rabat.76p.FAO.2015.AQUASTAT Country Profile Morocco.Ghamkhar,R.,et al.2020.Optimization and environmental impact assessment of integrated aquaponics system for sustainable food production.Journal of Cleaner Production,275,123190.Goddek,S.,et al.2015.Challenges of Sustainable and Commercial Aquaponics.Sustainability,7(4),4199-4224.Khechba,K.,et al.2021.Aquaponics in Morocco:Opportunities and Challenges.International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies,9(1),224-229.Laamiri,B.,2014,Opportunities for the development of inland fisheries and fish farming in Morocco.Doctoral thesis.Mohamed V University.Rabat.National Water Strategy 2009.Ministry of Energy,Mines,Water and Environment.2009.NWFA,2024.Inland fisheries and aquaculture annual report.Season 2023-2024.30p.Mouslih,M.,1987.Fish and crayfish introductions in Morocco.Rev.Hydrobiol.Trop.,20,65-72.Naji,M.,2021.Markets analysis of inland fishery and aquaculture products in Maghreb countries.The case of Morocco.FAO Subregional Office for North Africa.Tunis.44p.Nasr Alla,A.,Kenawy,D.,El-Naggar,G.,Beveridge,M.and Heijden,P.G.M(2012).Evaluation of the use of fresh water by four farms applying integrated aquaculture agriculture in Egypt.Wageningen,Netherlands:Wageningen University and Research Center.https:/digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/handle/20.500.12348/1015NWFA,2022.Annual fishing report.Season 2021/2022.National Water and Forest Agency.NWFA,2023.New Development Model for Inland Fisheries and Aquaculture.FAO.Project TCP/MOR/3805.Ouassissou,R.,et al.2019.Water Resources in Morocco:Current Situation and Future Prospects.Environmental Science,5,23-39.Schilling,J.,et al.2012.Climate change,vulnerability and adaptation in North Africa with focus on Morocco.Agriculture,Ecosystems&Environment,156,12-26.World Bank.2017.Beyond Scarcity:Water Security in the Middle East and North Africa.2024|Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities 27AuthorMohamed Naji.CitationThis publication should be cited as:Mohamed Naji.2024.Integrated AgricultureAquaculture systems in Morocco:Current status and opportunities.Penang,Malaysia:WorldFish.Report.AcknowledgementsThis report has been developed for WorldFish and conducted in collaboration with the International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas(ICARDA)and the Middle East and North Africa(MENA)regional office of the International Water Management Institute(IWMI)under the CGIAR Research Initiative on Fragility to Resilience in Central and West Asia and North Africa(F2R-CWANA)initiative.We would like to thank all funders who supported this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund.The author would like to acknowledge the invaluable technical contributions provided by Youssef Brouziyne(PhD),country representative Egypt®ional representative MENA,IWMI.The author would also like to express his gratitude and acknowledgments for Mohamed Badr Laamiri(PhD),head of fisheries and aquaculture department,National Agency for Water and Forests(NAWF)-Morocco,for his efforts and assistance during the workshop that took place in Rabat,in November 2023.The author would like to express his gratitude to WorldFish Egypt and its staff,particularly country representative Ahmed Nasr-Allah(PhD),and communications representative Menna Mosbah,for their unwavering support.Design and productionChua Seong Lee,Thavamaler Ramanathan and Sabrina Chong,WorldFish.Photo creditsMohamed Naji,Consultant,WorldFish.CGIAR is a global research partnership for a food-secure future.CGIAR science is dedicated to transforming food,land,and water systems in a climate crisis.Its research is carried out by 13 CGIAR Centers/Alliances in close collaboration with hundreds of partners,including national and regional research institutes,civil society organizations,academia,development organizations and the private sector.www.cgiar.org We would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund:www.cgiar.org/funders.To learn more about this Initiative,please visit www.cgiar.org/initiative/fragility-to-resilience-in-cwana.To learn more about this and other Initiatives in the CGIAR Research Portfolio,please visit www.cgiar.org/cgiar-portfolio 2024 CGIAR System Organization.Some rights reserved.This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 4.0 International Licence(CC by 4.0).|
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FAOTRADE AND NUTRITION:POLICY COHERENCE FOR HEALTHY DIETS2024AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY MARKETSTHE STATE OF THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY MARKETS 2024THAILAND.Farmer heading to a floating market to sell organic produce.COVER PHOTOGRAPH iS NgiamsanguanThis flagship publication is part of The State of the World series of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.Required citation:FAO.2024.The State of Agricultural Commodity Markets 2024 Trade and nutrition:Policy coherence for healthy diets.Rome.https:/doi.org/10.4060/cd2144enThe designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO)concerning the legal or development status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Dashed lines on maps represent approximate border lines for which there may not yet be full agreement.The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers,whether or not these have been patented,does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.ISSN 2663-8207(print)ISSN 2663-8215(online)ISBN 978-92-5-139061-0 FAO,2024Some rights reserved.This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution-4.0 International licence (CC BY 4.0:https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode.en).Under the terms of this licence,this work may be copied,redistributed and adapted,provided that the work is appropriately cited.In any use of this work,there should be no suggestion that FAO endorses any specific organization,products or services.The use of the FAO logo is not permitted.If a translation or adaptation of this work is created,it must include the following disclaimer along with the required citation:“This translation or adaptation was not created by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO).FAO is not responsible for the content or accuracy of this translation or adaptation.The original English edition shall be the authoritative edition.”Any dispute arising under this licence that cannot be settled amicably shall be referred to arbitration in accordance with the Arbitration Rules of the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law(UNCITRAL).The parties shall be bound by any arbitration award rendered as a result of such arbitration as the final adjudication of such a dispute.Third-party materials.This Creative Commons licence CC BY 4.0 does not apply to non-FAO copyright materials included in this publication.Users wishing to reuse material from this work that is attributed to a third party,such as tables,figures or images,are responsible for determining whether permission is needed for that reuse and for obtaining permission from the copyright holder.The risk of claims resulting from infringement of any third-party-owned component in the work rests solely with the user.FAO photographs.FAO photographs that may appear in this work are not subject to the above-mentioned Creative Commons licence.Queries for the use of any FAO photographs should be submitted to:photo-libraryfao.org.Sales,rights and licensing.FAO information products are available on the FAO website(www.fao.org/publications)and print copies can be purchased through the distributors listed there.For general enquiries about FAO publications please contact:publicationsfao.org.Queries regarding rights and licensing of publications should be submitted to:copyrightfao.org.AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY MARKETSTHE STATE OF TRADE AND NUTRITION:POLICY COHERENCE FOR HEALTHY DIETSISSN 2663-8207Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsRome,20242024CONTENTSFOREWORD vMETHODOLOGY viiACKNOWLEDGEMENTS viiiABBREVIATIONS ixEXECUTIVE SUMMARY xPART 1 THE NUTRITION TRANSITION 1Key messages 1Structural transformation and the nutrition transition 1Focussing on the relationship between the nutrition transition and income 12The globalization of dietary patterns 16PART 2 TRADE AND NUTRITION:IDENTIFYING THE LINKAGES 21Key messages 21Patterns and evolution of food trade 21How can trade affect nutrition?34PART 3 TRADE IN FOOD AND NUTRIENTS:FOOD DIVERSITY,NUTRIENT SUPPLY AND THE COST OF HEALTHY DIET BASKETS 41Key messages 41How does trade promote the diversity of food supply?41The role of trade in closing nutrient gaps 48Trade and food prices 51PART 4 FOOD TRADE AND OBESITY 61Key messages 61The prevalence of obesity in the world 61The relationship between globalization,trade and obesity 65PART 5 STRENGTHENING POLICY COHERENCE FOR TRADE AND NUTRITION 73Key messages 73Domestic support,trade policies and nutrition 73Nutrition labelling 81Interaction and coherence between trade and nutrition policy 86NOTES 92 TABLES 2.1 Food categories used in the report265.1 Examples of interpretive and non-interpretive front-of-package labelling83 FIGURES 1.1 Structural transformation and nutrition transition:Main drivers and outcomes,2000202221.2 Engels law:Share of food in total consumer expenditure and gross domestic product per capita,202241.3 Bennets law:Share of staple foods in total energy available for human consumption and gross domestic product per capita,2020 51.4 The burden of undernourishment and multiple forms of malnutrition:Selected nutritional outcome indicators,20002022111.5 Total calories available for consumption in the world by food category,19612021 131.6 Quantity of staple foods available for consumption(per capita,per day)and gross domestic product per capita,19612021 14|ii|1.7 Mexico,Poland,the Republic of Korea and South Africa:Change in the composition of total food supply,19612021151.8 Convergence in the share of staple foods in total calories available for consumption,19612020171.9 Convergence in the share of animal source foods in total calories available for consumption,19612020181.10 Convergence in the aggregate share of animal source foods,fats and oils,sweets and beverages in total calories available for consumption,19612020182.1 Merchandise and food and agricultural trade,20002022222.2 Share of net food imports in total domestic supply(in kcal),2020,percent232.3 Evolution of trade by food category(based on daily per capita energy content),world,20002021242.4 Shares of imports by food category in all food imports(based on energy content and monetary value),2000 and 2021252.5 Evolution of food trade by processing level(based on daily per capita energy content),world,20002021272.6 Shares of imports by processing level in all food imports(based on energy content and monetary value),2000 and 2021282.7 Patterns of trade between regions:Vitamin C from European and Northern American food imports,2021302.8 Patterns of trade between regions:Calcium from African and Asian food imports,2021302.9 Nutrient net imports from food of low-and middle-income countries,2001 and 2020312.10 Share of exports and imports of aquatic products in total food and agricultural trade,by region,2021322.11 Value and quantity of aquatic products trade,19762020332.12 Average impacts of food trade openness and gross domestic product per capita on the prevalence of obesity among adults and the prevalence of stunting in children383.1 Share of food items produced and supplied in all food items,2010 and 2020,percent433.2 Global distribution of food items by processing level:Production and availability for consumption,2020443.3 Global distribution of food items by food category:Production and availability for consumption,2020453.4 Relationship between trade openness and diversity of food supply,2020453.5 Relationship between net trade position and diversity of food supply,2020463.6 Diversity of food production and supply in selected countries,2010 and 2020473.7 Adequacy of nutrient supply:Distribution of energy and selected micronutrients across countries,2010 and 2020493.8 Adequacy of nutrient supply across countries:Nutrient balance score,2020503.9 Relationship between trade openness and adequacy of nutrient supply,2020513.10 Import prices of food categories across countries,2021553.11 Prices of traded foods by processing level,2021553.12 Prices of macronutrients by trade between country income groups,20002021563.13 Distribution of food prices according to average tariff level,2017583.14 Distribution of prices of foods according to their inclusion in healthy diet baskets,by average tariff level,2017594.1 Prevalence of obesity among adults in the world,percent,2022 62|iii|CONTENTS4.2 Prevalence of obesity among adults in the world,selected countries,1990 and 2022 634.3 Ultra-processed food imports as share in all food imports(based on energy content),selected countries in Oceania,2021 674.4 Regional trade agreements:Impact of non-tariff measures on bilateral food trade flows across processing levels694.5 Income