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February 2024Bakytbek Tokubek uulu Sanjar KurmanovLouisa MusingGUIDANCE FOR LAW ENFORCEMENT AUTHORITIES ON ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING IN CENTRAL ASIA ABOUT US TRAFFIC is a leading non-governmental organisation working globally to ensure that trade in wild species is legal and sustainable,for the benefit of the planet and people.Reprod uction of material appearing in this report requires written permission from the publisher.The designations of geographical entities in this publication,and the presentation of the material,do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of TRAFFIC or its supporting organisations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,or area,or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Partners Partner organisations:Fauna&Flora,the Association for the Conservation of Biodiversity in Kazakhstan(ACBK),The Institute of Zoology of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan,and the Ecological Resource Centre“EKOMAKTAB”.PROJECT SupervisorSStephanie von MeibomPublished by:TRAFFIC International,Cambridge,United Kingdom.SUGGESTED CITATIONTokubek uulu,B.,Kurmanov,S.,Musing,L.(2024).Guidance on illegal wildlife trade data collection,analysis,and sharing for law enforcement authorities in Central Asia.TRAFFIC.TRAFFIC 2024.Copyright of material published in this report is vested in TRAFFIC.UK Registered Charity No.1076722TRAFFIC REPORTACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThe TRAFFIC project team thanks the project partners for their ongoing assistance and support in developing this guidance document.Notably,TRAFFIC thanks Fauna&Flora,the Association for the Conservation of Biodiversity in Kazakhstan(ACBK),The Institute of Zoology of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan and the Ecological Resource Centre“EKOMAKTAB”.We are also very grateful for the contributions and the information provided by the various government agencies in Kazakhstan-Forestry and Wildlife Committee Ministry of Ecology,Geology and Natural Resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan;Kyrgyzstan-Ministry of Natural Resources,Ecology and Technical Supervision of the Kyrgyz Republic;Tajikistan-National Academy of Sciences of Tajikistan,E.N.Pavlovsky Institute of Zoology and Parasitology,Environmental Police of the Republic of Tajikistan;and Uzbekistan-Ministry of Ecology,Environmental Protection and Climate Change of the Republic of Uzbekistan,The State Customs Committee of the Republic of Uzbekistan and the Specialized Customs Complex“Tashkent-AERO”,Border Troops of the State Security Service of the Republic of Uzbekistan,Tashkent zoo(LLC“Tashkent khayvonot bogi”).This report was funded by a grant from the United States Department of State Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs.The opinions,findings and conclusions stated herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the United States Department of State Bureau of international Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs.contentspage 4 INTRODUCTIONBackgroundInternational trade agreementsTackling the illegal wildlife tradeMethodspage 10 GENERAL GUIDANCE ON TACKLING THE ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADEWhy we worry about wildlife trade in the first placepage 15 GUIDANCE ON ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA ANALYSISGeneral points on illegal wildlife trade data analysispage 16 GUIDANCE ON ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA SHARINGGeneral points on sharing illegal wildlife trade datapage 18 TRAINING AND CAPACITY-BUILDING RESOURCES TO SUPPORT LAW ENFORCEMENTpage 11 GUIDANCE ON ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTIONGathering illegal wildlife trade data during seizures and inspectionsStoring and reporting illegal wildlife trade dataSubmitting the CITES Annual Illegal Trade Reports(in compliance with Res.Conf.11.17 Rev.CoP18)page 21 REFERENCESImage credits Annex 1INTRODUCTIONWILDLIFE TRADETHE SALE OR EXCHANGE OF WILD ANIMAL AND PLANT RESOURCES BY PEOPLELIES AT THE HEART OF THE TENSION BETWEEN BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT.Whether for medicine,construction,food or culture,a large proportion of national trade,and economies are reliant upon wildlife products(TRAFFIC,2021).The legal trade in wildlife products involves thousands of different fauna and flora species and provides a source of income for millions of local collectors and producers,raw materials for businesses,and an array of goods for millions of consumers worldwide.It is undeniably fundamental in regional,national,and international economies(TRAFFIC,2023a).The benefits of legal,sustainable wildlife trade are often overshadowed by the negative impacts of the illegal wildlife trade.The World Bank estimates that the impact on ecosystems of illegal logging,fishing,and wildlife trade equate to USD1 trillion to USD2 trillion per year(The World Bank,2019).The same report shows that governments in source countries are losing between USD7USD12 billion each year in potential tax revenues that arent collected due to illegal logging,fishing,and wildlife trade(The World Bank,2019).Illegal trade is impacting wildlife species globally as poachers,traffickers,and highly organised criminal syndicates pursue profit to meet consumer demand.The trafficking and unsustainable trade in wildlife commodities,such as elephant ivory,rhino horn,pangolin scales,tiger bone,bear bile,and rosewood are causing unprecedented declines in some of the worlds most charismatic,as well as some lesser-known,wildlife species(Global Environment Facility,2023).Central Asia is home to a diverse array of animals and plants and the region has seen intense illegal wildlife trade over the years.This has impacted iconic species and resulted in steep population declines of several species.For example,between the late 1990s to early 2000s,there was a 90cline in the number of Saiga Saiga sp.(Milner-Gulland et al.,2021);there has been significant over-exploitation of various medicinal plants(Gemedzhieva et al.,2021)and significant declines in Steppe Tortoise Testudo horsfieldii and Snow Leopard Panthera uncia populations in the region(Smith and Porsche,2015;Nowell et al.,2016).International trade agreements The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES)is an international agreement between governments that entered into force on 1 July 1975 and aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten the species survival.The Convention currently has 184 Parties and regulates the international trade of over 38,700 species,including approximately 5,950 species of animals and 32,800 species of plants(CITES,2022).Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,and Uzbekistan are all Parties to CITES,with accession ranging from 1997 to 2015(Table 1).According to CITES Resolution Conf.11.17(Rev.CoP18)1,all Parties need to report on the annual illegal trade of CITES-listed species.The CITES Parties must submit a CITES Annual Illegal Trade Report on all seizures for violations involving CITES-listed species,irrespective of whether the seizure was made at an international border or internally,for example during inspections at domestic markets.The Annual Illegal Trade Report is mandatory but not subject to compliance procedures.The deadline for submission of the annual report is 31 October of the year following the year for which the report was due so,for example,the submission deadline for the 2022 report is 31 October 2023.CITES Party Date of accession Date of entry into force Kazakhstan 20 January 2000 19 April 2000 Kyrgyzstan 4 June 2007 2 September 2007 Tajikistan 31 December 2015 30 March 2016 Uzbekistan 10 July 1997 8 October 1997 TABLE 1Dates of accession of Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan,and Uzbekistan to CITES and when CITES regulations entered into force at the national level6 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING GOVERNMENTAL STRUCTURES IN THE FOUR CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES Administration of the PresidentMinistry of Foreign AffairsMinistry of AgricultureVeterinary Control and Supervision CommitteeMinistry of JusticeMinistry of Education and ScienceMinistry of Ecology,Geology and Natural ResourcesForestry and Wildlife Committee.Administrative Body of CITESMinistry of EnergyMinistry of Internal AffairsOther Ministries(11)Cabinet of MinistersParliament:1.Senate2.MajilisSupreme CourtLocal courtsAdministration of the PresidentMinistry of Economy and CommerceAntimonopoly Regulation ServiceMinistry of AgricultureForest ServiceMinistry of JusticePenitentiary ServiceState Registration ServiceMinistry of FinanceState Tax ServiceState Customs ServiceState Financial intelligence ServiceNational BankMinistry of Natural Resources,Ecology and Technical Supervision.Administrative Body of CITESState Committee for National SecurityBorder Guard ServiceSocial FundOther Ministries(11)Cabinet of MinistersState Agency of Architecture,Construction and Housing and Communal ServicesState Agency for Civil Service and Local Self-Government AffairsState Agency for Personal Data ProtectionState Agency of Intellectual Property and InnovationParliament-Jogorku KeneshConstitutional CourtSupreme CourtLocal courtsFIGURE 1Government structure in the Republic of Kazakhstan FIGURE 2Government structure in the Kyrgyz Republic ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 7 Administration of the PresidentMinistry of Foreign AffairsMinistry of AgricultureMinistry of JusticeMinistry of Education and ScienceMinistry of Internal AffairsMinistry of TransportationOther Ministries(7)Environmental Protection Committee.Administrative Body of CITESState Committees(2)Forestry AgencyCabinet of MinistersParliament:1.Majlisi Milli2.Majlisi NamoyandagonConstitutional CourtSupreme Economic CourtSupreme CourtLocal courtsincluding economic courtsAdministration of the PresidentMinistry of Economy and FinanceMinistry of AgricultureMinistry of TransportMinistry of Foreign AffairsMinistry of Ecology,Environmental Protection and Climate ChangeState Committee of Ecology.Administrative Body of CITESMinistry of EnergyMinistry of Internal AffairsOther Ministries(14)Cabinet of MinistersParliament:1.Legislative chamber2.Senateonstitutional courtSupreme CourtLocal courtsFIGURE 3Government structure of the Republic of Tajikistan FIGURE 4Government structure of the Republic of Uzbekistan 8 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING National law enforcement agencies,ranging from local and regional police departments,Customs officers at external borders,other national inspection services,public prosecutors,and national environmental ministries play a crucial role in the efficient enforcement of national and international wildlife trade regulations and tackling illegal wildlife trade.Law enforcement agencies must be able to understand the criminality and modus operandi of the illegal wildlife trade and its actors and respond quickly to information received to effectively tackle it.The collection,analysis,and sharing of data by law enforcement agencies are integral to understanding illegal wildlife traders,networks,and trade routes involved.These data then facilitate law enforcement agencies to bring illegal wildlife traders to justice under national wildlife laws,other national laws that have been broken or international agreements through the judicial system.Regular,and systematic illegal wildlife trade data collection and sharing between agencies helps form the basis for law enforcement risk profiling and assessments and guides law enforcement efforts and priorities on a national level.Wider sharing of these data with neighbouring countries also supports interagency and international collaboration to ensure that species are not threatened by trade.There are various databases and networks available to support these processes.These include the Global Customs and Enforcement Network(CEN),a global network for gathering customs-related,data and information,and ENVIRONET,which serves as a global real-time communication tool for the exchange of information on environmental issues for customs officials,other law enforcement authorities and international organisations,as well as their regional network.Furthermore,to enable the rapid sharing of actionable enforcement information,TRAFFIC has helped establish and run regional Trade in Wildlife Information eXchange(TWIX)systems linking enforcement agencies in the European Union(EU-TWIX)and three regions in Africa(TRAFFIC,2023b).This has led to some notable enforcement successes.For example,Belgian Customs were alerted to the illegal trade of pangolin scales thanks to photos of relevant seizures exchanged via the EU-TWIX mailing list.As a result,over 30 seizures involving pangolin scales have taken place at Brussels airport subsequently,equivalent to close to one tonne of products.The TWIX platforms also contain resources such as identification guides,training materials,legal texts,and listings for animal rescue centres for seized specimens.(TRAFFIC,2023b).Lastly,the analysis of illegal wildlife trade data can alert others to emerging trade-related threats to wildlife and ensure that specialised knowledge and data are seen by those who can effectively act upon it.More specifically,the collection and analysis of illegal wildlife trade data:Helps make the work of law enforcement agencies more efficient and effective while the analysis of wildlife trade data results in reliable and objective information for governmental agencies and other stakeholders to inform management decisions and policy responses.Supports law enforcement agencies to understand illegal wildlife trade patterns in-country/region.Supports the research and analysis for national/regional risk assessments and priority setting for tackling the illegal wildlife trade,for example,it informs law enforcement targeting and profiling.Allows law enforcement to quickly access information that will enable them to start investigations,arrest and/or hinder perpetrators of illegal wildlife trade.Supports a countries compliance with CITES and the submission of the CITES Annual Illegal Trade Reports(Res.Conf.11.17 Rev.CoP18).TACKLING THE ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 9The sharing of illegal wildlife trade data:Ensures that specialised knowledge and data are seen by those agencies that are mandated to act upon it.Allows agencies to share feedback on the data and information that can help improve the quality/accuracy of data(and encourage mutual/two-way data sharing).Enables law enforcement to start investigations,arrest and/or hinder perpetrators of illegal wildlife trade relevant to their national mandate.Facilitates inter-agency and cross-border collaboration in tackling illegal wildlife trade.Given that the success of national and international efforts to detect and deter wildlife trafficking largely depends on the efficiency of the law enforcement agencies and ministries,strengthening mechanisms by which these agencies can collect and analyse data and exchange information is an invaluable means of combating illegal wildlife trade.This guidance documents aims to map out the main best practices regarding illegal wildlife trade data collection,analysis,and sharing practices to support and improve existing procedures for law enforcement agencies in four countries in Central Asia:Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.The report also outlines some of the existing resources,including reports,trainings,and online tools available to law enforcement agencies that can support efforts to tackle the illegal wildlife trade.To develop this guidance document,information in the form of survey was gathered from governmental authorities and organisations in Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Uzbekistan,and Tajikistan to understand the current illegal wildlife trade data collection,analysis,and sharing practices.This information helped inform the level of detail required in this guidance document.Information was also gathered from European Union Member State enforcement authorities to understand established processes and systems in place for illegal wildlife trade data collection,analysis and sharing.In addition,information from existing resources,such as the ICCWC Wildlife and Forest Crime Analytic Toolkit were referenced and several available resources/tools,from existing initiatives such as CITES,the World Customs Organization(WCO)and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime(UNODC)websites were collated.METHODS10 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING GENERAL GUIDANCE ON TACKLING THE ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE Responding to the illegal wildlife trade usually involves a variety of government sectors.In most jurisdictions,there is more than one entity with the responsibility for enforcing the relevant wildlife,Customs,and criminal laws.There are often several national agencies,organisations,or institutions,as well as regional or local agencies,working to tackle the illegal wildlife trade.Even in jurisdictions with a single national police force,there are likely to be additional law enforcement organisations with specialised skills or with specific functions,such as wildlife and forest enforcement units,Customs,and border police(ICCWC,2022).As a result,it is imperative that national governmental ministries clearly identify the national agencies mandated with the enforcement of the relevant wildlife,forest,Customs,and other criminal laws.For example,the State Committee for National Security,General Prosecutors Office,Customs Services,Ministry of Internal Affairs,and Border Services are the main agencies of Central Asian Countries to tackle any kind of crime,including wildlife illegal trade.Close cooperation between these relevant authorities is vital for investigations.The creation of specialised law enforcement teams also allows for the pooling of expertise and resources into dedicated units,rather than attempting to achieve a broad and general level of enforcement across the country(ICCWC,2022).Once the structures for the law enforcement agencies have been identified,it is imperative that national governmental ministries clearly identify which agencies are mandated to collect and collate information on the illegal wildlife trade taking place within their national jurisdiction.This helps set a clear direction for each agency tackling the illegal wildlife trade and avoids any duplication of efforts which wastes time and resources.A general point for consideration when tackling the illegal wildlife trade through data collection,analysis and sharing is that it should not be separated from tackling other crimes.Instead,these procedures and initiatives should be embedded as part of tackling other related crimes,such as drug,weapon,and human trafficking,in the enforcement and judicial procedures at local,regional,and national levels and perpetrators should be accountable for prosecution and administrative penalty,as with any other crime.systematic data collection and sharinghelps form the basis for law enforcement risk profiling ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 11GUIDANCE ON ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADEDATA COLLECTIONGiven the covert nature of the illegal wildlife trade,law enforcement agencies cannot rely on receiving data and information from one sole data source.It is important to establish a variety of sources for the collection of information based on clearly defined mandates for each law enforcement agency.The main sources of data include information gathered by border patrol officers and police during seizures and inspections,or park rangers who are in contact with local communities.Other sources of data can also include individuals from the communities and non-governmental organisations(NGOs)working in areas where illegal wildlife activities are prevalent.As traders expand their use of online technology,national enforcement authorities may also want to consider examining these platforms,including the analysis of mobile telephones,computers,and data storage devices.These can reveal valuable links among individuals,financial transactions,locations,and web-browsing history(ICCWC,2022).For the purposes of this report,the guidance will focus on the collection of illegal wildlife trade during seizures and inspections.Gathering illegal wildlife trade data during seizures/inspections As a first step,dedicated staff should be appointed in each agency to carry out these duties.These staff need to be trained at the beginning of their appointment relating to illegal wildlife trade matters and,for example,CITES issues.Refresher training should be conducted on a regular basis,ideally,annually.For example,the mandated authority of national agencies for CITES in four countries in Central Asia are the following:Forestry and Wildlife Committee in the Ministry of Ecology,Geology,and Natural Resources of Republic of Kazakhstan,Department of Biodiversity in the Ministry of Natural Resources,Ecology and Technical Supervision of the Kyrgyz Republic is the,State Committee of Ecology in the Ministry of Ecology,Environmental Protection and Climate Change of Republic of Uzbekistan and Environmental Protection Committee in Republic of Tajikistan.The organisational charts outlined in Figure 1 to 4 show the hierarchy of these organisations.12 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING Each law enforcement agency mandated to collect and collate information on the illegal wildlife trade should develop a standardised template with pre-set questions for law enforcement officials to ask when recording information on the crime during an inspection or seizure.The standardised template for collecting information on illegal wildlife trade,should record information on the(see Figure 1 for an example of a template):date of the seizure/inspection species involved quantities involved commodity type/description of the goods the location of the incident the method of transport used the trade routes(including country of origin,transit countries,country of export and the country of destination)the method of detection the methods of concealment information on the infringement of the specific laws and whether the crime was an administrative or criminal case.When gathering information during an inspection or seizure of wildlife,authorities should make use of species identification guides.There are several online resources available,including:CITES species identification manuals.Avibase is an extensive database information system about all birds of the world.Plants of the World which provides global plant names,detailed descriptions,and images of global plant species.Storing illegal wildlife trade data The collection of data from a variety of sources means that the information will vary in reliability and quality.As a result,law enforcement agencies are strongly advised to conduct some initial evaluation of the data received to ensure its credibility,validity,and accuracy.The law enforcement agencies should evaluate the data by checking the date,place,parties involved and what kind of actions/decisions were made towards the seizure.Information on the illegal wildlife trade should be stored in a standardised electronic format and stored in a centralised electronic database for each national law enforcement agency.For maximum efficiency,the data gathering,and storage databases should use standardised operating systems across all four countries so actionable information can be rapidly shared between agencies.As an example,all four countries can use the CITES template in Microsoft Excel for reporting illegal wildlife trade.By using the same system,it allows for the simple transmission and sharing of data between the different agency databases.Submitting the CITES Annual Illegal Trade Reports(in compliance with Res.Conf.11.17 Rev.CoP18)The mandated national agency per country should ensure they comply with their reporting obligations as Parties to CITES.This agency should collate all the data from the different law enforcement agencies and submit one report to the CITES Secretariat by 31 October deadline.The mandated agency should make sure to submit both legal and illegal wildlife annual reports to CITES.When submitting the national CITES Annual Illegal Trade Report it should include information on all seizures for violations involving CITES-listed species,irrespective of whether the seizure was made at an international border,or at the domestic level for example during the search of a private or business property or during inspections at domestic markets.When submitting the national CITES Annual Illegal Trade Report,it should use the template developed by the CITES Secretariat for CITES Parties.See Figures 5 and 6.Guidelines for submitting the CITES Annual Illegal Trade Report can be found in Annex One.ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 13FIGURE 5The CITES Annual Illegal Trade Reporting Template14 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARINGFIGURE 6Sample CITES ANNUAL ILLEGAL TRADE REPORT ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 15GUIDANCE ON ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADEDATA ANALYSISThe analysis of illegal wildlife trade data is vital and forms the basis of many of the actions undertaken by law enforcement agencies in the short-term but also the national long-term strategic priority setting.Analysis of the data also identifies information gaps,determines whether additional work needs to be undertaken and highlights missing or contradictory information.For this reason,it is essential that all information be subjected to some form of analysis and processing before it is disseminated or used as intelligence(ICCWC,2022).General points on illegal wildlife trade data analysis At regular intervals,law enforcement agencies are advised to analyse the illegal wildlife trade data that has been collected over the past months.This analysis allows law enforcement agencies to identify trade networks more easily and recognise patterns and characteristics of the illegal wildlife trade dynamics and criminal behaviour before taking action.The national law enforcement agencies mandated to tackle the illegal wildlife trade are advised to meet several times a year to discuss the findings from any analyses and illegal wildlife trade issues in the region more generally.A national agency,who is an authorised agency for CITES(in Central Asian context,Ministries of Natural Resources(or Ministry of Ecology)can be responsible for organising such meetings.When analysing illegal wildlife trade data,law enforcement agencies are advised to focus on the following variables as a first step:General overview of the illegal wildlife trade dynamics:analyse the main types of species and commodities in trade(both import and export),and the main trading partners for specimens imported into the country and exported from the country.Authorities should also analyse any temporal changes,where relevant,and the environmental laws that have been infringed.Focus on specific species reported in trade:analyse the different species reported in trade and the associated description codes,quantities,and trade routes(country of origin,transit,and destination).Further analyses can also be done on the location of the incident,mode of transport and the method of concealment for the different species reported in trade.During the analysis stage,authorities should make use of:Species website which collates authoritative information on taxonomy,legislation,distribution,and trade in Multilateral Environmental Agreements(MEA)listed species.Accessible link:https:/ Wildlife Trade Portal is an interactive tool that displays TRAFFICs open-source wildlife seizure and incident data.Accessible link:https:/www.wildlifetradeportal.org/about.16 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING GUIDANCE ON ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADEDATA SHARINGOne of the most important factors of tackling the illegal wildlife trade is the effective dissemination of illegal wildlife trade data and information to relevant national agencies or investigators who can interpret the information,use it and act upon the intelligence accordingly.As it was advised above to have a meeting of law enforcement agencies several times a year,an authorised ministry for CITES can make presentation of illegal wildlife trade data at the meeting as well as send the data via their official channels.While dissemination will lead to some loss of control on how the intelligence is used,certain safeguards can be added to ensure data protection.Law enforcement agencies and units need to have trust in one another and build collaborative relationships through networking and regular meetings.This is where having clear mandates helps to avoid any misunderstanding of roles and duplication of efforts.Aside from sharing intelligence with relevant law enforcement agencies,outcomes of intelligence analysis can be disseminated to wider audiences,such as NGOs or the public,using analytical reports(ICCWC,2022).General points on sharing illegal wildlife trade dataSharing data nationally:Countries should establish national formalised data-sharing agreements for illegal wildlife trade data between the relevant law enforcement agencies to improve efforts as a matter of urgency to tackle the illegal wildlife trade.These agreements should outline the mandate of each agency,and how and when data can be shared.For example,a national Memorandum of Understanding(MoU)between Customs and the CITES Management Authority gives Customs an appropriate framework for obtaining information.It will also give opportunity for the Management Authority to target high-risk consignments and traders.This enables Customs to support the Management Authorities by indicating the existence of ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 17suspicious circumstances or consignments.The Guidelines on Co-operation between Customs Administrations and CITES Management Authorities Managing the Trade in Animals and Plants were developed specifically for that purpose and are available to WCO members(WCO reference number Annex IV to Doc.41.827)(ICCWC,2022).The national law enforcement agencies tackling illegal wildlife trade are encouraged to set up bi-annual meetings to discuss relevant issues relating to the illegal wildlife trade,the findings of the illegal wildlife trade data analyses,and to set national priority risk assessments and explore opportunities to collaborate in the future.Sharing data internationally:National law enforcement agencies should ensure that Customs authorities have access to the Global Customs and Enforcement Network(CEN)database,a global network for gathering customs-related data and information.It is available for Customs authorities around the world and enables them to exchange information on customs-related offences and to share intelligence in a timely,reliable,and secure manner.It contains non-nominal seizure information,such as date,location,species,quantity,departure,destination,conveyance,concealment methods and CITES documentation.All information is reported on a voluntary basis.Countries should also consider the merits of establishing and maintaining a data information system based on the existing Wildlife Trade Information eXchange(TWIX)already in place in the European Union and parts of Africa.Where relevant,national law enforcement agencies should consider sharing illegal wildlife trade data with external countries on a regular basis.For example,if the illegal wildlife trade data analyses indicate specific trading partners that are prominent in the illicit trade flows,then law enforcement agencies may want to reach out to understand the potential reasons for this,and to discuss future cooperation and how best to address these issues.18 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING TRAINING AND CAPACITY BUILDING RESOURCES TO SUPPORT LAW ENFORCEMENT AGENCIES TACKLING THE ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE There are several resources available to law enforcement agencies that can support efforts to tackle the illegal wildlife trade.Some of the available resources are outlined below.The CITES Virtual College is an essential resource to strengthen the understanding of the Convention by those on the frontline of its implementation in each of the Parties.It provides training and reference materials and contributes to increasing awareness.The available languages are:English,Spanish and French.Some specific law enforcement training include:The Training Course for Enforcement Officers and Information Module for Prosecutors and the Judiciary aims to introduce the Convention and enforcement-related issues to officers and Custom officials involved in dealing with CITES ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 19specimens,as well as other government and police officials involved in enforcement of wildlife laws and regulations.Due to the subject matter of the course and accompanying reading materials,enrolment is restricted to CITES Authorities,enforcement and Customs officials,and other officials involved in the enforcement of wildlife laws and regulations.