responsiveness of bilateral food trade flows across processing levels705.1 Potentially most distorting transfers and other support by country,20202022(percent of gross farm income)765.2 Support to specific commodities,20202022(percent of gross farm income)775.3 Technical Barriers to Trade Committee specific trade concerns related to nutrition labelling,1995202386 BOXES 1.1 Foreign direct investment and nutrition81.2 United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition,20162025102.1 Food categories in this report 262.2 Food processing and the NOVA classificationsystem 292.3 Trade of aquatic products and nutrition322.4 Globalization and nutrition outcomes:Empiricalstudies362.5 Global nutrition targets372.6 Estimating the average impact of food trade openness on selected nutritional indicators383.1 Net trade position and the diversity of food supply463.2 Data on trade,production and supply of food483.3 What is a healthy diet?523.4 Consumer response to changes in relative prices533.5 Pricing nutrients565.1 The Agreement on Agriculture755.2 Repurposing support to food and agriculture785.3 Fiscal measures:Taxes and subsidies to promote healthier food choices825.4 Nutrition labelling and the World Trade Organization Agreements on Technical Barriers to Trade and Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures845.5 Technical barriers to trade specific tradeconcerns875.6 Codex Alimentarius Commission and foodlabelling89|iv|FOREWORDTrade has played a vital role in human existence since the Neolithic period when foods,seeds and tools were exchanged through social networks and trade routes that connected our ancestors.Today,global food markets continue to connect people and countries and play a critical role in our agrifood systems.They facilitate the movement of food from surplus to deficit regions,share the food diversity and thereby contribute to global food security and nutrition.Together with an increasingly interconnected worldwide economy,food markets have become more globalized and complementary.Between 2000 and 2022,the volume of food trade more than doubled.This surge reflects a world where more countries trade food with each other,with emerging economies becoming important players and low-income countries being better integrated into global food markets.Without a doubt,this significant expansion of food trade affects the availability,accessibility,affordability and diversity of foods in domestic markets and has important implications for our daily diets.The 2024 edition of The State of Agricultural Commodity Markets(SOCO)explores the intricate linkages between food trade,diets and nutrition.Trade can affect diets and nutrition through many channels and its effects can be heterogeneous as,by its very nature,trade is intertwined with economic growth,demographic shifts and societal interactions.The report provides comprehensive evidence of how trade affects supply and price,two essential elements of the food environment,which,in turn,can influence dietary patterns and contribute to nutritional outcomes.Today,in most high-and upper-middle-income countries,dietary patterns and lifestyles have contributed to a high prevalence of overweight and obesity.Many low-and lower-middle-income countries are also experiencing rapid shifts in dietary patterns and an increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity,while many have not yet been able to eradicate undernutrition.As a result,these countries are burdened with various forms of malnutrition including undernutrition,micronutrient deficiency,overweight and obesity all co-existing within the same country,community or household.Healthy diets and good nutrition are necessary throughout the life course for survival,health,growth,development and all aspects of well-being.Eating a diet that is adequate in nutrients,diverse across food groups,balanced in energy,moderate in unhealthy food consumption and safe helps us to grow,stay healthy and live active lives.The aspiration to end hunger and all forms of malnutrition,while promoting sustainable agrifood systems,is at the core of Sustainable Development Goal2(ZeroHunger).With the Sustainable Development Goals intrinsic to FAOs work,in 2021,the Organization adopted the Strategic Framework 202231,developed to support achieving the 2030Agenda for Sustainable Development through the transformation to MORE efficient,inclusive,resilient and sustainable agrifood systems under four pillars the“four betters”.One of the pillars,better nutrition,aims to end hunger,achieve food security and improve nutrition in all its forms through increased access to and consumption of healthy diets.Food trade impacts nutrition through its effects on the availability,diversity and prices of foods.It can also have indirect impacts on nutrition through its effect on incomes,as trade can facilitate the structural transformation of the economy and growth.Openness to trade can significantly increase the diversity of foods available for consumption in a country,a prerequisite to achieving healthy diets.Not all countries are endowed with adequate natural resources such as land and water to efficiently produce a wide variety of foods in sufficient quantities to meet the dietary needs and food preferences of their populations.As countries import foods that they are not able to produce efficiently,trade generates economic gains and,at the same time,it expands the variety of foods in a country,contributing to the diversity of foods available and potentially to nutrient|v|FOREWORDQu DongyuFAO Director-Generalsupply.Indeed,the report finds that between 2010 and 2020,the average supply per capita of micronutrients across countries increased largely due to the expansion of trade.At the same time,food prices tend to be lower in countries that are more open to trade.The contribution of trade to food availability,accessibility and affordability can inform the discussions on policy approaches to trade openness as compared with food self-sufficiency.The expansion of global food trade has been influenced by multilateral trade rules that have shaped a freer,fairer and more predictable trade environment,which,along with an increasing number of regional trade agreements,has promoted trade in food.With the global rise in obesity affecting all world regions,there has been a growing emphasis on global guidelines and national policies in many countries.The report delves into the ongoing debate about the role of trade in undermining diet quality,and discusses the relationship between trade liberalization and regional trade agreements.SOCO 2024 also examines the intersection of trade and nutrition policies such as food labelling and taxation and provides policymakers with an understanding of how such measures can support nutrition objectives in the changing landscape of global agrifood systems.Regional trade agreements,which aim at deepening economic integration,are pivotal in shaping trade dynamics and the composition of food imports.The report accentuates that at a national level,there is scope to enhance policy coherence between trade and nutrition sectors by,for example,establishing mechanisms to facilitate collaboration between trade policymakers and those responsible for nutrition measures when negotiating and implementing trade agreements.This edition of SOCO offers robust evidence and valuable insights for policymakers and other partners,enabling them to take practical steps towards enhancing access to nutritious food and enabling the consumption of healthy diets for improved nutrition.Achieving policy coherence between trade and nutrition sectors is imperative for addressing all the dimensions of sustainable development.Strengthening capacity among policymakers and partners can promote effective collaboration.FAO is steadfast in its commitment to collaborative efforts to advance the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the Sustainable Development Goals,striving towards the four betters:better production,better nutrition,a better environment and a better life leaving no one behind.|vi|The work on The State of Agricultural Commodity Markets 2024(SOCO 2024)began in June 2023.The research and writing team was composed of five staff members of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO)who were responsible for the data analysis,research and writing of the report.The FAO Statistics Division provided the datasets used in this report.A group of FAOs Food and Nutrition Division experts was engaged to support the writing team in developing this edition of the report.In light of the intensive data work required to inform the writing of the report,FAO engaged leading external experts in the area of food trade and nutrition to produce additional analytical work as follows:For Part 1,econometric modelling exercises were undertaken to assess the long-term relationship between gross domestic product(GDP)growth and nutrition transition,and whether dietary patterns converged between countries at different levels of development.A literature review on the role of Foreign Direct Investment(FDI),local food industries and nutrition was commissioned to support the writing of the chapter.For Part 2,analytical work was commissioned to assess the evolution of international food trade in terms of nutrient flows and examine the potential relationship between trade openness and nutritional outcomes.For Part 3,technical work was commissioned to calculate food diversity indicators and nutrient gaps,and econometric models were developed to identify the relationships among food diversity,nutrient gaps and the role of trade.Analytical work was also commissioned to quantify implicit nutrient prices and their association with trade.Analysis was undertaken to assess the relationship between trade openness and the cost and affordability of a healthy diet.For Part 4,technical work was commissioned to apply an import demand gravity model to estimate the impact of regional trade agreements on food trade and assess whether trade agreement provisions affected different types of foods differently.For Part 5,an external expert produced a critical review of trade policies and nutrition measures with an analysis of the policy space available to pursue nutritional goals.The manuscript was reviewed extensively by both internal and external experts who provided substantive comments and advice on the analysis of the report.The report was reviewed and discussed by the management team of the FAO Economic and Social Development stream in June 2024.METHODOLOGY|vii|ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe State of Agricultural Commodity Markets 2024(SOCO 2024)was prepared by a multidisciplinary team of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO)under the direction of Boubaker Ben-Belhassen,Director of the Markets and Trade Division,George Rapsomanikis,Senior Economist and Editor of SOCO 2024,and Andrea Zimmermann,Economist and co-Editor of SOCO 2024.Overall guidance was provided by Mximo Torero Cullen,Chief Economist,and by the management team of the Economic and Social Development stream.Research and writing teamThe research and writing team at the Markets and Trade Division was composed of:Andrea Zimmermann,Clarissa Roncato Baldin,Edona Dervisholli,George Rapsomanikis and Husam Attaallah.External reviewers The writing team received valuable comments from external reviewers,including:Anne Marie Thow(University of Sydney),Silvio Traverso(University of Eastern Piedmont)and Stefano Schiavo(University ofTrento).Internal reviewersThe writing team is grateful for the valuable comments received from the following reviewers:Adrienne Egger,Benoist Veillerette,Boubaker Ben-Belhassen,Bridget Holmes,Corinna Hawkes,Cosimo Avesani,Fatima Hachem,Georgios Mermigkas,Giles Hanley-Cook,Guenter Hemrich,Divine Nganje Njie,Ida Christensen,Lynnette Neufeld,Maria Xipsiti,Marcio Castro de Souza,Mximo Torero Cullen,Mohamed Manssouri,Nancy Aburto,Stefania Vannuccini,Ti Kian Seow and Trudy Wijnhoven.ContributorsThe following authors contributed background papers and technical notes for this report:Anne Marie Thow(University of Sydney),Edona Dervisholli(FAO),Helen Walls(London School of Hygiene&Tropical Medicine),Helena Engemann(University of Bonn),Lorenzo Rotunno(Aix-Marseille University,on leave),Magorzata Karolina Kozowska(FAO consultant),Silvio Traverso(University of Eastern Piedmont),Stefano Schiavo(University of Trento)and Yaghoob Jafari(University of Bonn).The writing team was grateful for the valuable additional contributions from:Aikaterini Kavallari,AydanSelek,Bridget Holmes,Carlo Cafiero,Cosimo Avesani,Dominique Habimana,Georgios Mermigkas,Giles Hanley-Cook,Salar Tayyib(in memoriam),Tomasz Filipczuk,Trudy Wijnhoven and Valentina Conti.Administrative supportAngela Towey provided administrative support.Translations were delivered by the Language Branch(CSGL)of the FAO Governing Bodies Servicing Division(CSG).The Publishing Group(OCCP)in FAOs Office of Communications provided editorial support,design and layout,as well as production coordination and printing services for editions in all six official languages.Data accessFAO thanks the World Banks International Comparison Program(ICP)for providing access to ICP 2017 retail price data for use in the food price analysis,and Pepita Barlow(Data Curator,University of Oxford)for providing guidance on the dataset on trade challenges regarding food and beverage regulations.|viii|ABBREVIATIONSALOPAppropriate Level of ProtectionAMSAggregate Measurement of SupportAoAAgreement on Agriculture(WTO)BMIbody mass indexCoAHDcost and affordability of a healthy dietFAOFood and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsFDIforeign direct investmentFoPLfront-of-package nutrition labellingGATTGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and TradeGDPgross domestic productGIFTGlobal Individual Food consumption data ToolICN2Second International Conference onNutritionIFADInternational Fund for AgriculturalDevelopmentMERCOSURSouthern Common MarketNAFTANorth American Free Trade AgreementNCDnon-communicable diseasesNTMnon-tariff measures OECDOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentPPPpurchasing power parityRTAregional trade agreementsSDGSustainable Development GoalsSPSsanitary and phytosanitary measuresTBTtechnical barriers to tradeUNCTADUN Trade and DevelopmentUNICEFUnited Nations Childrens FundVATvalue-added taxWFPWorld Food ProgrammeWHAWorld Health AssemblyWHOWorld Health OrganizationWTOWorld Trade Organization|ix|EXECUTIVE SUMMARYTrade is integral to our agrifood systems as it fulfils the fundamental function of moving food from surplus to deficit regions,thus contributing to food security globally.Global food markets connect people and countries across the globe,contribute to efficient natural resources use worldwide,facilitate the supply of sufficient,safe and diverse food and generate income for farmers and those employed in the food and agricultural sectors.Trade is inherent to the economic,social and environmental dimensions of sustainable development.It is closely related to economic growth,it interacts with people and links with the environment.Since the beginning of the twenty-first century,globalization and trade increased significantly.Food and agricultural trade nearly quintupled,rising from USD400billion in 2000 to USD1.9trillion in 2022.Food trade made up around 85percent of all trade in food and agriculture.The energy it carried more than doubled between 2000 and 2021,reaching almost 5000trillion kilocalories in 2021.Adjusted for global population growth,food trade increased from 930kcal per capita per day in 2000 to 1640kcal per capita per day in 2021.This expansion in global food trade has been influenced by the establishment of the World Trade Organization(WTO)in 1995.WTOs multilateral trade rules have shaped a freer,fairer and more predictable trade environment,which,together with an increasing number of regional trade agreements,have promoted food and agricultural trade and economic growth.Nevertheless,the rapid globalization of food markets has raised concerns about the potential impacts of progressively increasing food trade on societies.Food production for exports is seen as contributing to the depletion of natural resources.Trade could widen inequality,especially in countries where the agricultural sector is made up of a large number of resource-poor farmers who cannot compete globally.More exposure to global food markets could result in an increased availability of energy-dense foods with low nutritional value relative to nutritious foods,which could contribute towards unhealthy or poor diets,worsening nutritional outcomes.The 2024 edition of The State of Agricultural Commodity Markets(SOCO 2024)explores the complex linkages between food trade and nutrition and generates evidence to identify how trade affects dietary patterns and nutritional outcomes.The report examines the intersection of trade policies and nutrition measures and provides policymakers with an understanding of how to address nutrition objectives in the changing landscape of global agrifood systems.DEVELOPMENT AND THE NUTRITION TRANSITIONPlacing the tradenutrition nexus in the broader context of development shows how dietary patterns change because of economic,social and demographic dynamics.Economies develop through a process of structural transformation in which agriculture can play a key role.Economic growth is fuelled by a reallocation of economic activities from agriculture to other more productive sectors such as manufacturing and services.The structural transformation of the economies entails rising incomes,urbanization,deeper integration into global markets,the rise of modern industry and services,and lifestyle changes.Along the development path,income growth,urbanization,globalization and changes in employment are interrelated,occur simultaneously and reinforce each other.All affect food consumption and the composition of diets,giving rise to a nutrition transition.Income growth is a major driver of the nutrition transition.As incomes rise,dietary patterns shift from being predominantly composed of staple foods to becoming more diverse with people consuming more meat and fish,milk and dairy products,eggs,fruits and vegetables.|x|Together with the shift towards more diverse dietary patterns,the consumption of processed and ultra-processed foods high in fats,sugars and/or salt increases,contributing to the prevalence of overweight and obesity.At the same time,as urbanization progresses,more women and men work outside the household and spend more time commuting to their jobs.This can affect food preparation in the household,driving the purchase of pre-prepared or ready-to-eat foods and to more food being consumed away from home.Since the 1980s,the transformation of the food processing industry and food retail sector has been a major factor in facilitating the nutrition transition in developing countries and emerging economies.The nutrition transition is reflected by a decline in the prevalence of undernourishment and stunting in children under five years of age and an upward trend in the prevalence of overweight and obesity.The prevalence of undernourishment in the world declined significantly from 12.7percent to 9.2percent between 2000 and 2022.In this same period,the prevalence of obesity in the adult population increased from 8.7percent in 2000 to 15.8percent in 2022 globally.In some high-and middle-income countries,over one-third of the adult population is obese.Overweight and obesity are increasing rapidly in countries that have not yet been able to eradicate the various forms of undernutrition,giving rise to multiple burdens of malnutrition.TRADE IMPACTS ON NUTRITIONThe linkages between trade and dietary patterns and resulting nutritional outcomes are intricate.Trade can affect nutrition through many direct and indirect pathways and complex mechanisms.Trade is an accelerator of the nutrition transition.Its effects on food availability,dietary patterns and resulting nutritional outcomes can be widely heterogeneous across countries,population groups and individuals.Trades effects can vary across countries both in direction and magnitude,depending on a countrys position on the development path,the size and structure of its economy and its agricultural sector,income per capita,demographic characteristics,and the national policy environment.This,and the multi-causal nature of all forms of malnutrition renders the relationship between trade and nutrition outcomes ambiguous and challenging to identify and measure empirically.For example,analysis suggests that openness to trade reduces stunting in children under five years of age at all levels of development.The effects of trade on overweight and obesity appear to be highly context specific.In import-dependent countries with limited domestic food and agricultural production capacity,food trade can be associated with an increasing prevalence of obesity.Trade can directly impact nutrition through its effects on the availability,diversity and prices of foods.More indirect channels in which trade affects nutrition are through its effects on the wider economy.Opening to food trade allows for more food imports and thus increases the availability of foods for consumption in a country.This can spur economic growth,accelerating the process of structural transformation,as food imports allow the workforce initially bound in agriculture to be freed-up and to migrate to more productive non-farm sectors.TRADE EFFECTS ON THE DIVERSITY OF FOOD SUPPLYNatural resources necessary for food production such as land and water are unevenly distributed across countries and climatic conditions vary widely.Some countries can produce only a small range of products,while others possess abundant natural resources and produce a large variety of foods.For example,China,one of the largest countries in the world by area,produced around 320 different items in 2020,as compared|xi|EXECUTIVE SUMMARYwith Kiribati,a small island developing state,that produced only 15 different terrestrial food items.By participating in global food markets,most countries in the world would export foods that they can produce in abundance and import foods that can be more efficiently produced in other countries.At the country level,trade increases the overall diversity of foods available all-year-round.Small countries that face significant agroclimatic and natural resource constraints in food production achieve high levels of diversity through trade.Since not every country has a well-developed food processing industry,similar trade impacts can be found for diversity in processed foods.On average,trade increases the diversity of foods available for consumption nearly twofold.At the same time,countries import around three times as many different processed and ultra-processed foods as they produce.Openness to trade promotes specialization in the production of some foods,which,given natural resource endowments and the structure of the farm sector,can be produced at relatively lower costs,strengthening the competitiveness in global food markets.Net-importing countries can achieve a higher diversity of food supplies relative to export-oriented countries that experienced fast growth in their agricultural exports in the last decades.TRADE AND THE NUTRIENT GAPGlobally,current food production provides an adequate supply of most nutrients.Nevertheless,many countries cannot produce a wide range of foods in sufficient quantities to meet their populations average nutrient requirements,and gaps in nutrient supply have been identified for several micronutrients in many countries,for example,for vitamin A and calcium.Trade can be an important contributor to bridging nutrient supply gaps.Food imports are critical for many countries to meet the dietary needs of their populations to maintain the health and nutritional well-being of all people.With the increase in food trade,there has been a corresponding rise in the trade of nutrients.Between 2010 and 2020 the expansion of trade helped increase the average supply per capita of micronutrients across countries.For example,during this period,the per capita trade of the B-vitamins riboflavin and thiamine and the minerals calcium and zinc increased by around 40percent.The adequacy of a nutrient supply is affected by many factors such as natural resource endowments,climate and population density.Although the adequacy of the nutrient supply can be high in countries that are relatively less integrated in global markets,it is always high at elevated levels of trade openness.TRADE IMPACTS ON FOOD PRICESFood prices are an important pathway through which trade affects diets and ultimately nutrition.Within a country,imports can increase food availability and can lower domestic food prices.This can result in gains for consumers,for whom access to more diverse foods is improved.Trade openness can affect the relative prices of different foods,which,in turn,can influence household food consumption and dietary patterns but this effect will depend on the intensity of trade.Foods that are produced and transported in bulk and can be stored for extended periods of time such as staple foods are traded more intensively than foods that require more resources for transportation such as fruits and vegetables.Trade can help narrow the differences among prices of similar foods across countries,depending on how intensively these foods are traded.While trade has a significant effect on staple food prices,its impact on the prices of fruits and vegetables is small,and depends on the income levels of the countries.