(Unfortunately,the site is not available in Russian language).The Introduction to CITES for Customs trains Customs officials to be able to examine and process CITES protected specimens in accordance with provisions and guidelines of the Convention.There are several training materials available to assist with the implementation of workshops and training courses by CITES Management and Scientific Authorities.The UNODC Global e-learning site produces and delivers online training through innovative hi-tech methodologies,to enhance criminal justice practitioners responses to global human security challenges.Through the UNODC eLearning Platform,the Programme delivers online courses,frequently in combination with other training methodologies,which are in line with United Nations standards and norms and other relevant international instruments.(Russian is available).Some specific law enforcement training related to illegal wildlife trade include:Training 17.1 on Wildlife Crime:This self-paced module covers why smugglers conceal wildlife and what type of concealment methods they use.It provides advice on how to increase the possibility of detecting concealed wildlife and thereafter explores the possibilities and standard operating procedures associated with controlled delivery operations.Training 17.2 on Illegal Logging:This self-paced module covers illegal logging and the specific investigative techniques required to counter this crime.It explores the strong linkages between illegal logging and corrupt practices.The World Customs Organization(WCO)Learning Platform CLiKC!offers all Customs officers from WCO Member administrations access to learning opportunities,and the ability to participate in scheduled global and regional training workshops.The Green Customs Initiative(GCI)enhances the capacity of Customs and border control officers to enforce and foster compliance to trade-related conventions,Multilateral Environmental Agreement(MEA),and corresponding national legislation.GCI focuses on commodities such as ozone-depleting substances,toxic chemicals,hazardous wastes,endangered species,and living-modified organisms.The initiative is a forum for coordinated and cost-effective development of tools,delivery of training,and awareness-raising of customs officers and border control officers,through leveraging its partners resources and expertise.It complements and enhances existing customs training efforts under the respective agreements.(Russian is not available).The site contains E-learning courses which aim to increase the capacity of Customs officers.(Russian is not available)The site also contains resources,including publications,workshop reports,and guidance to support law enforcement agencies.(Russian is not available).The International Consortium on Combatting Wildlife Crimes(ICCWC)mission is to strengthen criminal justice systems and provide coordinated support at national,regional,and international levels to combat wildlife and forest crime.ICCWC is the collaborative effort of five inter-governmental organisations working to bring coordinated support to the national wildlife law enforcement agencies and to the sub-regional and regional networks that act in defence of natural resources.The partner agencies to ICCWC are the CITES Secretariat,INTERPOL,UNODC,the World Bank,and WCO.ICCWC works directly with wildlife law enforcement authorities and prosecuting authorities who bring criminals engaged in wildlife crime to justice to support them,by building long-term capacity and providing them with the tools,services,and technical support they need to effectively combat wildlife and forest 20 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING crime.(Russian is not available).ICCWC has several resources and reports available to law enforcement agencies including:ICCWC Menu of Services provides an indicative list of the training courses,tools and services available through ICCWC partner agencies.ICCWC Wildlife and Forest Crime Analytic Toolkit(Second Edition 2022)provides government officials,Customs,police,and other relevant enforcement agencies with a framework to conduct a comprehensive analysis of their response to wildlife and forest crime and identify their technical assistance needs.ICCWC Guidelines for Wildlife Enforcement Networks(WENs)-In most cases WENs can play an important role in facilitating increased collaboration and coordination to combat wildlife crime in a region.The tool outlines the key considerations in the development of a new WEN and provides a self-assessment tool for use by existing WENs to assist them in evaluating their level of maturity and/or operational performance and identify areas that could be further strengthened.ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 21REFERENCESCITES.(2022).The CITES Species.Accessed on 27 February 2023:https:/cites.org/eng/disc/species.php Gemedzhieva,N.,Khrokov,A.,Heral.E.,Timoshyna,A.(2021).Sweet dreams:Assessing opportunities and threats in Kazakhstans wild liquorice root trade.A TRAFFIC report.Global Environment Facility.(2023).Illegal Wildlife Trade.https:/www.thegef.org/what-we-do/topics/illegal-wildlife-trade.Accessed on 4 May 2023.ICCWC.(2022).Wildlife And Forest Crime Analytical Toolkit.Second Edition.Milner-Gulland,E.J.2021.Saiga tatarica(Green Status assessment).The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2021:e.T19832A1983220221.Accessed on 10 May 2023.Nowell,K.,Li,J.,Paltsyn,M.and Sharma,R.K.(2016).An Ounce of Prevention:Snow Leopard Crime Revisited.TRAFFIC,Cambridge,UK.Smith,L.and Porsche,L.(2015).Evaluation of the Costs and Impacts of Environmental Crime:CITES Trade of the Horsfieldii Tortoise.Study was completed as part of the EFFACE project.Ecologic Institute,Berlin Germany.TRAFFIC.(2021).Celebrating the contribution of sustainable trade in wild forest resources to economies,health and conservation.https:/www.traffic.org/news/celebrating-the-contribution-of-sustainable-trade-in-wild-forest-resources-to-economies-health-and-conservation/.Accessed 4 May 2023.TRAFFIC.(2023a).Legal wildlife trade.Action to enhance benefits from sustainable,legal wildlife trade.https:/www.traffic.org/about-us/legal-wildlife-trade/.Accessed 4 May 2023.TRAFFIC.(2023b).EU-,AFRICA-,SADC-and Eastern Africa-TWIX(Trade in Wildlife Information eXchange)https:/www.traffic.org/what-we-do/thematic-issues/supporting-law-enforcement/twixs/Accessed 19 May 2023).World Bank.(2019).Illegal Logging,Fishing,And Wildlife Trade:The Costs And How To Combat It.Available at:https:/thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/482771571323560234-0120022019/original/WBGReport1017Digital.pdf IMAGE CREDITSCoverBastien Chait 10,11,17,18Bastien Chaix20NSokolov/Pixabay22 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING ANNEX ONE:CITES ANNUAL ILLEGAL TRADE REPORTING GUIDELINES 2.General guidance a)The annual illegal trade report should be sent to the CITES Secretariat in Geneva,Switzerland,preferably by email.Only the following email address must be used for this purpose:reportingcites.org b)Each annual illegal trade report should cover the period 1 January to 31 December.c)The standard format for the CITES annual illegal trade report in Excel is available from the CITES website:https:/cites.org/sites/default/files/reports/E-AITR-format.xlsx d)The annual illegal trade report should,where possible,be submitted in electronic format(ideally in electronic tabular form,such as tables within Microsoft Excel or Microsoft Word documents).Submission of PDF files should preferably be avoided as these cannot be easily converted.e)The annual illegal trade report should be submitted to the Secretariat by 31 October of the year following the year to which it relate,i.e.the first annual illegal trade report was due on 31 October 2017,covering data from 2016.f)The annual illegal trade report should be prepared in one of the three working languages of the Convention:English,French or Spanish.g)The annual illegal trade report should include information on all seizures for violations involving CITES-listed species,irrespective of whether the seizure was made at an international border,or at domestic level for example during the search of a private or business property or during inspections at domestic markets.h)The illegal trade report should,to the extent possible,only include incidents that involve a violation of CITES.If the reason for the seizure is for example exclusively the violation of a national health regulation restricting import of certain live animals and not related to CITES,it should preferably not be included in the report.In cases of doubt,please include the incident.3.Specific instructions The headings below refer to the column headings in the standard format for the CITES annual illegal trade report provided at the end of this guidance.National reference number(if available)It is suggested to include a national reference number or case number and no particular format for such a number is suggested.A national reference number could facilitate communication with Parties should further information or clarification be needed concerning a specific seizure or incident.Date of seizure The date of the incident as recorded in the official report on the seizure should be stated.The date should be indicated in the following format:DD/MM/YEAR or DD-MM-YEAR.Example:9 July 2016 should be indicated as follows:09/07/2016 or 09-07-2016.If it is not possible to establish a precise date,enter the month and year in which the seizure occurred,as follows:XX/07/2016 or XX-07-2016.For seizures made in a previous year,which were not included in the report for that year,it is suggested that such seizures are included and consolidated at the bottom of the illegal trade report,immediately after the last entry relevant to the actual year of reporting.Parties are encouraged to make every effort to limit such reporting to exceptional cases.The following information is directly extracted from the CITES Annual Illegal Trade Report guidelines.Source:https:/cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/reports/illegaltrade/E-AITR-Guidelines-SC75.pdf ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 23 Species Enter the scientific name of the species or subspecies.The scientific names used should correspond to those recorded in the CITES Appendices or,for species included in the Appendices as part of a higher-taxon listing,those included in the standard lists of names approved by the Conference of the Parties(approved names can also be found in the Checklist of CITES species and in Species ,on the CITES website2).Abbreviations(e.g.“F.cherrug”)and common names should only be used if no other information is available.If the specimens/species cannot be identified the name of the genus or a higher taxon should be indicated.Only one species should be included per row of the illegal trade report.If more than one species and/or more than one type of specimen for a specific species were seized during the same incident,these should be recorded on separate rows,each with corresponding quantity and unit,method of concealment,etc.Description of specimen Seized specimens should be described as precisely as possible.For this purpose,reporting Parties are invited to use the trade term codes,listed in section 6 a)below.If it is not clear which is the correct term to use,or if the specimens are not apparently covered by any of the terms in section 6 a),Parties should describe the seized specimens directly in this column.For European eel(Anguilla anguilla),it is essential that live eels of 12cm length(and which may be referred to as glass eels or elvers)in trade are distinguished from other live specimens by reporting them as fingerlings(FIG);other live specimens should be reported as LIV.It is also desirable that the code for meat(MEA)should be used for trade in eels destined for human consumption.In all cases,Parties should report trade in live specimens(LIV),live fingerlings(FIG)and meat(MEA)of European eel by weight and not as number of specimens.The net weight of live specimens should be recorded and not the combined weight of eels and the water in which they are transported.Quantity Enter the numerical value for the quantity of items seized.Quantity and unit should be indicated in separate columns.See the next section for details on reporting units.The use of thousand separators(ma,point or space/period)in the quantity field should be avoided,and the use of either a point or a comma as a decimal separator should be consistent throughout the report.Unit Enter the appropriate unit of measurement for the description of the specimens that have been seized using the units provided in section 6 a).As far as possible,units for weight,volume and length should be recorded in metric measures.Quantities should always be recorded in standard units of measure and never in non-standard units such as boxes,cartons,containers or bales.For sharks and rays(Elasmobranchii spp.),weight(kg)should be used rather than number of items.If no unit is specified,this will be assumed to mean“number”(e.g.number of live animals).Location of incident The location where the seizure took place should be indicated.If possible,this should be specified by the name of a port of entry,the name of an airport,a city/town or a specific border crossing.The address of the location is not necessary.If no information on the location of the seizure is available,the ISO2-code of the country in which the seizure took place should be indicated.Do not use any other country codes or country names than the ones listed in section 6 b)of this guidance document.Detecting agency 24 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING Detecting agency The agency that discovered the offence should be indicated.In the electronic format for reporting,the following options have been pre-selected:police,customs or wildlife agency.These three would include all agencies administratively linked to them.For instance,the customs authorities may have specific units in airports,in ports and harbours and at border crossings.However,as they are all part of the customs,that option should be selected.If