|xii|Indeed,around 50percent of the cheapest foods that are included in the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO)cost and affordability of a healthy diet index tend to be domestically sourced and not intensively traded;therefore,the direct impact of trade on their prices may be limited.Nevertheless,trade policies such as import tariffs do not appear to have a disproportionate effect on different foods.On average,lower import tariffs are associated with lower food prices,whether the foods are included in the healthy diet basket or not.Across countries lower import tariffs can result,on average,in a lower food price level and improve access to food.This relationship is not driven only by lower prices of foods of high energy density and minimal nutritional value but by all foods.DOES TRADE CONTRIBUTE TO OBESITY?Over the past decades,there has been increasing focus on obesity in global guidance and national policies in many countries,considering the political,economic,cultural and physical factors that would give rise to obesogenic environments.Nutrition experts point to a positive relationship between high consumption of ultra-processed foods of high energy density and,in some instances,low nutrient content and obesity.Ultra-processed foods can contain large amounts of free sugars and saturated fats,which can contribute to a high energy intake.Income effects on the demand for food imports depend on the extent of processing.Processed and ultra-processed food imports respond strongly to income changes relative to unprocessed and minimally processed foods.A 10percent increase in income results in an 11percent increase in the demand for imports of ultra-processed foods and a 7percent increase in the demand for imports of unprocessed and minimally processed foods.This is in line with the concept of nutrition transition,where increases in income can result in higher consumption of ultra-processed foods,including foods high in fats,sugars and/or salt.Although,in 2021,the share of ultra-processed foods in total calories traded globally amounted to 7percent,in the region of Oceania,which includes the Pacific Small Island Developing States with high levels of obesity,this share was significantly higher at 23percent.For these islands,their geographical location results in high trade costs,constraining trade especially for fresh and perishable foods,which are relatively more expensive to transport than other foods.The debate on whether trade promotes the availability of ultra-processed foods,contributing to obesity in the Pacific islands and other regions,also focuses on the role of trade liberalization and regional trade agreements.Modern and deeper regional trade agreements include provisions for deeper cooperation in regulation and standards to promote trade among their signatories and foresee a harmonization of sanitary and phytosanitary(SPS)measures and technical barriers to trade(TBT)or provide for the mutual recognition of domestic standards.An analysis carried out for this report suggests that the depth of regional trade agreements(RTAs)in terms of SPS and TBT provisions affects the demand for food in different ways depending on the extent of processing.Deep regional trade agreements with a focus on sanitary and phytosanitary measures and technical barriers to trade could facilitate imports of ultra-processed foods.For example,RTAs with a high number of SPS provisions tend to facilitate imports of ultra-processed foods relative to other foods.TBT measures,including nutrition labelling,may affect import demand,leading to a lower expansion of trade in ultra-processed foods relative to the other processing levels of foods.This can have implications for trade policymakers who negotiate RTAs that are increasingly found in the spotlight of the public discourse surrounding nutrition.|xiii|EXECUTIVE SUMMARYTRADE POLICIES AND NUTRITION MEASURES:POLICY COHERENCEAgricultural policies aim at ensuring food security sustainably and maintaining a level of farm income that keeps pace with the income trends in other economic sectors.Both domestic support and trade policy instruments are subject to the WTO rules and disciplines.Central to WTO agreements is the principle of non-discrimination,aimed at ensuring the fair and equitable treatment of all trade partners.This prohibits discrimination between like products of different foreign origins,as well as between like products of foreign and domestic origin.However,there are concerns that WTO rules,as well as regional trade agreements,impose potential constraints on the policy space available for improving nutrition and enabling healthy diets,that is the ability of a government to pursue food and nutrition policies to achieve its own national goals.Some countries use trade policy to address nutrition objectives.For example,in 2012,Fiji reduced tariffs on fruits and vegetables not grown domestically from 32percent to 5percent to explicitly promote healthier diets.In other instances,the use of trade policy instruments to improve nutrition has raised concerns about the principle of discrimination.For example,Samoa removed an import ban on turkey tails an inexpensive meat cut with a high fat content as part of their accession to WTO,largely due to concerns that it did not address other similar foods with high-fat content,and replaced the import ban with a tax measure.World Trade Organization rules do not constrain the policy space of countries to pursue nutrition objectives,but they influence the choice of policy instruments due to the principle of non-discrimination.For example,policy instruments such as excise taxes apply to both imported and domestically produced foods and beverages and can be effective in addressing nutrition objectives.Between 2017 and 2019,the percentage of World Health Organization(WHO)members implementing taxes on sugar-sweetened drinks rose from 23percent to 38percent.Food labelling is one of the primary means of communication among actors along the value chain from the producer to the consumer.Nutrition labelling conveys the nutritional characteristics and attributes of foods to consumers,enabling them to make informed food choices.In 2004,the World Health Organization proposed front-of-package nutrition labelling as a policy measure to improve diet and health.A summary of key nutritional aspects and characteristics of food products can be conveyed in the form of an easy-to-understand label on the front of the package displaying logos,warning labels,symbols,icons,multiple traffic lights,or scores to lead to better consumer understanding and to support healthier food purchases.Front-of-package nutrition labelling(FoPLs)is classified as TBT and thus are subject to the WTO Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade.WTO members can request justifications for another members FoPL if it significantly impacts trade,whether it is effective in addressing the relevant nutritional objective and whether there are alternative measures that could achieve the same result.At the WTO Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade,between 1995 and 2023,77specific trade concerns were raised by 37countries pertaining to regulations on food and beverage products,out of which 52 were related to labelling requirements.|xiv|The discussions among countries at the World Trade Organization Committee on Technical Barriers to Trade may influence or could shape a countrys nutrition policies related to food labelling so that their potential to support healthier food choices is proportional to their impact on trade.Understanding the interface between trade and nutrition policies can inform the design of policies that are effective and consistent with WTO rules.At the national level,there is scope to strengthen policy coherence between trade and nutrition,for example,by establishing mechanisms to enable engagement between the health and trade sectors in the negotiation and implementation of trade agreements.Building capacities among trade policymakers and nutrition officials fosters policy coherence between trade and nutrition.Stakeholder engagement and transparency in negotiating trade agreements are critical to making trade improve nutrition.For deep trade agreements,policy coherence between trade and nutrition objectives,as well as stakeholder engagement and transparency,are critical in making the negotiations more inclusive.Promoting the engagement of all stakeholders,especially those related to nutrition and public health,and increasing transparency in negotiations for deeper trade agreements can ensure that increased trade will address food security,economic and nutrition objectives.The development and clear communication of nutrition guidelines,together with a mandate to address nutrition-related health concerns,can support trade policy action for nutrition.Strengthening transparency through forums for government,non-governmental stakeholders,civil society and the knowledge community to discuss nutrition issues arising from trade is also important in assessing the potential impact of trade agreements on nutrition.n|xv|COUNTRY NOTSPECIFIEDA shopping cart filled with a variety of foods.Davizro/iSPART 1 THE NUTRITION TRANSITION KEY MESSAGES Along the development path,income growth,urbanization,globalization and changes in employment are interrelated,occur simultaneously and reinforce each other.All affect food consumption and the composition of diets,giving rise to a nutrition transition.A decline in the prevalence of undernourishment and stunting in children under five years of age and an upward trend in the prevalence of overweight and obesity are salient features of the nutrition transition.These trends are evident across countries,as their economies develop and dietary patterns change.Income growth is a major driver of the nutrition transition,leading to a more diverse food environment and a declining share of staple foods in consumption.A more diverse food supply can provide the basis for better nutrition but can also result in a higher availability of ultra-processed foods including foods high in fats,sugars and/or salt,which can increase the prevalence of overweight and obesity.Trade is an accelerator of the nutrition transition.Its effects on food availability,dietary patterns and resulting nutritional outcomes can be widely heterogeneous across countries,population groups and individuals.Nutrition transition trends vary across countries and do not give rise to a globalized dietary pattern.Over the 19612019 period,the broad dietary patterns of high-income countries and emerging economies changed rapidly,with the share of staple foods in total calories available declining fast.During the same period,the dietary patterns of lower-income countries changed at a slower rate.STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION AND THE NUTRITION TRANSITIONAs countries develop,the relative importance of agriculture in gross domestic product(GDP)and employment declines.A reallocation of economic activities away from agriculture to other more productive sectors such as manufacturing and services takes place,fuelling economic growth.This structural transformation is also evident at the global level.On average,over the past decades,global GDP per capita more than doubled from USD5517 in 2000 to USD12688 in 2022,while the global share of agriculture in employment declined from 40percent in 2000 to 26percent in 2022(Figure 1.1,panels A and B).Historically,this shift from a predominantly agrarian economy to one in which manufacturing and services play a larger role is also associated with urbanization,deeper integration into global markets and lifestyle changes including shifts in dietary patterns.As the economy undergoes structural transformation,the reallocation of resources such as capital and labour across economic sectors increases productivity and income per capita.1 With labour moving from agriculture to fast-growing,non-farm sectors,society becomes more urbanized.With this,the agglomeration of people and firms reduces transaction costs and allows technology spillovers,potentially resulting in further increases in productivity and income per capita in manufacturing and|1|PART 1 THE NUTRITION TRANSITION FIGURE 1.1 STRUCTURAL TRANSFORMATION AND NUTRITION TRANSITION:MAIN DRIVERS AND OUTCOMES,20002022NOTES:Prevalence of obesity is defined as the percentage of adults whose body mass index(BMI)is equal to or greater than 30 kg/m2.Prevalence of overweight is defined as the percentage of adults whose BMI is equal to or greater than 25 kg/m2.The prevalence of stunting is defined as the percentage of children under the age of five years with a height-for-age less than-2 standard deviations below the World Health Organization Child Growth Standards median.The KOF Globalisation Index summarizes for each country the extent of trade,financial,interpersonal,informational,cultural and political globalization.Food and agricultural trade includes all food and agricultural products except fish and aquatic products.SOURCES:Authors own elaboration based on World Bank.2024.World Development Indicators:GDP per capita(current US$).Accessed on 12 April 2024.https:/data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD.Licence:CC-BY-4.0;World Bank.2024.World Development Indicators:Employment in agriculture(%of total employment)(modeled ILO estimate).Accessed on 12 April 2024.https:/data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.AGR.EMPL.ZS.Licence:CC-BY-4.0;World Bank.2024.World Development Indicators:Urban population(%of total population).Accessed on 12 April 2024.https:/data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB.TOTL.IN.ZS.Licence:CC-BY-4.0;UNICEF,WHO&World Bank.2023.Joint child malnutrition estimates(JME).In:WHO.Geneva,Switzerland.Cited 15 June 2024.https:/www.who.int/teams/nutrition-and-food-safety/monitoring-nutritional-status-and-food-safety-and-events/joint-child-malnutrition-estimates;FAO.2024.FAOSTAT:Suite of Food Security Indicators.Accessed on 12 April 2024.https:/www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FS.Licence:CC-BY-4.0;WHO.2024.The Global Health Observatory:Prevalence of obesity among adults.Accessed on 27 May 2024.https:/www.who.int/data/gho/data/indicators/indicator-details/GHO/prevalence-of-obesity-among-adults-bmi-=-30-(age-standardized-estimate)-(-);WHO.2024.The Global Health Observatory:Prevalence of overweight among adults.Accessed on 27 May 2024.https:/www.who.int/data/gho/data/indicators/indicator-details/GHO/prevalence-of-overweight-among-adults-bmi-25-(age-standardized-estimate)-(-);KOF Swiss Economic Institute.2024.KOF Globalisation Index.In:KOF Swiss Economic Institute.Zurich,Switzerland.Cited 12 April 2024.https:/kof.ethz.ch/en/forecasts-and-indicators/indicators/kof-globalisation-index.html;Gygli,S.,Haelg,F.,Potrafke,N.