none of the pre-selected authorities seized the specimen,please indicate the authority in question(this could for instance be the fisheries inspection or veterinary services).Method of detection(if available)It is suggested to provide information on the method of detection and Parties are encouraged to provide the information if available.Understanding which methods of detection are used successfully could contribute to addressing illegal trafficking of wildlife.If the information is not available,or if the Party is not in a position to share the information for other reasons,the column should be left empty.The following methods of detection have been pre-selected:Scanning images Risk assessment Random check Sniffer dog Third-Party information Physical inspection Other(specify):Reason for seizure As noted above,the data should only include violations involving CITES-listed species.Seizures made for other reasons,e.g.violation of national hunting legislation,should preferably not be included in the report.The pre-selected options for the legal reason for the seizure are:No CITES permit,mis-declared,illegal crossing,other(please specify).No CITES permit:This means that the specimen seized should have been accompanied by a CITES permit or a CITES certificate but that no documents were provided upon request.It would also cover situations where the specimen was found unaccompanied.Mis-declared:This covers cases of invalid permits(e.g.expired),fraudulent permits(e.g.fraudulent signature),inexact permits(wrong species,quantity,listing),insufficient permits(e.g.no import permit for App.I listed species),or more species than indicated on the permit.Illegal crossing:Most Parties have designated points and ports of entry in their national CITES legislation in accordance with paragraph 3 of Article VIII of the Convention.Illegal crossing refers to passage outside those designated points,even with valid CITES documents.Other(please specify):This could for instance cover incidents of trade involving a Party that is currently under a recommendation to suspend trade.Mode of transport This refer to the mode of transport that was used at the time of the seizure.The five possible modes of transport that have been pre-selected are:ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 25 air,mail,maritime,rail,and road.If several modes of transport were used in the transaction that led to the seizure,the latest mode should be selected.E.g.if a specimen had travelled from country A to country B by air but was seized as it crossed the border from country B to country C by road,“road”should be selected as the mode of transport.If the seizure took place before any transport or after the transport of the illegal consignment and no information is available on the mode of transport,please leave the cell empty.Method of concealment Please describe in a concise manner the way the specimen was concealed.The method of concealment will often depend on the means of transport and on the type of specimens.There are unlimited ways of concealing illegally traded specimens and therefore no pre-selected options are proposed in the format.If useful and available,add information on the mode of transport.Please see sample report at the end of this guidance for examples.Alleged country of origin If available,the name of the country of origin should be indicated by the use of two-letter ISO codes for the representation of names of countries,in accordance with the list in section 6 b)below.If the country of origin is unknown,the cell should be left empty.Any country codes or country names other than the ones listed in section 6 b)should not be used.Country(ies)of transit All known countries of transit should be indicated,and multiple transit countries should as far as possible be listed in the actual trade order separated by a comma(,).This is critically important information to better understand illegal trade routes.Please use the two-letter ISO codes for the representation of names of countries,in accordance with the list in section 6 b)below.If more detailed information is available concerning the trade route(e.g.name of port or airport,or border crossing),this may be provided in the column for additional information.If the countries of transit are unknown or not possible to credibly establish,leave the cell empty.Alleged final destination If available,the country of final destination should be indicated by the use of two-letter ISO codes for the representation of names of countries,in accordance with the list in section 6 b)below.If additional information about the final destination is available(e.g.region or city),this may be provided in the column for additional information.If the final destination is unknown or not possible to credibly establish,leave the cell empty.Estimated value in country(if available)The estimated value in the country of seizure should be indicated,if possible.If different from a declared value,it is estimated value that should be indicated.The value of the entire consignment should be indicated.E.g.,if a shipment of 90 specimens each worth approximately USD 200 has been seized,the estimated value to indicate would be USD 18000.If several species were seized in one shipment(see above),they should be reported on separate lines and information about their value should be provided separately as well.If an estimated value of the seized shipment is not available,provide where possible a small range,e.g.USD 500-600(keep the range as small as possible).Even an estimated range will be helpful to assess the total value of global illegal trade in specimens of CITES-listed species.It is preferable to provide the value in a globally recognized currency,such as USD or EUR,but if not possible,indicate in the currency in which the value has been provided.Please indicate the currency in the column to the left and the amount in the column to the right.26 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING The use of thousand separators(ma,point or space/period)in the value field should be avoided.Nationality of offenders(if available)Where possible and if available,provide the nationality of each offender against whom administrative measures,criminal prosecutions or other court actions associated with the seizure have been initiated or imposed.If an offender has more than one nationality,please indicate all of them.Please see sample report at the end of this guidance for examples.If no offender was identified,please indicate“N/A”.Only one offender should be included per row of the illegal trade report.If more than one offender were convicted or fined,this information should be provided on separate rows,each with corresponding law and sanction.Please do NOT include the names of any offenders in the report.Parties who wish to bring the names of offenders to the attention of the CITES Secretariat should do so through separate correspondence.Information on the offence related to the seizure The last three columns relate to a subsequent case under which the offenders are brought to trial and sentenced as well as the final disposal of the confiscated specimens.These are marked as desirable because the information requested may only become available much later in time than the actual seizure.If information is not available because the case has not yet been finalized in court,please indicate this.If the case has been withdrawn,please indicate this,including the reasons for the withdrawal if possible.Please note that information that becomes available subsequently to the submission of the annual illegal trade report should be reported in the Implementation report.See Notification No.2016/006,and in particular section 1.7.5 on inter alia criminal prosecutions and other court actions for CITES-related offenses.The same seizure should not be reported again in the year the court actions take place,in cases where proceedings span more than one calendar year.If a sanction,e.g.a fine or confiscation,has been imposed without a court case,please indicate the sanction.Law under which the charges were brought(desirable)If no charges have been brought,please indicate this.If charges have been brought but the case not yet heard or concluded,information on the law under which the charges were brought can be provided.If several laws have been invoked in the charges,please indicate all of them.Sanction(desirable)If the case has been heard and a sentence pronounced,please indicate the sanction(s)(imprisonment,fine,confiscation,etc.)If there are more elements in the sanction,please include all of them.If an appeal is pending,please note this as well,but indicate the sanction pronounced in the first instance.If a sanction,such as a fine or confiscation,has been imposed without a court case,please indicate the sanction.If the case has not(yet)been heard,please indicate this,using the term pending.Disposal of confiscated specimens(desirable)Information in this column should include disposal of seized specimens in the instances where the seizure is final.In cases where disposal of the seized specimens can only take place after a court decision on confiscation,the information should only be provided when the final court decision has occurred.In such cases please indicate“Pending court decision”.Reference is made to Resolution Conf.17.8 on Disposal of illegally traded and confiscated specimens of CITES-listed species and the provisions set out therein.The following pre-selected options are available to indicate the final disposal of the confiscated/seized specimens:Returned to the country of export ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 27Public zoos or botanical gardens Designated rescue centres Approved,private facilities Euthanasia/destruction Storage/Safekeeping Sale/transformation Educational purposes Other(please specify):Note that Resolution Conf.17.8 contains guidance on disposal of confiscated specimens.Additional information(if available)If more information pertaining to the seizure is available and relevant in understanding and preventing illegal trade in wildlife,this could be included here.This could be further details regarding the methods of concealment or of detection or further details on the mode of transport,e.g.transported by air cargo.This section could also include further details on the exact location of the incident.4.Terminology a)Description of specimens and units of quantity Description Code Preferred unit Alternative unit Explanation baleen BAL kg no.elastic sheets of keratin that hang from the upper jaw of baleen whales(Mysticeti)and allow them to feed bark BAR kg tree bark(raw,dried or powdered;unprocessed)body BOD no.kg substantially whole dead animals,including whole fish,stuffed turtles,preserved butterflies,reptiles in alcohol,whole stuffed hunting trophies,etc.If referring to specimens of sharks and rays(Elasmobranchii spp.),the preferred unit is kg.bone BON kg no.bones,including jaws calipee CAL kg calipee or calipash(turtle cartilage for soup)carapace CAP no.kg raw or unworked whole shells of Testudines species carving CAR kg no.carved products other than ivory,bone or horn for example coral and wood(including handicrafts).N.B:Ivory carvings should be specified as such(see below “IVC”).Also,for species from which more than one type of product may be carved(e.g.horn and bone),the trade term code should indicate the type of product in trade(e.g.bone carving“BOC”or horn carving “HOC”),where possible.carving-bone BOC kg no.bone carving carving-horn HOC kg no.horn carving carving ivory(worked ivory)IVC kg no.ivory carvings,including e.g.smaller worked pieces of ivory(knife handles,chess sets,marjoram sets etc).N.B.Whole carved tusk should be reported as carving ivory(IVC)not as tusk(see“TUS”below).Jewellery made from carved ivory should be reported as jewellery ivory(see IJW below).caviar CAV kg unfertilized dead processed eggs from all species of Acipenseriformes;also known as roe 28 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING Description Code Preferred unit Alternative unit Explanation chips(woodchips)CHP kg chips of timber,especially Aquilaria spp.,Gyrinops spp.and Pterocarpus santalinus claw CLA no.kg claws e.g.of Felidae,Ursidae or Crocodylia(NB:turtle claws are usually scales and not real claws)cloth CLO m2 kg cloth if the cloth is not made entirely from the hair of a CITES species,the weight of hair of the species concerned should instead,if possible,be recorded under HAI coral(raw)COR no.kg raw or unworked coral and coral rock(also live rock and substrate)as defined in Resolution Conf.11.10(Rev.CoP15).Coral rock should be recorded as Scleractinia spp.NB:the trade should be recorded by number of pieces only if the coral specimens are transported in water.Live rock(transported moist in boxes)should be reported in kg;coral substrate should be reported as number of pieces(since these are transported in water as the substrate to which non-CITES corals are attached).cosmetics COS g ml Any product or mixture of products which is applied to an external part of the body only(e.g.skin,hair,nails,genitals,lips or teeth or the mucous membranes of the oral cavity)with the intent to clean,odorise,change the appearance or protect.Cosmetics may include the following:make-up,perfume,skin cream,nail polish,hair colourants,soap,shampoo,shaving cream,deodorant,sunscreens,toothpaste.Cosmetics which include extracts of CITES-listed species.The quantity should reflect the amount of CITES-listed species present.culture CUL no.of flasks,etc.cultures of artificially propagated plants derivatives DER kg l derivatives(other than those included elsewhere in this table)dried plant DPL no.dried plants e.g.herbarium specimens ear EAR no.ears usually elephant egg EGG no.kg whole dead or blown eggs(see also caviar)egg(live)EGL no.kg live fertilized eggs usually birds and reptiles but includes fish and invertebrates eggshell ESH g/kg raw or unworked eggshell except whole eggs extract EXT kg l extract usually plant extracts feather FEA kg/no.of wings no.feathers in the case of objects(e.g.pictures)made of feathers,record the number of objects fibre FIB Kg m natural fibre:generic term for several types of material of natural(i.e.plant or animal)origin.Animal fibre can usually be spun and woven and is usually very fine and has good flexibility.e.g.fibre coming from the shearing of live vicunas.It also includes fibres from animal intestines used to make strings for tennis rackets ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 29Description Code Preferred unit Alternative unit Explanation fin(dried)DFN kg dried fins and parts of fins(including flippers)fin(wet)FFN kg Fresh,chilled or frozen fins and parts of fins(including flippers)fingerlings FIG kg no.live juvenile fish for the aquarium trade,aquaculture,hatcheries,consumption or for release,including live European eels(Anguilla anguilla)up to 12cm length flower FLO kg Flowers flower pot FPT no.flower pots made from parts of a plant e.g.tree fern fibres(NB:live plants traded in so-called community pots should be recorded as live plants,not as flower pots)frog legs LEG kg no.frog legs fruit FRU kg Fruit foot FOO no.feet e.g.of elephant,rhinoceros,hippopotamus,lion,crocodile,etc.fur products(large)FPL no.large manufactured products of fur e.g.bear or lynx fur blankets or other fur products of a substantial size.fur product(small)FPS no.small manufactured products of fur including handbags,key fobs,purses,pillows,trim,etc.gall GAL kg no.Gall gall bladder GAB no.kg gall bladder garment GAR no.garments including gloves and hats but not shoes.Includes trimming or decoration on garments genitalia GEN kg no.castrates and dried penes gill plates GIL kg no.gill plates(e.g.for sharks)graft rootstock GRS no.graft rootstocks(without the grafts)hair HAI kg g hair includes all animal hair,e.g.of elephant,yak,guanaco hair products HAP no.g products made of hair(e.g.elephant hair bracelets)horn HOR no.kg horns includes antlers jewellery JWL no.g jewellery including bracelets,necklaces,and other items of jewellery from products other than ivory(e.g.wood,coral,etc.)jewellery ivory(worked ivory)IJW no.g jewellery made of ivory includes ekipas kernel KNL kg also known as endosperm,pulp or copra leather product(large)LPL no.large manufactured products of leather e.g.briefcases,furniture,suitcases,travel trunks leather product(small)LPS no.small manufactured products of leather e.g.belts,braces,bicycle saddles,cheque book or credit card holders,handbags,key fobs,notebooks,purses,shoes,tobacco pouches,wallets,watch-straps and trim 30 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING Description Code Preferred unit Alternative unit Explanation live LIV no.kg live animals and plants,excluding live fingerling fish see FIG leaf LVS kg no.Leaves logs LOG m3 all wood in the rough,whether or not stripped of bark or sapwood,or roughly squared,for processing notably into sawn wood,pulpwood or veneer sheets.NB:trade in logs of special purpose timbers traded by weight(e.g.lignum vitae,Guaiacum spp.)should be recorded in kg meat MEA kg meat,including flesh of fish if not whole(see body),fresh or unprocessed meat as well as processed meat(e.g.smoked,raw,dried,frozen or tinned)The code for meat(MEA)should be used in preference for trade in eels for human consumption.medicine MED kg l Medicine musk MUS g Musk oil OIL kg l oil e.g.from turtles,seals,whales,fish,various plants pearl PRL no.pearl(e.g.for Strombus gigas)piano keys(worked ivory)KEY no.ivory piano keys(e.g.one standard piano would be 52 ivory piano keys)piece bone BOP kg pieces of bone,not manufactured piece horn HOP kg pieces of horn,not manufactured includes scrap piece ivory(raw ivory)IVP kg ivory pieces,not manufactured includes scrap plate PLA m2 plates of fur skins includes rugs if made of several skins plywood PLY m2 m3 material consisting of three or more sheets of wood glued and pressed one on the other and generally disposed so that the grains of successive layers are at an angle powder POW kg A dry,solid substance in the form of fine or coarse particles pupae PUP no.butterfly pupae root ROO no.kg roots,bulbs,corms or tubers NB:For the agarwood-producing taxa Aquilaria spp.and Gyrinops spp.,the preferred unit is kilograms.The alternative unit is number.rug RUG no.Rugs sawfish rostrum ROS no.kg sawfish rostrum sawn wood SAW m3 wood simply sawn lengthwise or produced by a profile-chipping process;normally exceeds 6mm in thickness.NB:trade in sawn wood of special purpose timbers traded by weight(e.g.lignum vitae,Guaiacum spp.)should be recorded in kg ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 31Description Code Preferred unit Alternative unit Explanation scale SCA kg scales e.g.of turtle,other reptiles,fish,pangolin seed SEE kg no.Seeds shell SHE no.kg raw or unworked shell of molluscs side SID no.sides or flanks of skins;does not include crocodilian Tinga frames(see under skin)skeleton SKE no.substantially whole skeletons skin SKI no.substantially whole skins,raw or tanned,including hides,crocodilian Tinga frames,external body lining,with or without scales skin piece SKP kg skin pieces including scraps,raw or tanned skull SKU no.Skulls soup SOU kg l soup e.g.of turtle specimen(scientific)SPE kg/l/ml/no.scientific specimens includes blood,tissue(e.g.kidney,spleen,etc.),histological preparations,preserved museum specimens,etc.stem STE no.kg plant stems NB:For the agarwood-producing taxa Aquilaria spp.and Gyrinops spp.,the preferred unit is kilograms.The alternative unit is number.swim bladder SWI kg hydrostatic organ,including isinglass/sturgeon glue tail TAI no.kg tails e.g.of caiman(for leather)or fox(for garment trimming,collars,boas,etc.),also includes flukes of cetaceans.tooth TEE no.kg teeth e.g.of whale,lion,hippopotamus,crocodile,etc.timber TIM m3 kg raw timber except saw-logs,sawn wood and transformed wood transformed wood TRW m3 kg defined by Harmonized System code 44.09:Wood(including strips,friezes for parquet flooring,not assembled),continuously shaped(tongued,grooved,v-jointed,beaded or the like)along any edges,ends or faces,whether or not planed,sanded or end-jointed.trophy TRO no.trophy all the trophy parts of one animal if they are exported together:e.g.horns(2),skull,cape,backskin,tail and feet(i.e.ten specimens)constitute one trophy.But if,for example,the skull and horns are the only specimens of an animal that are exported,then these items together should be recorded as one trophy.Otherwise the items should be recorded separately.A whole stuffed body is recorded under BOD.A skin alone is recorded under SKI.Trade in full mount,shoulder mount and half mount,along with any corresponding parts of the same animal exported together on the same permit,should be reported as 1 TRO 32 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING Description Code Preferred unit Alternative unit Explanation trunk TRU no.kg elephant trunk.N.B.:An elephant trunk exported with other trophy items from the same animal on the same permit as part of a hunting trophy should be reported as TRO.Tusk(raw ivory)TUS no.kg substantially whole tusks,not worked.Includes tusks of elephant,hippopotamus,walrus,narwhal,but not other teeth-N.B.Whole carved tusks should be reported as carving ivory(see“IVC”above).veneer sheets rotary veneer sliced veneer VEN VEN m3 m2 kg kg thin layers or sheets of wood of uniform thickness,usually 6mm or less in thickness,usually peeled(rotary veneer)or sliced(sliced veneer),for use in making plywood,for veneering furniture,veneer containers,etc.wax WAX kg Wax wood product WPR no.kg manufactured wood products,including finished wood products such as furniture and musical instruments.Key to units of measure Unit of Measure Unit Code Grams(g)GRM Kilograms(kg)KGM Litres LTR Millilitres(ml)MLT Metres(m)MTR Cubic centimetres(cm3)CMQ Square metres(m2)MTK Cubic metres(m3)MTQ Number of specimens NAR NB.If no unit is specified,this will be assumed to mean“number”(e.g.number of live animals).b)Names of countries and territories The countries and entities listed below are designated in accordance with the English country names and code elements published by the International Organization for Standardization(ISO).Out-of-date names of countries and territories are retained for purposes of recording re-exports of specimens originating in those places.The ISO list is based on the list included in the United Nations Standard Country or Area Code for Statistical Use established by the Statistical Office of the United Nations.The names of countries,territories or other areas correspond to those given in the United Nations Terminology Bulletin,issued by the Department of Conference Services.Some additional entities are included in the ISO International Standard3 with a view to providing more complete global coverage.However,the designations do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the CITES Secretariat or the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area,or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.3 See https:/www.iso.org/obp/ui/#search ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 33 *A dispute exists between the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning sovereignty over the Falkland Islands(Islas Malvinas).Code Name KY Cayman Islands CF Central African Republic TD Chad CL Chile CN China CX Christmas Island CC Cocos(Keeling)Islands CO Colombia KM Comoros CG Congo CK Cook Islands CR Costa Rica CI Cte dIvoire HR Croatia CU Cuba CW Curaao CY Cyprus CZ Czech Republic KP Democratic Peoples Republic of Korea CD Democratic Republic of the Congo DK Denmark DJ Djibouti DM Dominica DO Dominican Republic EC Ecuador EG Egypt SV El Salvador GQ Equatorial Guinea ER Eritrea EE Estonia SZ Eswatini ET Ethiopia FK Falkland Islands(Malvinas)*FO Faroe Islands FJ Fiji FI Finland FR France GF French Guiana PF French Polynesia TF French Southern Territories Code Name AF Afghanistan AX land Islands AL Albania DZ Algeria AS American Samoa AD Andorra AO Angola AI Anguilla AQ Antarctica AG Antigua and Barbuda AR Argentina AM Armenia AW Aruba AU Australia AT Austria AZ Azerbaijan BS Bahamas BH Bahrain BD Bangladesh BB Barbados BY Belarus BE Belgium BZ Belize BJ Benin BM Bermuda BT Bhutan BO Bolivia,Plurinational State of BQ Bonaire,Saint Eustatius and Saba BA Bosnia and Herzegovina BW Botswana BV Bouvet Island BR Brazil BN Brunei Darussalam BG Bulgaria BF Burkina Faso BI Burundi CV Cabo Verde KH Cambodia CM Cameroon CA Canada 34 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING Code Name LS Lesotho LR Liberia LY Libya LI Liechtenstein LT Lithuania LU Luxembourg MO Macao MG Madagascar MW Malawi MY Malaysia MV Maldives ML Mali MT Malta MH Marshall Islands MQ Martinique MR Mauritania MU Mauritius YT Mayotte MX Mexico FM Micronesia,Federated States of MC Monaco MN Mongolia ME Montenegro MS Montserrat MA Morocco MZ Mozambique MM Myanmar NA Namibia NR Nauru NP Nepal NL Netherlands NC New Caledonia NZ New Zealand NI Nicaragua NE Niger NG Nigeria NU Niue NF Norfolk Island MK North Macedonia MP Northern Mariana Islands NO Norway OM Oman PK Pakistan Code Name GA Gabon GM Gambia GE Georgia DE Germany GH Ghana GI Gibraltar GR Greece GL Greenland GD Grenada GP Guadeloupe GU Guam GT Guatemala GG Guernsey GN Guinea GW Guinea-Bissau GY Guyana HT Haiti HM Heard Island and McDonald Islands VA Holy See HN Honduras HK Hong Kong SAR HU Hungary IS Iceland IN India ID Indonesia IR Iran,Islamic Republic of IQ Iraq IE Ireland IM Isle of Man IL Israel IT Italy JM Jamaica JP Japan JE Jersey JO Jordan KZ Kazakhstan KE Kenya KI Kiribati KW Kuwait KG Kyrgyzstan LA Lao Peoples Democratic Republic LV Latvia LB Lebanon ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE DATA COLLECTION,ANALYSIS AND SHARING 35 *A dispute exists between the Governments of Argentina and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland concerning sovereignty over the Falkland Islands(Islas Malvinas).Code Name SS South Sudan ES Spain LK Sri Lanka SD Sudan SR Suriname SJ Svalbard and Jan Mayen SE Sweden CH Switzerland SY Syrian Arab Republic TW Taiwan,Province of China TJ Tajikistan TH Thailand TL Timor-Leste TG Togo TK Tokelau TO Tonga TT Trinidad and Tobago TN Tunisia TR Trkiye TM Turkmenistan TC Turks and Caicos Islands TV Tuvalu UG Uganda UA Ukraine AE United Arab Emirates GB United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland TZ United Republic of Tanzania UM United States Minor Outlying Islands US United States of America UY Uruguay UZ Uzbekistan VU Vanuatu VE Venezuela,Bolivarian Republic of VN Viet Nam VG Virgin Islands,British VI Virgin Islands,United States WF Wallis and Futuna Islands EH Western Sahara YE Yemen ZM Zambia Code Name PW Palau PA Panama PG Papua New Guinea PY Paraguay PE Peru PH Philippines PN Pitcairn PL Poland PT Portugal PR Puerto Rico QA Qatar KR Republic of Korea MD Republic of Moldova RE Runion RO Romania RU Russian Federation RW Rwanda BL Saint Barthelemy SH Saint 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February 2024Ulukbek TurdubekovSergei BolozhGulshan AshurbekovaOlim NarzullayevBakytbek Tokubek uulu Sanjar Kurmanov A REVIEW OF THELAWS RELATED TO THE USE AND TRADE OF WILDLIFEIN FOUR CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIESTRAFFIC,in collaboration with Fauna&Flora,the Association for the Conservation of Biodiversity of Kazakhstan(ACBK)and Ecological Resource Centre“Ekomaktab”,is implementing a two-year project entitled“Strengthening Capacity&Fostering the Will to Combat Wildlife Crime in Central Asia“.This project aims to build law enforcement capacity and will combat wildlife trafficking(CWT)across major hotspots and trade routes throughout Central Asia,including Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan.This report was funded by a grant from the United States Department of State Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs.The opinions,findings and conclusions stated herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the United States Department of State Bureau of International Narcotics and Law Enforcement Affairs.TRAFFIC would like to thank its project partners for their ongoing assistance and support in developing this report.Notably,TRAFFIC thanks Fauna&Flora,the Association for the Conservation of Biodiversity in Kazakhstan(ACBK),The Institute of Zoology of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Uzbekistan and the Ecological Resource Centre“EKOMAKTAB”.Thanks also go to TRAFFIC staff Stephanie von Meibom and Louisa Musing for guiding the completion of this report and to all the relevant government agencies in Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Tajikistan and Uzbekistan which assisted in the development of this report.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ABOUT US TRAFFIC is a leading non-governmental organisation working globally to ensure that trade in wild species is legal and sustainable,for the benefit of the planet and people.Reprod uction of material appearing in this report requires written permission from the publisher.The designations of geographical entities in this publication,and the presentation of the material,do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of TRAFFIC or its supporting organisations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,or area,or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.PROJECT SupervisorSStephanie von Meibom,Louisa MusingPublished by:TRAFFIC International,Cambridge,United Kingdom.Suggested CitationTokubek uulu B.,Kurmanov S.,Turdubekov U.,TRAFFIC(2024).A review of the laws related to the use and trade of wildlife in four Central Asian countries.TRAFFIC.TRAFFIC 2024.Copyright of material published in this report is vested in TRAFFIC.UK Registered Charity No.1076722DesignCressida StevensTRAFFIC REPORTpage 6Introductionpage 56CONCLUSIONSpage 8Methodologypage 9Analysis by CountryTHE KYRGYZ REPUBLICTHE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTANTHE REPUBLIC OF TAJIKISTANTHE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN9223546page 67ReferencesAppendicesContentspage 4Executive Summarypage 59RECOMMENDATIONS4 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Central Asia,comprising the Kyrgyz Republic,The Republic of Uzbekistan Republic,The Republic of Kazakhstan,and the Republic of Tajikistan1,faces a significant challenge in combatting illegal wildlife trade.This study examined the issue by employing a multi-pronged approach,including a detailed analysis and evaluation of the existing legal frameworks.The primary objective was to identify gaps in current laws and formulate recommendations for addressing these shortcomings.This report was completed under a project funded by a grant from the United States Department of State.Social Media Analysis:Social Media Analysis:The research began with a thorough analysis of social media platforms,where illegal wildlife trade activities often occur.The analysis revealed a concerning trend of online platforms facilitating the sale and exchange of endangered species and their products.This illicit trade was found to be driven by a combination of factors,including a lack of public awareness,limited enforcement,and inadequately defined legal provisions.Legal Framework Analysis:Legal Framework Analysis:The study then delved into the legal frameworks of the Central Asian countries to determine their effectiveness in combating illegal wildlife trade.While these nations had made efforts to align their legal systems with international conventions and treaties,there were noticeable gaps and weaknesses in the enforcement of these laws.These gaps included ambiguous definitions,inadequate penalties,and shortcomings in the regulation of