&Sturm,J.-E.2019.The KOF Globalisation Index revisited.TheReview of International Organizations,14(3):543574.https:/doi.org/10.1007/s11558-019-09344-2;FAO.2024.FAOSTAT:Trade Crops and livestock products.Accessed on 12 April 2024.https:/www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/TCL.Licence:CC-BY-4.0.Share of urban populationPERCENT0204060CURRENT USDA:Global gross domestic product per capita05 00010 00015 0002000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 20222000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022Share of employment in agricultureB:Share of employment in agriculture andshare of people living in urban areas in the worldPrevalence of obesity(adults)Prevalence of overweight(adults)PERCENT0204060Prevalence of undernourishmentPERCENT0102030402000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 20222000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 2022Prevalence of stunting(children under 5 years)C:Prevalence of undernourishment and stunting in the worldD:Prevalence of obesity and overweight in the worldUSD BILLION05001 0001 5002 000INDEX2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 20222000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020 202250556065E:KOF Globalisation IndexF:Global food and agricultural trade https:/doi.org/10.4060/cd2144en-Fig1.01|2|THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY MARKETS 2024services.2 Although the share of agriculture in GDP and employment declines,agricultural productivity per worker improves and farm incomes increase.Due to rural-to-urban migration and technological improvements,fewer people can produce more food.Agriculture can play a key role along this development path.It provides resources such as labour to other economic sectors,and it addresses the economys food needs.3 Openness to trade plays an important role in sustaining growth rates.4 Food and agricultural trade contribute to the structural transformation process,as cheaper imports can add to domestic food production and facilitate ruralurban migration.5 This structural change of both the traditional and modern sectors of the economy initiates the growth process,leading to sustained reductions in poverty and hunger and in higher standards of living,thereby transforming human lives.aAlong this development path,dietary patterns change,driven by structural transformations economic,social and demographic dynamics.This nutrition transition takes place with changes in the types and quantities of foods consumed and the composition of diets.It is also reflected by a change in nutritional outcomes,most importantly,by a decline in the prevalence of undernourishment and the prevalence of stunting in children under five years of age and an upward trend in the prevalence of overweight and obesity.b In many developing countries,this shift from undernutrition to overweight and obesity is the most significant characteristic of the nutrition a Such patterns of structural transformation that distinguish the traditional and modern sectors of the economy have been observed historically in Northern America,Europe and in Eastern Asian countries such as China and the Republic of Korea during the 1970s and 1980s.Recent studies suggest that structural transformation in Latin America and Africa may not have followed exactly such patterns.For example,for Latin American countries,declining commodity prices during the 19902008 period affected the development path,while in Africa,most of the economic growth was due to productivity increases in agriculture.See Diao,X.,McMillan,M.&Rodrik,D.2019.The recent growth boom in developing economies:A structural-change perspective.Working Paper 23132.National Bureau of Economic Research.https:/www.doi.org/10.3386/w23132b The concept of a nutrition transition was developed by the nutrition researcher Barry M.Popkin.See Popkin,B.M.1993.Nutritional Patterns and Transitions.Population and Development Review,19(1):138157.https:/doi.org/10.2307/2938388transition and is also evident in global averages.While the prevalence of undernourishment in the world declined significantly from 12.7percent to 9.2percent between 2000 and 2022(Figure 1.1,panelC),the global prevalence of obesity in the adult population increased from 8.7percent in 2000 to 15.8percent in 2022(Figure 1.1,panelD).Globally,the prevalence of stunting of children under five years of age declined from 33.0percent in 2000 to 22.3percent in 2022(Figure 1.1,panelC).The prevalence of overweight in adults rose from 30.0percent in 2000 to 43.5percent in 2022(Figure 1.1,panelD).In some high-and middle-income countries,over one-third of the adult population is obese.Overweight and obesity are increasing rapidly in countries that have not yet been able to eradicate the various forms of undernutrition,giving rise to multiple burdens of malnutrition.The nutrition transition is driven by the same interrelated forces that shape the structural transformation of economies and bring about income growth,urbanization,the rise of the modern industry sector and integration in the global economy.The nutrition transition is also linked to increased life expectancy and reduced fertility rates.At the same time,disease patterns move from infectious and nutrient-deficiency diseases to a higher prevalence of overweight and obesity and diet-related non-communicable diseases(NCDs),including coronary heart disease,stroke,diabetes and some types of cancer.6 Between 2000 and 2021,the global prevalence of diabetes increased from 4.6 to 9.8percent.7Income growth and the nutrition transitionIncome growth is a major driver of the change in food consumption and dietary patterns.Poverty and chronic food insecurity are inextricably linked,and increasing incomes can lift people out of poverty and improve access to food.At low levels of income,a large portion of a households expenditure is allocated to food.As incomes grow,the proportion of a households budget spent on food declines.For example,household survey data across 46 countries between 1970 and 2007 suggest that,with few exceptions and across all development levels and regions,the poor spend a higher share of their|3|PART 1 THE NUTRITION TRANSITIONbudget on food,compared with richer consumers.On average,the food budget share of the poorest households was found to be 20percentage points higher than that of the richest households.8 This relationship between income and food expenditure called Engels law suggests that a part of food consumption is independent of income because it is necessary to sustain life,and is found to be an empirical regularity of economic behaviour prevalent across populations and countries.For example,data suggest that in 2022 in Nigeria,where GDP per capita amounted to USD4963,food purchases comprised 59percent of total consumer expenditure.In the same year,in the Kingdom of the Netherlands,a high-income country,consumers spent 11.8percent of their total expenditure on food while GDP per capita amounted to USD59250.(Figure 1.2).c,9For the poor,as food budgets make up a large part of their income,diets tend to be c In 1867,economist and statistician Ernst Engel(18211896)demonstrated that as incomes grow,food makes up for a smaller share of the total expenditure,while the share allocated to other expenditures(such as on housing or education)grows.In 1941,economist Merrill K.Bennet(18971969)observed that as income grows,the share of calories obtained from staples declines.Both relationships tend to be always present in the data and have been colloquially referred to as“laws”in the development economics literature.FIGURE 1.2 ENGELS LAW:SHARE OF FOOD IN TOTAL CONSUMER EXPENDITURE AND GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT PER CAPITA,2022NOTES:The figure shows the relationship between the share of food in total consumer expenditure and gross domestic product(GDP)per capita across countries.PPP=purchasing power parity.SOURCES:Authors own elaboration based on USDA(United States Department of Agriculture).2024.Data on expenditures on food and alcoholic beverages in selected countries.International Consumer and Food Industry Trends.In:USDA.Washington,DC.Cited 4 March 2024.https:/www.ers.usda.gov/topics/international-markets-u-s-trade/international-consumer-and-food-industry-trends/#data;World Bank.2024.World Development Indicators:GDP per capita,PPP(constant 2017 international$).Accessed on 15 February 2024.https:/data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.KD.Licence:CC-BY-4.0.0204060020 00040 00060 00080 000100 000120 000GDP PER CAPITA,PPP(CONSTANT 2017 INTERNATIONAL USD)SHARE OF CONSUMER EXPENDITURES ON FOOD(PERCENT)Low-income countriesLower-middle-income countriesUpper-middle-income countriesHigh-income countrieshttps:/doi.org/10.4060/cd2144en-Fig1.02|4|THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY MARKETS 2024less diversified compared with high-income consumers.Many low-income consumers diets consist of relatively cheaper staple foods to provide adequate calories,with more expensive foods making up a lesser part.d As income grows,dietary patterns shift from being predominantly composed of staple foods to including a higher share of other foods such as more animal-source foods,refined carbohydrates,oils and fats,fruits,vegetables and processed foods.This relationship known as Bennets law implies that the share of calories from staple foods declines d A staple food is one that is eaten regularly,and in such quantities as to constitute the dominant part of the diet and supply a major proportion of total dietary energy.For the purposes of this report,staple foods include cereals and their products and roots,tubers,plantains and their products.with increasing income and it forms a salient characteristic of the nutrition transition(Figure 1.3).10,11On average and across countries,the higher the income,proxied by GDP per capita,the lower the share of staple foods in the total calories that are available for consumption.For example,in Mali a low-income country the share of staple foods in the total calories available amounts to 73percent,as compared with a share of 51percent in the relatively more affluent South Africa,which is an upper-middle-income country(Figure 1.3).In general,higher food diversity in diets can lead to improved nutrient adequacy of the diet FIGURE 1.3 BENNETS LAW:SHARE OF STAPLE FOODS IN TOTAL ENERGY AVAILABLE FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION AND GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT PER CAPITA,2020 NOTES:The figure shows the relationship between the share of staple foods in total energy available for human consumption and gross domestic product(GDP).PPP=purchasing power parity.SOURCES:Authors own elaboration based on FAO.2024.FAOSTAT:Food Balances.Accessed on 10 May 2023.https:/www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FBS.Licence:CC-BY-4.0;World Bank.2024.World Development Indicators:GPD per capita,PPP(constant 2017 international$).Accessed on 15 February 2024.https:/data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.KD.Licence:CC-BY-4.0.020406080020 00040 00060 00080 000100 000120 000SHARE OF STAPLE FOODS IN TOTAL ENERGY AVAILABLE(PERCENT)GDP PER CAPITA,PPP(CONSTANT 2017 INTERNATIONAL USD)Low-income countriesLower-middle-income countriesUpper-middle-income countriesHigh-income countrieshttps:/doi.org/10.4060/cd2144en-Fig1.03|5|PART 1 THE NUTRITION TRANSITION(see Part 3).12 As incomes grow,dietary patterns become more diverse and progressively more people start consuming more meat and fish,milk and dairy products,eggs,fruits and vegetables,and sweets.Together with the shift towards more diverse dietary patterns,the consumption of processed and ultra-processed foods including those high in fats,sugars and/or salt,which are associated with a higher risk of overweight