online trade.Identification of Legal Gaps:Identification of Legal Gaps:Through a meticulous analysis,the research pinpointed several key gaps in the legal frameworks across Central Asia.These included:Ambiguous Definitions:Ambiguous Definitions:Many laws lacked precise definitions of what constituted illegal wildlife trading,leading to inconsistent interpretation and enforcement.Inadequate Penalties:Inadequate Penalties:Existing penalties for wildlife-related offenses were often insufficient to deter would-be traffickers.Limited Regulation of Online Trading:Limited Regulation of Online Trading:The proliferation of online platforms had not been adequately addressed in legal frameworks,allowing illegal activities to thrive in the digital sphere.1 Turkmenistan is also part of a former Soviet Union country in Central Asia,but was not included in this report as it was not included in the project.5 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife Suggested Legal Reforms:Suggested Legal Reforms:To address these identified gaps,the research presented a set of comprehensive recommendations for enhancing the legal framework in Central Asia:Clarification of Definitions:Clarification of Definitions:Each nation should establish clear,standardised definitions of illegal wildlife trading,encompassing various forms of exploitation and trade.Strengthened Penalties:Strengthened Penalties:Penalties for wildlife-related offenses should be increased to serve as effective deterrents and reflect the severity of the crimes.Online Regulation:Online Regulation:Specific provisions should be introduced to regulate and monitor online trading platforms,requiring them to report and block illegal wildlife trading activities.The research underscored the importance of international cooperation and the need for Central Asian countries to collaborate with one another and with global organisations,such as CITES(Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora),to combat the transnational nature of illegal wildlife trading effectively.In conclusion,this research provides a comprehensive and actionable plan to address the issue of illegal wildlife trading in Central Asia,emphasizing the importance of improving legal frameworks,enhancing enforcement mechanisms,and strengthening international cooperation.By implementing the suggested reforms,the region can take a significant step toward protecting its rich biodiversity and combating the illegal wildlife trade.6 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife INTRODUCTION Central Asia is a region that extends from the mountains of western China to the shores of the Caspian Sea.Afghanistan and Iran create the southern border of the region,and vast expanse of the Russian Federation is to the north.Central Asia was located on what was known as the Silk Road between Europe and the Far East and has long been a crossroads for people,ideas,and trade.Central Asia has an extremely varied geography,including high mountain passes through vast mountain ranges,such as the Tian Shan,Hindu Kush and the Pamirs.The region is also home to the vast Kara Kum and Kyzl Kum deserts2.Vegetation cover on the desert and semi-desert plains is species poor and sparse.Shrubs predominate.Significant areas of takyrs(salt flats),solonchaks(salt marshes),and loose sands are devoid of vegetation.On the Tibetan Plateau the vegetation is mainly creeping teresken shrubs along with sedges,Cobresia spp.,Reamuria spp.,bluegrass,and Fescue sp.in hollows sheltered from the cold winds.In the north,the deserts and semi-deserts are replaced by steppes dominated by feather grass,chi,vostret herbs,and wheatgrass.On the mountain slopes are coniferous forests of spruce,fir,and larch.Along various rivers(Tarim,Khotan,Aksu,and Konchedarya)in the deserts and in foothill oases there are strips of tugai forests with a predominance of poplar,oleaster,and sea buckthorn.Around reservoirs there are reeds and reed thickets.Of the larger animals in Central Asia,ungulates and rodents are the most common.In the deserts of north-western China and Mongolia animals include wild Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus,Kulan Equus hemionus kulan,Przewalskis Horse Equus ferus przewalskii,Goitered Gazelle Gazella subgutturosa and other gazelles Procapra spp,hares Leporidae,marmots Marmota sp.,jerboas Dipodidae,pikas Ochotona,gerbils Gerbillinae,and mole voles Cricetidae.In the Tibetan Highlands animals include Wild Yak Bos mutus,Kulan,Orongo Pantholops hodgsonii and other antelopes Bovidae,Asian Ibex Capra sibirica and Mountain Sheep Ovis ammon,pikas Ochotona spp.,marmots Marmota sp.,and voles Cricetidae.Of the predators,Wolf Canis lupus,Red Fox Vulpes vulpes,and Corsac Fox Vulpes corsac are ubiquitous.3 The four countries that are subject to this review,namely The Kyrgyz Republic,The Republic of Kazakhstan,The Republic of Tajikistan,and The Republic of Uzbekistan are 2 World Regional Geography:People,Places and Globalization 3 Animal variety in CA 7 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife parties to the Convention on Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES),the Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD)and the Convention of Migratory Species(CMS).All four countries have established national legislation that addresses the use and trade of natural resources as well as the protection of biodiversity.However,some of these laws might be outdated or not yet addressing specific aspects related to the trade in wild animals and plants such as the purchase or selling of non-native species,trade in CITES-listed species within the Eurasian Economic Union(EEU)or the increasing trade via the internet.This report includes a review and analysis of the current legislation and legislative acts,that cover the protection,use and trade of wild animal and plant species in the four countries of Central Asia.The review and analysis identifies weaknesses and gaps in the legislation of these countries and to make recommendations to address them.8 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife METHODOLOGY For each of the four countries,consultants carried out the following activities:Reviewed the legislation and compiled a list of applicable regulations.Compiled information obtained through expert meetings and interviews with relevant state agencies on the application of appropriate sanctions and other measures to prevent violations of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES)legislation.Gathered additional information through meetings with other government representatives(i.e.Members of Parliament).Sent requests to the Border Services for information on any relevant violations detected.Undertook a literature and internet review of relevant cases of wildlife trade violations.Analysed whether legislation in member countries of the Eurasian Economic Union(EAEU)met the requirements of EAEU legislation relating to implementation of CITES.Sought insights from scientists from the relevant Academy of Sciences within each country.Relevant supportive materials gathered during the above processes are attached as annexes and referred to in the text.Proposals and recommendations for action were developed based on the above findings.9 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife THE KYRGYZ REPUBLIC GENERAL INFORMATION Although the Kyrgyz Republic is a small country in terms of its territory(0.13%of the worlds land area),it is among the planets top 200 priority ecological regions owing to its high species diversityaround 2%of the worlds flora and 3%of the worlds fauna.This is owing to the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alay mountains that rise to a height of over 7,450 m above sea level and accumulate moisture from the upper layers of the atmosphere and essentially harbour“islands”of biological diversity in the midst of monotonous plains.The biodiversity is therefore dominated by mountain and alpine species.4 4 General Information about KR ANALYSIS BY COUNTRYANALYSIS BY COUNTRY 10 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife Table 1:Species diversity and concentration of biodiversity component species5 World total Kyrgyz Republic number of species number of species per 1,000 km2 number of species number of species per 1,000 km2 Fungi 100,000 0.50 2,179 10.55 Lower plants 74,000 0.15 3,676 18.57 Higher plants 300,000 2.00 4,320 20.51 Arthropods 3,200,000 20,000 15,905 66.04 Shellfish 513,600 3.45 173 6.50 Fish 200,000220,000 0.130.15 72 0.39 Amphibians 2,1002,600 0.0140.017 4 0.020 Reptiles 6,000 0.040 40 0.200 Birds 10,000 0.067 407 1.900 Mammals 4,000 0.027 87 0.420 The Kyrgyz Republic is a party to CITES since 2007 and acceded to the Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD)in 1996,signed the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety in 2005 and the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilisation in 2015.REVIEW OF LEGISLATION The country has a number of laws relating to nature management,environmental protection and trade in wild species that aim to support the sustainable use of natural resources,preserve ecosystems,improve the quality of the environment and ensure environmental safety.Fundamental laws relate to:environmental protection 5State of the Environment Report of the Kyrgyz Republic 2020 https:/ecoreportkg.info/indicators/bioraznoobrazie 11 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife consumption and waste production general technical regulations for ensuring environmental safety the protection of atmospheric air “ecological expertise the protection and use of flora fauna water and the Water Code Specially Protected Natural Territories hunting and the hunting economy Biosphere Territories”fisheries the prohibition of felling,transportation,acquisition and sale,harvesting and use,export of especially valuable(walnut and juniper)tree species Forest Code of the Kyrgyz Republic.The basic Law“On Environmental Protection”Law“On Environmental Protection”sets out the fundamental principles for environmental protection and nature management.In particular,it establishes measures for maintaining state accounting and reporting in these areas and sets out the limits and maximum allowable levels for emissions,discharge of pollutants and waste disposal,and requirements for rational environmental management,environmental impact assessments(EIA),and environmental audits.It also sets out the requirements for the levels of state ecological expertise regarding items that have an impact on the environment,the organisation and implementation of control over compliance with legal requirements,and the requirements for environmental monitoring.Furthermore,it establishes a system of norms and standards for assessing environmental quality,economic mechanisms for regulating the environment,the collection of payments relating to the use of natural resources and environmental pollution,economic incentives and financing of environmental measures,and the environmental requirements for economic and other activities.The law also establishes the competences of state bodies,the powers of public associations,the rights and obligations of users of natural resources,the liability for environmental offences,and the procedures for resolving disputes.The Law On the Protection and Use of FloraLaw On the Protection and Use of Flora establishes the legal framework for the effective protection,rational use and reproduction of flora resources.The Law lists the species of flora,the conditions for their protection,the procedures for their use including harvesting,collection,processing,and selling,and the conditions,including any restrictions and prohibitions,on their use for economic,research,cultural,educational,aesthetic,12 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife recreational,and health purposes.It also sets out how the state should maintain a cadastre of flora resources and monitor and exercise control over their protection and use.The law does not include measures related to the conservation of biological diversity at anyecosystem,species or genetic resourcelevel.Economic incentives are needed to stimulate the protection and rational use of flora resources following the principles of environmental sustainability.For example,there are no mechanisms for the restoration of green spaces when trees are felled.The Law On Fauna Law On Fauna establishes the legal framework for ensuring the effective protection,rational use and reproduction of wildlife resources.The law identifies relevant wild animal species and the measures governing their use and to secure their ongoing protection and reproduction in the wild,maintaining species diversity and the integrity of natural communities.Just like the Law“On the Protection and Use of Flora”,there are no measures relating to the conservation of biological diversity at any level.The Law“On Hunting and Game Management”Law“On Hunting and Game Management”regulates the conservation,reproduction and use of hunting resources and the use of relevant habitats.This Law is relatively new(2014)and includes modern principles of biodiversity conservation.It was developed to take into account recent experiences in this field,the socio-economic development strategy and the conceptual priorities of environmental policy.A list of normative acts was compiled that directly and/or indirectly relate to illegal trade in wild animals and plants in the Kyrgyz Republic(see Appendix 1).SPECIFIC LEGISLATION Under CITES there are around 6,000 animals and 32,000 plants listed in Annexes I,II,and III.6 The Ministry of Natural Resources,Ecology and Technical Supervision(MNRETS)is the Management Authority for CITES in the Kyrgyz Republic and actively collaborates with the CITES Scientific Authority,the Institute of Biology of the National Academy of Sciences,together with the Veterinary Service under the Ministry of Agriculture and the Customs Service under the Ministry of Finance.Obtaining permits for trade in wild flora and fauna resources is a stepwise process involving each of the above departments.Any violations of the legislation i.e.illegal trade are dealt with under the established national legislation of the Kyrgyz Republic.6https:/cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php 13 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife Each year the MNRETS submits a report to the CITES Secretariat on how many CITES permits it has issued.According to a representative of the Ministry7,the principal regulations relating to CITES implementation in the Kyrgyz Republic are:The Law“On the Accession of the Kyrgyz Republic to CITES,signed on 3rd March 1973 in the city of Washington”dated 30th November 2006 No.192;The Decree“On Approval of the Regulations of the State Agency for Environmental Protection and Forestry under the Government of the Kyrgyz Republic on Issuing Permits for the Export of Objects of Flora and Fauna that are Not Subject to the CITES Convention outside the Kyrgyz Republic,for the Import,Export of Animal Species and Plants,their Parts or Derivatives subject to the CITES Convention,(c)outside the Kyrgyz Republic”dated 9th March 2011 No.101;Annex No.2 to the Decision of the Board of the Eurasian Economic Union dated 21st April 2015#30 Species of wild fauna and flora covered by CITES of March 3,1973.That there are no additional regulatory documents on the enforcement of CITES since,under legislation On Normative Legal Acts,international agreements are automatically recognised as the norms of national legislation if they are properly signed and ratified by the Kyrgyz Republic.This is pertinent to wildlife trade legislation relating to CITES and the EAEU.LITIGATION AND CAPACITY MNRETS staff could not recall any illegal trade cases in CITES-listed animals and plants between 20212022.However,an official request made to the Border Service of the State Committee for National Security of the Kyrgyz Republic revealed there had been one instance recorded during this time but no criminal case had resulted(see Appendix 10 for details).Likewise,the Judicial Department under the Supreme Court of the Kyrgyz Republic when contacted reported no criminal cases relating to illegal wildlife trade during this period.MNRETS staff noted the Ministry,with support from non-governmental organisations(NGOs),regularly holds interdepartmental meetings(with the Ministry of Finance,State Committee for National Security,Prosecutors Office,Institute of Biology of the National Academy of Sciences,and the Ministry of Internal Affairs)on addressing illegal wildlife trade issues and in March 2022 published and distributed A Brief Identification Guide to CITES-listed Animals and Plants of the Kyrgyz Republic.MNRETS,with cross-departmental 7Interview with Buzurmanov Bekbatyr Marsovich,Head of the Bioresources Department of the Ministry of Natural Resources,Ecology and Technical Supervision of the Kyrgyz Republic.14 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife input,is currently developing an electronic database on wild flora and fauna resources in trade that will be accessible to regulatory and supervisory authorities.APPLICABLE SANCTIONS Examination of the Criminal Code and the Offences Code found a number of similarities between the two.Legislation regarding cruelty to animals,the destruction of animals or plants that are listed in the national Red Data Book,as well as illegal harvesting,hunting,fishing,logging,and trading covers criminal and administrative liability.Actions are considered criminal if they cause a certain amount of damage.Criminal Code of the Kyrgyz RepublicCriminal Code of the Kyrgyz Republic The Criminal Code describes in detail the circumstances whereby a person will be held criminally liable and what legal punishments this entails as follows:ArticleArticle 163 163 Cruelty to animals 1.Cruel treatment or torture of an animal for the purpose of causing it pain and(or)suffering,as well as other callous or mercenary reasons,which lead to its injury or death are punishable by 40100 hours community service,loss of the right to occupy certain public positions or engage in certain activities for up to three years or corrective labour for a period of two months to one year,or a fine of 200500 calculation indices (KGS20,00050,000:USD227567).The article also provides for more severe punishment if the same act is committed:1)on several animals;2)by a group of people;3)using sadistic methods;4)in the presence of a child under the age of fourteen;5)with a public demonstration in the media or on the Internet.In the above circumstances the punishments are:100300 hours community service,loss of the right to occupy certain public positions or engage in certain activities for a period of 13 years or corrective labour for a period of 13 years or a fine of 5001,000 calculation indices(KGS50,000100,000:USD5671,134).ArticleArticle 308 308 Destruction of animals and plants 1.Destruction of rare and endangered animals or plants listed in the Red Data Book of the Kyrgyz Republic,or destruction of their egg clutches,is punishable by a fine of 5001,000 calculation indices(KGS50,000100,000:USD5671,134).15 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife 2.The above acts that might lead to a critical reduction in the number of such animals or plants are punishable by 100300 hours community service or loss of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities for up to three years,or correctional labour for a term of 13 years,or a fine of 1,0002,000 calculation indices(KGS100,000200,000:USD1,1342,268),or imprisonment for up to two years.3.Any acts described in 1 and 2 of this Article that negligently cause serious harm are punishable by a fine of 1,0002,000 calculation indices(KGS100,000200,000:USD1,1342,268),or imprisonment for a term of 25 years with loss of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities for a period of up to three years.ArticleArticle 309 309 Violation of the rules for the protection of fish stocks 1.Operation of a water intake structure or a pumping mechanism,as well as the construction of a bridge,a dam,the implementation of explosive and other works with a deliberate or careless violation of the rules for the protection of fish stocks,which negligently caused the death of fish or other aquatic animals or the destruction of food supplies for them,is punishable by a fine of 200500 calculation indices(KGS20,00050,000:USD227567)with a loss of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities for up to two years.2.The same actions that negligently cause significant harm are punishable by 100300 hours community service,or deprivation of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities for up to three years,or correctional labour for a term from 13 years,or a fine of 5001,000 calculation indices KGS50,000100,000(USD5671,134).Article 310Article 310 Illegal hunting or harvesting of fish or aquatic animals 1.Illegal hunting or harvesting of fish or aquatic animals that causes significant damage,including acts committed in spawning areas or on migration routes,is punishable by a fine of 200500 calculation indices(KGS20,00050,000:USD227567)with loss of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities for a period of up to two years.2.Illegal hunting or harvesting of fish or aquatic animals committed with the use of a mechanical vehicle,self-propelled floating vehicle or aircraft,explosives or chemicals,electric current,synthetic fishing nets,gases or other methods of mass destruction of birds,animals or fish,causing major damage,are punishable by loss of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities for up to three years,or correctional labour for a term of two months to one year,or a fine of 200500 calculation indices(KGS20,000 16 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife 50,000:USD227567),or imprisonment for up to two years with loss of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities for up to three years.3.The acts covered by 1 and 2 of this Article,if committed:1)on the territory of a state reserve,sanctuary or in an ecological disaster or emergency zone;2)in relation to rare and endangered species of animals,as well as animals on which a ban on use has been introduced;3)by a person to whom the animals were entrusted in connection with his/her official position or were under their protection;4)with the infliction of particularly excessive damage;5)with the infliction of grievous harm by negligence are punishable by a fine of 1,0002,000 calculation indices(KGS100,000200,000:USD215430)or imprisonment of 25 years.Offences CodeOffences Code The Offences Code covers acts in relation to plants and animals that entail administrative liability in the form of fines.Chapter 28 of the Code contains 17 Articles concerning“Offences relating to the field management and protection of fauna and flora”as follows:Article 253.Violation of the procedure for burning vegetation Article 254.Violation of the procedure for the introduction and acclimatisation of wild plant species Article 255.Violation of the rules for the creation and circulation of zoological and botanical collections Article 256.Violation of fire safety rules in forests Article 257.Violation of requirements for the protection of the environment for animals Article 258.Violation of the rules for the restoration and improvement of forests Article 259.Destruction of fauna useful for the forest Article 260.Violation of the rules of reforestation Article 261.Illegal hunting or extraction of animal products Article 262.Export,transportation,storage and sale of illegally obtained animal products Article 263.Violation of the rules of hunting Article 265.Violation of plant cultivation technology Article 266.Violation of the rules of fishing Article 267.Use in fishing of synthetic fishing nets,electric fishing systems 17 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife Article 268.Import,production,manufacture and sale of synthetic fishing nets,electric fishing systems Article 269.Violation of the procedure for the operation of water intake facilities Article 270.Violation of the procedure for the use of feed additives Violation of these articles is punishable by fines ranging from 10650 calculation indices(KGS1,00065,000:USD11736).Three Articles are worth highlighting:ArticleArticle 261 261 Illegal hunting or extraction of wildlife 1.Illegal hunting or extraction of animal products,including fish or aquatic animals,which cause“minor damage”entail a fine of 100 calculation indices(KGS10,000:USD113).2.The same acts committed in spawning areas or on migratory routes entail a fine of 200 calculation indices(KGS20,000:USD226).“Minor damage”refers to material(property)damage at the time of the offence worth between 10100 calculation indices(KGS1,00010,000:USD11113).ArticleArticle 262 262 Export,transportation,storage and sale of illegally obtained animal products 1.Export,transportation,storage,and sale of illegally obtained animal products protected in accordance with international treaties or that are listed in the national Red Data Book,including their products,parts,skins,as well as fur,entail the imposition of a fine for individuals of 200 calculation indices(KGS20,000:USD226),or for legal entities 650 calculation indices(KGS65,000:USD737).2.Export,transportation,storage or sale of illegally caught fish and fish products including caviar entails a fine for individuals of 100 calculation indices(KGS10,000:USD113),or for legal entities 280 calculation indices(KGS28,000:USD317).3.Actions under 2 of this Article committed in relation to especially valuable and endemic species of fish entail the imposition of a fine for individuals of 200 calculation indices(KGS20,000:USD226),or for legal entities 650 calculation indices(KGS65,000:USD737).Article 264.Article 264.Violation of the procedure for the purchase and sale of raw materials of wild plants and(or)their parts and products 18 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife Violation of the procedure for the purchase and sale of medicinal or technical raw materials of wild plants-entail a fine in the amount of 55(KGS5,500)calculation indices for individuals and 170(KGS17,000)calculation indices for legal entities.PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND GAPS IDENTIFICATION The analysis allows us to conclude that the implementation of strategic documents,normative acts in the field of illegal trade in flora and fauna,reveals the need to improve law enforcement practice,the enforceability of legislative norms,and improve public administration rather than change legal frameworks.One of the characteristic features of the legislation of the Kyrgyz Republic in the field of biodiversity and environmental management is the branching,despite the same goals and objectives,the types of regulated resources,the similarity of norms and requirements.Based on the results of the study,our team made the following conclusions:1.There is insufficient coordination between the relevant bodies.One example is the Border Guard Service under the SCNS of the Kyrgyz Republic,which does not transmit information to the Ministry of Natural Resources,Ecology and Technical Supervision of the Kyrgyz Republic and,as a result,the Ministry does not have all the information on illegal trade in wild animals and plants.Moreover,the issue of coordination between law enforcement agencies both within themselves and with other members of the Cabinet of Ministers of the Kyrgyz Republic is not clear.In the course of negotiations with representatives from the Ministry of Natural Resources,Ecology and Technical Supervision of the Kyrgyz Republic,the main ways of interaction with other departments only on the issuance of permits(the Institute of Biology of the NAC KR-the Scientific Body of CITES KR,the Veterinary Service under the Ministry of Agriculture of the Kyrgyz Republic and the Customs Service under the Ministry of Finance of the Kyrgyz Republic)were revealed,but not in matters of monitoring and suppressing offenses.2.The legislative framework of the Kyrgyz Republic sufficiently regulates the issues of illegal trade in wild animals and plants,including considering the obligations assumed under CITES and the EAEU.Thus,within the framework of CITES,the relevant departments provide annual reports on the issued permits indicating all the applicants data and information about the subject of the permit.Moreover,it is worth noting that the norms of the EAEU and CITES are harmonised and are legally properly integrated into the national legal system.Furthermore,the EEAS standards cover a larger range of animals and plants.Attention should also be drawn to CITES 19 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife and the Convention text,specifically to Article XIV Effect on Domestic Legislation and International Conventions,paragraphs 2 and 3,according to which 2.The provisions of this Convention shall in no way affect the provisions of any domestic measures or obligations of the Parties under any treaty,convention or international agreement relating to other aspects of the trade,extraction,possession,or transport of specimens which is in force or may subsequently enter into force for any Party,including any measures pertaining to the Customs,public health,veterinary or plant quarantine fields.3.The provisions of this Convention shall in no way affect the provisions or obligations arising from any treaty,convention or international agreement concluded or which may be concluded between States establishing a union or a regional trade agreement which establish or maintain common external Customs controls and removing Customs control between the parties to such an agreement,to the extent that they relate to trade between States.the parties to such an alliance or agreement.,which means that even if they(the EAEU and CITES)contradicted each other,the norms of the EAEU would prevail.3.Implementation and enforcement of the laws addressing illegal trade in wild animals and plants is low and there is little reporting on the issue in the media,possible reasons for this are as follows:Penalties are not applied because,when detained,violators bribe the police officers,after which they are released without the use of measures.The media are not interested in further monitoring cases,since such cases are not resonant,do not cause great interest and are not of commercial interest.Crimes of this nature occur far from public places,respectively,it is not always possible to learn about such cases,since there is no source of information.4.In the period from 2020 to 2022,only one event of illegal movement of animals and plants across the state border was recorded and prevented.Possible reasons why only one event was registered can be as follows:There are no illegal movements of animals and plants within the CITES framework through the state of the Kyrgyz Republic;Illegal movements are carried out,but border guards are unable to detect such cases due a lack of awareness and limited resources or do not report these to various possible reasons(omissions in the work of border guards,insufficient control over the territory of the state border,bribery,etc.);20 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife To address some of the above conclusions,the following recommendations have been developed:1.To increase the expertise of civil servants of the Kyrgyz Republic in relation to knowledge in the field of CITES Convention,it is necessary to organise and conduct appropriate trainings/events on familiarization with the CITES Convention.As we have learned,due to the high turnover of personnel in the relevant state body,the