and obesity,increases(Figure 1.1,panel D).Nutrition experts analysing the nutrition transition in Asia between 1999 and 2012 indicate that while sugar,salt and fat consumption from ultra-processed foods such as carbonated soft drinks,baked goods,and processed culinary ingredients including oils and fats had reached a maximum level or had declined in high-income countries,it was rapidly increasing in the upper-middle-and lower-middle-income countries in the region.This finding indicates that as countries develop economically,consumers tend to opt for more diverse dietary patterns but also for a higher consumption of processed and ultra-processed foods.13 Urbanization and lifestyle changes also support this shift from diets composed of mainly staple foods towards a more diverse diet and higher consumption of processed foods.Urbanization and nutrition transitionMore than half of the worlds population now live in urban areas(see Figure 1.1,panel B).By 2050,this share is estimated to grow to two-thirds.Although urbanization patterns differ both within and across countries,it is expected that Asia and Africa will experience the fastest growth in urbanization.14Urbanization is an important element of the structural transformation process and is associated with changes in employment,which affect the opportunity cost of time for both women and men and reduce the time allocated to food preparation.15 As urbanization progresses,more women and men work outside the household and spend more time commuting to their jobs.This can affect food preparation in the household,changing dietary patterns and resulting in a higher consumption of processed foods and food consumed away from home.16 Evidence from the 200809 and 201213 Tanzanian national household budget surveys,which allowed tracing individuals who migrated from rural areas to cities,suggests that relocation from the farm household to cities resulted in a drastic dietary shift from traditional staple foods to pre-prepared or ready-to-eat foods and foods containing high levels of sugar.17 During this period,the urban population in the United Republic of Tanzania was rapidly growing,mainly through migration from rural areas.A survey conducted in 2015 revealed that 61.4percent of urban dwellers had migrated from rural areas,while 38.6percent a smaller share were born in urban areas.18 However,some researchers argue that the long-term increase in processed food consumption is not due to changes in employment brought about by urbanization but rather to technological improvements and innovations in food processing.Data from the American Time Use surveys,compiled by the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics,suggest that between 1965 and 1995 in the United States of America,technology led to a halving of the time for food preparation for both working and non-working women.19Nutrition transition and the rise of the modern food industry and marketingIn developing countries,urbanization can cause dietary patterns to change rapidly.This is driven by higher incomes from urban jobs and by the food environment.Food environments comprise the foods available to people in their surroundings as they go about their daily lives.That is,the range of foods available in supermarkets,small retail outlets,wet markets,street food stalls,coffee shops,tea houses,school canteens,restaurants and all the other venues where people purchase and consume food.The food environment determines what food consumers can access at a given moment,at what price and with what degree of convenience and desirability.20 Since the 1980s,the transformation of the food processing industry and the food retail sector has been a major factor in facilitating the nutrition transition in developing countries and emerging economies.|6|THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY MARKETS 2024With growing per capita incomes and urbanization in Latin America,Asia and Eastern Europe,supermarkets have spread rapidly,giving rise to the“supermarket revolution”that addressed the increasing demand for more diverse foods in urban areas.For example,in Brazil,the transformation of the food retail sector and the expansion of supermarkets in the 1990s was equivalent to the changes in the food retail sector of the United States over a 50-year period.21 Supermarkets and an expanding food processing industry facilitated the shift in dietary patterns by improving access to meat and fish,dairy and eggs,and vegetable oils as well as processed foods high in fats,sugars and/or salt.In the 2000s,the supermarket revolution and the transformation of the food processing sector began in Africa.Studies suggest that by 2010,processed foods accounted for 70percent of all food purchased in value terms for urban consumers in Eastern and Southern Africa,with 60percent being highly processed.22 In Kenya,purchasing food from supermarkets contributed to a higher consumption of processed and highly processed foods and a lower consumption of unprocessed foods,leading to a higher probability of being overweight or obese among adults.23Globalization,trade and the nutrition transitionAcross countries,the supermarket revolution and the expansion of the food processing industry have been fuelled by foreign direct investment(FDI).Since the 1980s and 1990s,capital market liberalization in countries such as Argentina,Brazil,Mexico and the Republic of Korea has attracted substantive investments in the food retail sectors and food processing industries of those countries,while significant foreign investments flowed into China and Eastern Europe as soon as privatization policies were initiated.24 In African countries,after the privatization of the parastatal food marketing boards,which had a significant share of the food processing sector,small and medium enterprises,as well as larger companies and supermarkets,proliferated during the first decade of the new millennium.25 Some researchers suggest that FDI levels were more strongly associated with rising obesity in low-and middle-income countries,compared to the influence of international trade(see Box 1.1 for a discussion on the impacts of FDI on nutrition).26 Increasing foreign investment flows is one of the many dimensions of globalization that results in a more connected and interdependent world.The term globalization is often used to describe the process of interaction among economies,cultures and populations across the world,brought about by international trade,technology spillovers,improved communication and flows of investment,people and information.The KOF Globalisation Index a widely used measure of the economic,social and political dimensions of globalization suggests that globalization has strengthened significantly since 2000,with the upward trend slowing down in 2020 due to the pandemic(see Figure 1.1,panel E).e,27As with FDI in food retail and processing,other dimensions of globalization can affect dietary patterns and the nutrition transition.28 Trade is central to the globalization of food and agriculture.For example,following the first European contact with America at the end of the fifteenth-century,trade brought maize,potatoes and tomatoes from the New World to the Old World,and rice,barley and sugar cane from the Old World to the New.The range of foods exchanged across the Atlantic profoundly changed food production and dietary patterns.29 Since 2000,global food and agricultural trade more than doubled in volume and almost quintupled in(nominal)value,rising from USD400billion in 2000 to USD1.9trillion in 2022(Figure 1.1,panel F).This growth in trade is the result of several drivers.Increases in income in both developed and developing countries have fuelled trade expansion in food.Lower transport costs have made it cheaper to trade.The decline in import tariffs and more transparent and predictable trade policies resulting from the World Trade Organization(WTO)Agreement on Agriculture that entered into force in January 1995 and many bilateral and regional trade agreements have also been key drivers in promoting food trade.30 e See Gygli,S.,Haelg,F.,Potrafke,N.&Sturm,J.-E.2019.The KOF Globalisation Index revisited.The Review of International Organizations,14(3):543574.|7|PART 1 THE NUTRITION TRANSITION BOX 1.1 FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT AND NUTRITIONTrade in food and agricultural products has been a critically important component of the deep transformation of agrifood systems associated with globalization,and a key component of global,regional and domestic agrifood systems.Trade and investment liberalization also shapes investment patterns across country borders,affecting food processing,retail and promotion.Increased investment across borders has played a fundamental role in integrating country economies and has been a critical driver of changes to the structure and nature of agrifood systems and the nutrition transition.There are a range of options for foreign companies to enter new markets.These include through franchise agreements,cash and carry wholesale trading,strategic licensing agreements,manufacturing and wholly owned subsidiaries,and through foreign direct investment(FDI).FDI is defined as an investment made by a company from one country into a company(new or pre-existing)in another country,and one in which the original company owns a substantial interest(although not necessarily a majority interest).In this way,the foreign enterprise creates,or joins,what is described as a transnational corporation.For companies,FDI provides a means to create demand by advertising and marketing products while at the same time more efficiently adapting to local consumer characteristics.FDI has become one of the preferred ways by which many company types,including transnational food and beverage corporations,enter new markets,and policymakers globally generally consider FDI a critical part of economic growth,thus seeking to attract FDI into their economies.With FDI,processed foods can often be produced in the host country for less than the costs associated with export(which entail transport and storage,as well as the navigation of tariff and non-tariff barriers),particularly when the host country has the raw materials for production.The benefits of FDI to country economic development include the provision of non-debt servicing foreign exchange,job creation and increasing employment,enhanced foreign relations,increased export capacity,enhanced technology transfer and imitation,and a licensing agreement.FDI is a highly cost-effective way for transnational food and beverage companies to reach foreign markets.The large shift into FDI in food processing in the 1990s and beyond was characterized by the companies of high-income countries investing in the markets of low-and middle-income countries,which particularly affected(ultra-)processed food and beverage products in the host market(more so than products produced through primary processing).FDI into the food processing of confectionary and sugar-sweetened beverages was significant.A study describes how in Poland,for example,confectionary attracted more FDI in the 1990s“than FDI in meat,fish,flour,pasta,bread,sugar,potato products,fruits,vegetables,vegetable oils and fats put together”,and in Mexico,approximately three-quarters of the FDI is in processed food products.56In the 1970s,the primary focus of FDI into the agrifood system was on the raw commodities of agriculture(e.g.oil crops and cereals)for export.In the 1980s,the focus shifted onto food processing and retailing.Transnational food and beverage companies invested in manufacturing facilities in new countries for products such as confectionary,dairy products,baked goods,snacks and sugar-sweetened beverages.In the late 1990s,FDI into primary agricultural production surged again.In the 1990s,the global regulatory environment for FDI became significantly more liberal,with many new regulations forged in trade and investment agreements,and a proliferation of bilateral and regional trade agreements.As with trade in goods and services,fewer barriers and more incentives to investment facilitated corporate expansion by enabling transnational companies to reduce costs,increase market power,and obtain efficiencies in marketing and distribution.Companies also started to use new cross-border strategies(of investment,commerce and collaboration)to expand their influence.Such changes led in the 1990s to greater inflows of FDI into low-and middle-income countries in fact,growing more than six-fold in a decade.FDI became considerably more important than trade regarding agricultural and food products.Compared to trade,FDI has advantages as it enables companies to be located closer to customers to circumvent import tariffs,tailor products to local consumer preferences and more easily comply with national regulations.The FDI-trade relationship is also context-specific,and it is important to note that FDI and trade in agricultural and food products are substitutes in some cases and complementary in others.In the food and agricultural sector,there was particularly intense investment into food processing.Globally,food processing became the principal recipient of agrifood-system-related FDI,with soaring investment into outlets selling processed foods.The first years of the new millennium experienced a sharp decline in FDI flows because of political and economic disruptions in major recipient countries.The ensuing recovery in FDI flows came with some|8|THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY MARKETS 2024 BOX 1.1 (Continued)changes:the emergence of increasingly protectionist measures;low-and middle-income countries increasing their share of outgoing FDI and with it the importance of SouthSouth flows;small and medium enterprises also being drawn into FDI;institutional investment funds also becoming a novel component of FDI,particularly in energy;and greater importance of FDI in agriculture.FDI into food retail also took off in the mid-1990s and 2000s leading to the“supermarket revolution”and similar trends in food service restaurants,with companies making significant investments and consequently increasing the number of food service outlets.Much of this FDI went to high-income countries,but it also went in increasing proportions to low-and middle-income countries,where spending on meals outside the home gradually increased.The supermarket revolution was characterized by supermarkets in Europe,the United States of America,Japan and in the richer low-and middle-income countries making large investments,particularly in the markets of other low-and middle-income countries.Prior to the 1990s,supermarkets occupied only a tiny niche of the retail sector in most countries,but by the late 2000s this had changed dramatically.Many high-income country retailers joined the ranks of the top 100 largest holders of foreign assets globally.The changes were driven by saturation and intense competition in home markets,weak competition and higher margins to be made in the markets of low-and middle-income countries,and the increasing use of cars and refrigerators in many low-and middle-income countries,which facilitated weekly shopping,with supermarkets able to sell products at low cost due to economies of scale in procurement.Institutional and regulatory reforms were a key facilitator of the changes.The regulatory environment for modern retail shifted to one far more facilitatory,coupled with the modernization of supermarket procurement systems,itself driven by practices from transnational supermarket chains,which reduced costs and increased the competitiveness of supermarkets relative to traditional retailers,and of transnational supermarkets relative to domestic chains.The impact of FDI on local competitors is mixed,but in the case of the United States-based fast-food chains,it led to their near total dominance in many countries.In other cases,the entry of transnational food and beverage companies stimulated local competitor development by introducing new standards,products,technologies,marketing innovations and management concepts.The growth in supermarkets also opened a key channel for the sale and purchase of processed food products.Multinational retailers have an interest in selling processed products with long shelf lives and minimal waste.Companies developed sophisticated promotion or marketing strategies,resulting in processed foods becoming high-value items by targeting high-income consumers,lowering prices over time,expanding the market base and out-competing other companies.In Brazil,for example,prices of processed foods declined by 30percent between 1994 and 1997.Despite such trends in food service and retailing,it is worth noting that in many low-and middle-income countries,especially countries in Africa and Asia,perishable products such as meat,fish and vegetables continue to be accessed primarily from traditional or informal outlets.This is often the case even in countries where supermarkets are now commonplace.Companies may also expand their investments across multiple points of the agrifood system.The processes of trade and investment liberalization have resulted in companies being able to exert influence more easily over the length of food supply chains through processes of vertical integration,and to more easily horizontally integrate and increase control through mergers,acquisitions and joint ventures.With global vertical integration,a company brings together the entire process of producing,distributing and selling a particular food under its control by buying and contracting other companies and services worldwide.Such vertical integration reduces transaction costs associated with having different suppliers and creates economies of scale,thus providing an important avenue for company growth,and for agrifood companies,resulting in greater market power.Such processes of vertical integration have been a key driver behind the dramatic changes in the global agrifood system,with marked increases in the supply of the types of foods associated with the nutrition transition.SOURCE:Walls,H.(forthcoming).Foreign direct investment:The nutrition transition,and its relationship with trade liberalization and trade agreements Background paper for The State of Agricultural Commodity Markets 2024.Rome,FAO.|9|PART 1 THE NUTRITION TRANSITIONTrade can help balance food supply and demand globally by moving food from surplus to deficit areas,thus fostering food security globally.Higher food imports can increase the availability of calories and nutrients in a country and,by lowering prices,allow for better access to food.At times of shortages caused by extreme weather events,trade can help stabilize food supplies and prices(see Part 2).Global markets contribute to the availability of a variety of foods enabling dietary diversity,accelerating the nutrition transition and impacting nutritional outcomes(see Part 3).31 At the same time,trade can increase the availability of ultra-processed foods that are high in energy density and high in fats,sugars and/or salt,shaping dietary patterns associated with overweight and obesity(see Part 4).The nutrition transition in rural areasWhile higher incomes,urban residency,market integration and sociocultural shifts have been major drivers of change in dietary patterns in urban areas,it is now clear that the nutrition transition is also taking place in rural areas.An increasing body of research shows that,in low-and middle-income countries,rural areas are rapidly catching up with the nutrition transition.A large-scale population study across 200 countries and territories indicates that between 1985 and 2017,the rate of body mass index(BMI)growth in rural areas was equal to or higher than that of cities in most low-and middle-income countries.f,32f With the exception of women in sub-Saharan Africa.BOX 1.2 UNITED NATIONS DECADE OF ACTION ON NUTRITION,20162025The Decade of Action on Nutrition was recommended at the Second International Conference on Nutrition(ICN2),co-hosted in November 2014 by FAO and the World Health Organization(WHO).The Rome Declaration on Nutrition and its companion Framework for Action were adopted,outlining a common vision for global action to eradicate hunger and end all forms of malnutrition and recommending policy commitments.57 In 2016,the United Nations General Assembly proclaimed the period 20162025 as the UN Decade of Action on Nutrition(“Nutrition Decade”),committing UN Member States to the sustained and coherent implementation of policies,programmes and increased investments to eliminate malnutrition in all its forms,everywhere,leaving no one behind.FAO and WHO co-lead the implementation of the Nutrition Decade in collaboration with the World Food Programme(WFP),the International Fund for Agricultural Development(IFAD)and the United Nations Childrens Fund(UNICEF).The Nutrition Decades Work Programme58 embraces six cross-cutting and connected action areas derived from the recommendations included in the ICN2 Framework for Action:(a)Sustainable,resilient food systems for healthy diets;(b)Aligned health systems providing universal coverage of essential nutrition actions;(c)Social protection and nutrition education;(d)Trade and investment for improved nutrition;(e)Safe and supportive environments for nutrition at all ages;and(f)Strengthened governance and accountability for nutrition.The Nutrition Decades Work Programme stresses that trade policies and trade agreements should support nutrition policies and programmes and not negatively impact the right to adequate food.It underlines the importance of achieving global food security and nutrition targets through opportunities identified in trade and investment policies,improving access to a safe and nutritious food supply through appropriate trade agreements and policies.Work in this action area is based on the ICN2 recommendations related to creating an enabling environment for effective action and international trade and investment.The joint FAO/WHO Secretariat of the Nutrition Decade convened the Nutrition Decades Mid-term Review in 2020 and 2021.59 During the review period there has been increasing recognition of the need for trade policy and nutrition action coherence,and the importance of governance and cross-sectoral cooperation.60 It was acknowledged that trade can expand consumer choices and contribute to healthy diets ensuring sufficiently available quantities of diverse,nutritious foods all year round.Imports can be a source of minimally processed nutritious foods with a longer shelf life that can contribute to offsetting the seasonal scarcity of perishable foods,but also of ultra-processed foods that are high in energy density,fats,sugars and/or salt.Trade can contribute to positive nutrition outcomes through its support to livelihoods and income generation,particularly for those engaged in primary food production.The review also proposed priority focus areas for the remaining years of the Nutrition Decade such as considering using trade policy,including instruments such as tariffs,to improve the food supply,strengthening regional partnerships among countries and leveraging existing regional economic groups,improving data collection and developing tools to better understand trade policy impacts on nutrition.|10|THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY MARKETS 2024As the nutrition transition permeates rural areas,evidence is emerging that in many high-income countries,rural residents are currently more likely to be overweight and obese than urban residents.Examples include rural residents in Australia,33 Denmark,34 and the United States.35,36 Rural areas in low-income countries appear to follow similar trends.Recent research undertaken by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO)revealed that rural households purchase most of the food they consume,and that processed and ultra-processed foods are easily available in markets in remote rural areas across all 11African countries studied.37 This indicates a growing convergence between rural and urban diets in low-income countries,owing to the availability of processed foods in small rural food shops.Multiple burdens of malnutritionAs the nutrition transition is occurring more rapidly in low-and middle-income countries than it did in high-income economies,overweight and obesity are increasing rapidly in countries FIGURE 1.4 THE BURDEN OF UNDERNOURISHMENT AND MULTIPLE FORMS OF MALNUTRITION:SELECTED NUTRITIONAL OUTCOME INDICATORS,20002022NOTES:The prevalence of obesity is defined as the percentage of adults whose body mass index(BMI)is equal to or greater than 30 kg/m2.Prevalence of overweight is defined as the percentage of adults whose BMI is equal to or greater than 25 kg/m2.The prevalence of stunting is defined as the percentage of children under the age of five years with a height-for-age less than 2 standard deviations below the World Health Organization Child Growth Standards median.SOURCES:Authors own elaboration based on FAO.2024.FAOSTAT:Suite of Food Security Indicators.Accessed on 12 April 2024.https:/www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FS.Licence:CC-BY-4.0;UNICEF,WHO&World Bank.2023.Joint child malnutrition estimates(JME).In:WHO.Geneva,Switzerland.Cited 15 June 2024.https:/www.who.int/teams/nutrition-and-food-safety/monitoring-nutritional-status-and-food-safety-and-events/joint-child-malnutrition-estimates;WHO.2024.The Global Health Observatory:Prevalence of obesity among adults.Accessed on 27 May 2024.https:/www.who.int/data/gho/data/indicators/indicator-details/GHO/prevalence-of-obesity-among-adults-bmi-=-30-(age-standardized-estimate)-(-);WHO.2024.The Global Health Observatory:Prevalence of overweight among adults.Accessed on 27 May 2024.https:/www.who.int/data/gho/data/indicators/indicator-details/GHO/prevalence-of-overweight-among-adults-bmi-25-(age-standardized-estimate)-(-)High-income countriesUpper-middle-income countriesLower-middle-income countriesLow-income countries2000200220042006200820102012201420162018202020222000200220042006200820102012201420162018202020222000200220042006200820102012201420162018202020222000200220042006200820102012201420162018202020220102030405060PERCENTPrevalence of overweightPrevalence of obesityPrevalence of stuntingPrevalence of undernourishmenthttps:/doi.org/10.4060/cd2144en-Fig1.04|11|PART 1 THE NUTRITION TRANSITIONthat have not yet been able to eradicate hunger.Multiple forms of malnutrition now exist,cutting across socioeconomic classes,including the coexistence of undernutrition and overweight and obesity among individuals and households within populations.38 The existence of multiple forms of malnutrition is evident in low-and lower-middle-income countries,owing to rapid increases in overweight and obesity and relatively moderate reductions in stunting,which was initially at high levels.The recognition of the need to renew efforts to tackle malnutrition in all its forms culminated with the proclamation of the United Nations Decade of Action on Nutrition in 2016(Box 1.2).Since 2000,in lower-middle-income countries,the prevalence of both obesity and overweight followed an upward trend,increasing to 12.1 and 36.3percent respectively by 2022.In the same year,13.4percent of the population in lower-middle-income countries was undernourished,while 28.5percent of children under five years of age were stunted.Since 2000,in low-income countries,the prevalence of overweight has been increasing where economic downturns,conflict and weather extremes have reversed the decline in the prevalence of undernourishment(Figure 1.4).Nutrition experts suggest that,at the country level,the existence of multiple forms of malnutrition is mainly driven by the rise in overweight and obesity in high-income households,due to the accessibility of ultra-processed food and beverages that are often high in energy density and in fats,sugars and/or salt.39,40 Indeed,economic inequalities in rapidly developing low-and lower-middle-income countries can contribute to multiple burdens of malnutrition.A study analysing longitudinal trajectories in stunting and overweight in children in Ethiopia,India,Peru and VietNam,suggests that a childs likelihood of being stunted or overweight depends on the income level,urban or rural residence and maternal education level.41 nFOCUSSING ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE NUTRITION TRANSITION AND INCOME Between 1961 and 2021,the global average dietary energy available for human consumption increased by 35percent,from 2200 to 2980 calories per person per day.Globally,during the same period,the share of staple foods available for human consumption declined from 57.4percent to 48.4percent,while the share of animal source foods grew from 12.2percent to 15.1percent and that of fats and oils increased from 8.4 to 12.7percent(Figure 1.5).Yet,these changes have been largely uneven across countries,depending on different rates of income growth and the trends of other drivers of the nutrition transition.For example,nutrition experts analysing the relationship between income and dietary patterns in the 1990s suggested that it was mainly improvements in technology that resulted in the increased availability of inexpensive vegetable oils,which,together with income growth,have made high-fat diets accessible even to relatively low-income societies.42 Many researchers analyse the nutrition transition by assessing the size of the income elasticity of demand for different foods an economic measure of how responsive the demand for food is to a change in income.A meta-analysis on income elasticities for food in Africa found that income elasticities for beverages,meat,fish,eggs and dairy are significantly higher than those for staple foods,confirming Bennets law and suggesting that,as income grows,the demand for animal source foods and processed products is more responsive than that for staple foods(seePart4 for a discussion on different income elasticities according to the processing level of foods).43 Other studies explore the relationship between income and the composition of food consumption in the context of households exiting poverty and hunger.Economists suggest that the shift away from cheap sources of calories such as staple foods,and towards other foods that are relatively|12|THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY MARKETS 2024more expensive takes place immediately when income becomes sufficient to meet food subsistence needs.44 Using household data from the Sri Lankan 2016 Household Income and Expenditure Survey,a study suggests that an important factor in the shift away from staple foods is a subsistence threshold that reflects the extent to which the calories provided by a dietary pattern meet the energy needs of household members.g Below this threshold,poor people can experience g This subsistence threshold varies across individuals and is unobservable.See Jensen,R.T.&Miller,N.H.2011.Do consumer price subsidies really improve nutrition?Review of Economics and Statistics,93(4):12051223.https:/doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00118hunger and adverse physical effects and will spend a large share of their additional income on relatively cheap,energy-dense staple foods,dedicating the smaller part to other foods.Above this subsistence threshold,income increases result in a progressive shift away from staple foods and increasing consumption of other relatively more expensive foods,including(ultra-)processed foods,that address aspirations for variety,taste,convenience,novelty and social status.45,hh Similar results are obtained analysing household data from China.See Jensen,R.T.&Miller,N.H.2011.Do consumer price subsidies really improve nutrition?Review of Economics and Statistics,93(4):12051223.https:/doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00118 FIGURE 1.5 TOTAL CALORIES AVAILABLE FOR CONSUMPTION IN THE WORLD BY FOOD CATEGORY,19612021 NOTE:A new methodology to calculate food balances has been applied by FAO since 2010.SOURCE:Authors own elaboration based on FAO.2024.FAOSTAT:Food Balances.Accessed on 12 April 2024.https:/www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FBS.Licence:CC-BY-4.0.01020304050607080901001961196319651967196919711973197519771979198119831985198719891991199319951997199920012003200520072009201120132015201720192021PERCENTStaple foodsSweets and beveragesFruits and vegetablesFats and oilsAnimal source foodsPulses,seeds and nutsOthershttps:/doi.org/10.4060/cd2144en-Fig1.05|13|PART 1 THE NUTRITION TRANSITIONCase studies:Mexico,Poland,the Republic of Korea and South Africa Measuring the relationship between income and the composition of dietary patterns at the country level requires a long time series that contains information on the countrys economic growth and development trends.Using data from Mexico,Poland,the Republic of Korea and South Africa,covering the period 19612019,an analysis carried out for this report suggests a nonlinear(inverted U shape)relationship between the quantity of staple foods that is available for consumption per capita,measured in calories per day,and GDP per capita.i,46This inverted U shape is consistent with the studies on Bennets law that utilized household data and arises due to the subsistence threshold under(over)which income growth brings about i As the per capita consumption of calories provided by different food groups is not available,the study uses the per capita calories provided by the staples available for consumption as a proxy.The data is collected from the Supply Utilization Accounts of FAOSTAT.FIGURE 1.6 QUANTITY OF STAPLE FOODS AVAILABLE FOR CONSUMPTION(PER CAPITA,PER DAY)AND GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT PER CAPITA,19612021 NOTES:The data have been transformed into logarithms of three-year moving averages.For Poland,data on gross domestic product(GDP)per capita are available only for the period 19912021.SOURCES:Authors own elaboration based on FAO.2024.FAOSTAT:Food Balances.Accessed on 15 February 2024.https:/www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FBS.Licence:CC-BY-4.0;World Bank.2024.World Development Indicators:GDP per capita(constant 2015 US$).Accessed on 15 February 2024.https:/data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.KD.Licence:CC-BY-4.0.QUANTITY OF STAPLES AVAILABLE FOR CONSUMPTION,KCAL/CAPITA/DAY GDP PER CAPITA,USDQuantity of staples available for consumption actual valuesQuantity of staples available for consumption approximate relationship with GDP per capita7.07.27.47.67.87.07.58.08.59.09.510.010.5Republic of Korea7.327.337.347.357.367.377.38South Africa8.38.48.58.68.78.87.167.187.207.227.247.267.28Poland(19912021)8.48.68.89.09.29.49.67.157.207.257.307.358.28.48.68.89.09.2Mexicohttps:/doi.org/10.4060/cd2144en-Fig1.06|14|THE STATE OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY MARKETS 2024increases(decreases)in the consumption of staple foods.However,the use of aggregate instead of household data means that the relationship can only be approximated for countries that had relatively low levels of income per capita at the outset and experienced economic growth,poverty reduction and a nutrition transition during the 19612019 period.jj There are many factors that can influence the calorie subsistence threshold and the shape of the relationship between the share of staples in total calories available for consumption and GDP per capita.At the individual level these include age,gender,height and weight,overall health and physical activity.At the country level and due to aggregation these factors are compounded by initial income levels and income growth rates,the extent of poverty and inequality at the outset,demographic trends,macroeconomic conditions,traditional diets and food preferences.For Mexico,where maize is a staple crop,the analysis indicates that increases in real GDP per capita from USD4270 in 1961,resulted in proportionally smaller increases in the calories available for consumption from staple foods.As the nutrition transition set in in the early 1980s,progressive GDP per capita growth(to USD9760 in 2021)was observed to be coupled with a significant decline in the calories available for consumption from staple foods(Figure 1.6).On average,between 1961 and 2021,the share of staple foods in total calories available for consumption declined from 57.9 to 41.7percent,while that of animal source foods nearly doubled from 11.1 to 20.1percent.Fats and oils also showed a significant increase in their share FIGURE 1.7 MEXICO,POLAND,THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA AND SOUTH AFRICA:CHANGE IN THE COMPOSITION OF TOTAL FOOD SUPPLY,19612021NOTE:A new methodology to calculate food balances has been applied by FAO since 2010.SOURCE:Authors own elaboration based on FAO.2024.FAOSTAT:Food Balances.Accessed on 12 April 2024.https:/www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FBS.Licence:CC-BY-4.0.MexicoPolandRepublic of KoreaSouth Africa19611965196919731977198119851989199319972001200520092013201720211961196519691973197719811985198919931997200120052009201320172021196119651969197319771981198519891993199720012005200920132017202119611965196919731977198119851989199319972001200520092013201720210255075100PERCENTStaple foodsSweets and beveragesFruits and vegetablesFats and oilsAnimal source foodsPulses,seeds and nutsOthershttps:/doi.org/10.4060/cd2144en-Fig1.07|15|PART 1 THE NUTRITION TRANSITIONof total calories available for consumption from 7.1percent in 1961 to 12.3percent in 2021(Figure 1.7).A study on Mexicos nutrition transition,using data between 1984 and 1998,also showed that the progressive decline in cereal consumption was accompanied by a significant increase in soft drinks consumption in both rural and urban areas.Soft drink purchases increased by as much as 150percent in Mexico City during this period.47 As in most Eastern European countries,Polands transition to a market economy in the early 1990s resulted in significant GDP per capita increases.GDP per capita increased more than threefold to USD15863 since 1991.The relationship between per capita calories available from staple foods and GDP per capita suggests a gradual decline in the daily calories available from staple foods per capita with increasing GDP(Figure 1.6).Polands nutrition transition was also facilitated by a higher diversity of foods available due to openness to trade.48 For example,between 1961 and 2021,the share of staple foods in total calories available for consumption declined from 54.8 to 33.6percent,while the share of fruits and vegetables doubled from 2.4 to 4.9percent(Figure 1.7).The nutrition transition in the Republic of Korea provides interesting insights as the country underwent a rapid structural transformation between the 1960s and 1990s,prior to the deepening of the globalization process that accelerated growth after the mid-1990s.With a rapid structural transformation and significant increases in real GDP per capita from USD1066 in 1961 to USD32786 in 2021,a progressive decline in the daily calories available from staple foods per capita,took place from the mid-1970s onwards(Figure 1.6).Overall,the share of staple foods in total cal
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