requirements of CITES are often perceived as providing annual reports and a set of information in advance of the preparation of such a report.However,there is no understanding of the holistic picture of the implementation of the norms of CITES itself,especially in the field of combating illegal trade.2.For full and correct tracking of illegal trade in wild animals and plants,it is necessary to work out a sustainable mechanism for coordinating the state bodies involved(both law enforcement and other ministries and departments of the Cabinet of Ministers).The Ministries themselves understand this and therefore at this stage began to develop electronic databases for trade in wild flora and fauna with the access of controlling and supervisory authorities.The main purpose of creating this database is to suppress and identify the events of illegal trade and conserve wildlife.The technical specifications of this database have been developed and meetings have been held with departments for Reconciliation.To date,the technical task of the planned base is at the stage of coordination.However,given the limited budget funds for the development of such a platform and taking into account the need for its further integration into the Tunduk system,it is recommended to start seeking funding from international development partners.It is assumed that the development of such an information platform also has a positive impact on the international ratings of our country(Transparency International,Corruption Perceptions Index etc.).3.There is a need to increase media coverage of the illegal wildlife trade in order to draw public attention to the issue,which will continue to be a deterrent.One of these ways seems to be interaction with local government agencies.In the course of the entire analysis,separate schemes of interaction with relevant authorities(on the issuance of permits for trade)and law enforcement agencies(on the detection of violations)were revealed.However,not a single event and interaction is carried out with local government agencies.It is in remote areas that the main illegal actions(illegal hunting,fishing,etc.)occur.Taking into account the recent amendments to the legislation on local self-government bodies aimed at strengthening their role and decentralization of power,the relevant department needs to strengthen the 21 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife coordination of efforts with local government agencies:data exchange,field research and monitoring,education of the local population,etc.4.The general recommendation concerns greater supervision and control over border areas,to further prevent attempts at illegal trade in wild animals and plants.However,this measure has two facets:on the one hand,only in this way(and taking into account the digitalization of all customs procedures)it is possible to reduce and calculate attempts to illegally transport and trade in flora and fauna,and on the other hand,conscientious citizens and business representatives always suffer from such measures,in which each shipment is accompanied by a huge number of permits.And the introduction of additional procedures is an additional financial burden.Related to coordination of law enforcement authorities not only at a national but also at an international level,perhaps a good suggestion would also be that the government appoints a CITES Enforcement Focal Point(i.e.,CITES Law Enforcement Authority)to help strengthen communication/collaboration with those of other Parties 22 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN GENERAL INFORMATION The Republic of Kazakhstan(hereafter Kazakhstan)is a vast country with an area of 2.725 million km2 making it the worlds ninth largest country,larger than the whole of Western Europe.Much of the country comprises vast steppe grasslands,with areas of sandy deserts and semi-deserts,saxaul thickets while the Tien Shan and Altai mountains are covered with coniferous forests.With such a range of habitats covering a wide geographical area,it is hardly surprising the country hosts a wealth of biological diversity.These include more than 6,000 plant speciessome of them endemic,more than 500 species of birds,around 180 mammals species plus dozens of reptiles,amphibians,and fishes.Kazakhstan acceded to CITES in 2000 and in order to fulfil its requirements under this Convention in 2004 introduced the Law On the protection,reproduction and use of wildlife No.593 that forms the backbone of legislation relevant to this study.REVIEW OF LEGISLATION The principal laws of Kazakhstan relating to wild fauna,including their trade,are the Law On the Accession of the Republic of Kazakhstan to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora dated 6th April 1999 No.372-1 and the Law On the protection,reproduction and use of wildlife dated 9th July 2004 No.593.23 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife Flora issues are regulated by the Forest Code dated 8th July 2003 No.477 and the Law On Flora dated 2nd January 2023 No.183-VII.These legislative acts provide the basis for the development of rules relating to the trade in animals and plants.The main and subsidiary national legislation related to internal and external trade in wild animals and plants in Kazakhstan is comprised by:6 Codes;9 Laws;2 Resolutions of the Government;14 by-laws;2 Decisions of the Board of the EAEU.In Kazakhstan permission to collect,harvest,and sell wild animals and plants is possible by obtaining an appropriate licence,permit or notification.All licences,permits and notifications are classed as public services and as such are regulated by by-laws in accordance with the requirements of the Law On Public Services dated 15th April 2013 No.88-V.Almost all such public services are automated as far as possible through the e-government web portal elicense.kz and,regardless of the specifics of the public service,by-laws regulating the procedures for their provision are approved in accordance with Article 13 of the Law On public services.All licences,permits and notifications are summarised in a single register of public services approved by order of the Acting Minister of Digital Development,Innovation and Aerospace Industry dated 31st January 2020 No.39/K.Procedures governing the implementation of a permit or notification are regulated under the Law“On Permits and Notifications”dated 16th May 2014 No.202-V.LITIGATION AND CAPACITY The Criminal Procedure Code was approved on 4th July 2014 No.231-V,based on the countrys Constitution and generally recognised principles and norms of international law.Criminal cases relating to rare and endangered wildlife species,their parts or derivatives come under Article 339 of the Criminal Code approved on 3rd July 2014 No.226-V.Article 339 was strengthened in December 2019 to provide for the illegal taking,purchase,possession,sale,import,export,shipment,transportation or destruction of saiga Saiga spp.,their parts or derivatives,including saiga horns,for which the sanction is imprisonment from 35 years,with confiscation of property.24 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife Saiga poaching is one of the main wildlife trade issues affecting Kazakhstan.Saiga is currently listed in Appendix II of CITES with a zero-export quota for wild specimens traded for commercial purposes,while within Kazakhstan there is a ban on the use of saiga derivatives.Therefore,a review of all criminal cases in 2022 involving illegal hunting of saiga in West Kazakhstanthe region where most such poaching takes placewas carried out to assess the relative strengths and weaknesses of Article 339.Some 26 criminal cases relating to illegal saga hunting in contravention of Article 339 were identified.Currently,9 cases are in litigation.Of the remainder,in 15 cases the court-imposed punishments ranging from 2.57 years imprisonment with 18 people having to pay financial compensation for the damage to nature they had caused.In one case the court chose to release the accused owing to his mental state while another case was dismissed due to lack of evidence that a crime had been committed.The strengthening of Article 339 in 2019 has led to an increase in the severity of prison terms and financial penalties imposed upon convicted offenders.However,in none of the cases were the vehicles used by the poachers confiscated,even though Article 339 allows for this.Strengthening Article 339 further to make confiscation of vehicles and property where offences took place mandatory,would act as a severe deterrent to saiga poaching although this study concludes a more radical overhaul of all the current legislation relating to wildlife trade is needed.One significant weakness with the current legislation concerns meat of rare and endangered animals.Meat is not included in the list of derivatives in the approved Order of the Minister of Agriculture dated 16th February 2015 No.18-03/105 and such criminal cases do not fall within the scope of Article 339.Amendment of the order to include meat would remedy this,although it would lead to further delays in court proceedings given forensic testing would be needed to determine the origin of the meat and to prove it was notas has been demonstrated in some casesfrom domestic animals.In cases where violations of environmental legislation have taken place but there is no indication of a criminal act,there is an option to impose a fine on the individual(s)involved without the case going to court unless they chose not to pay.During cases,under Article 273 of the Criminal Procedure Code,the court has the authority to call for an outside forensic expert to be called in to contribute their scientific knowledge and examine case materials to help inform the court.Article 273.Persons who may be eArticle 273.Persons who may be entrusted with the production of judicial expertisentrusted with the production of judicial expertise 1.The production of a forensic examination may be entrusted to:1)employees of forensic examination bodies;25 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife 2)persons engaged in forensic activities on the basis of a licence;3)on a one-time basis to other persons in the manner and on the conditions provided for by law.The licence is obtained through the e-government portal eGov.kz.Also,by a court decision,input from experts lacking forensic licences but with a narrow field of expertise in other areas(such as species identification)can be considered as evidence.In order to solve the legal issue of accepting expert assessments of narrow specialists,it is necessary to introduce amendments to the legal documents regulating the acceptance of expert opinions in court cases against wildlife.It is necessary to amend the legal documents regulating the acceptance of expert opinions in court cases against wildlife to include amendments on the official right of the court to use these results as an expert opinion(at the legislative level,the competence to accept the opinions of experts or specialised institutions).conclusions of specialised experts or specialised institutions).APPLICABLE SANCTIONS Criminal Code of the Republic of KazakhstanCriminal Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan In cases of violation of environmental legislation,depending on the severity and nature of the crime,Articles 335,337,339 and 340 of the Criminal Code approved on 3rd July 2014 No.226-V are applied.In December 2019,Articles 335,337 and 339 of the Law“On Amendments and Additions to Certain Legislative Acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Improving Criminal,Criminal Procedure Legislation and Strengthening the Protection of Individual Rights”were amended to strengthen sanctions,including the introduction into Article 337 of a sanction that leads to imprisonment of up to 10 years and the changes made to Article 339 mentioned earlier.Article 380-1 provides for criminal liability for infringement on the life of state inspectors for the protection of wildlife and wildlife.the life of state inspectors for the protection of wildlife and specialised organisation for the protection of wildlife and gamekeepers,(in the old version only in relation to law enforcement officers,special(in the old version,only in relation to employees of law enforcement,specialised state body and military serviceman).Also,a new Article 380-2 was introduced,which provides for criminal liability for the use of violence against a state inspector for the protection of animal world and specialised 26 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife organisation for the protection of animal world and gamekeeper with imprisonment up to 12 years.A bA brief rief overviewoverview of criminal liability measuresof criminal liability measures Article 335 of the Criminal Code The minimum penalty for illegal harvesting of fish resources,other aquatic animals or plants is an administrative fine of 3,000 calculation indices or public labour to the same value,or by community service of up to 800 hours,or by imprisonment for up to three years possibly with confiscation of property and loss of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities for up to five years.The maximum penalty is imprisonment for 610 years with confiscation of property and loss of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities for up to ten years.Article 337 of the Criminal Code The minimum penalty for illegal hunting is an administrative fine of 3,000 calculation indices or public labour to the same value,or community service of up to 800 hours,or imprisonment for up to three years,possibly with confiscation of property and loss of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities for up to three years.The maximum penalty is imprisonment for a term of 610 years,with confiscation of property and loss of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities for up to ten years.Article 339 of the Criminal Code The minimum penalty for illegal acquisition,storage,sale,import,export,transfer,transportation or destruction of rare and endangered species of plants or animals,their parts or derivatives,including species whose handling is regulated by international treaties,as well as plants or animals on which a ban on the use of the individuals,parts and derivatives has been introduced,as well as the destruction of their habitats,is punishable by a fine of 3,000 calculation indices or public labour to the same value,or by community service of up to 800 hours,or by imprisonment for up to three years possibly with confiscation of property too and loss of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities for up to five years.The maximum penalty is imprisonment for 712 years,with confiscation of property and loss of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities for a term up to five years.Article 340 of the Criminal Code The minimum penalty for illegal logging,destruction or damage of trees and shrubs that are not included in the forest fund and which harvesting is prohibited,except for trees and shrubs in home gardens,summer cottages and garden plots,as well as destruction or 27 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife damage to forest crops,seedlings or seedlings in forest nurseries and plantations,as well as young stands of natural origin,undergrowth,or self-sowing on areas intended for reforestation and afforestation that causes significant damage are punishable by a fine of up to 160 calculation indices,or by public labour to the same value,or by community service of up to 160 hours,or by imprisonment for up to 40 days,with confiscation of property.The maximum penalty is imprisonment of 510 years with confiscation of property,with or without loss of the right to hold certain positions or engage in certain activities for up to ten years.There are no separate rules regarding the confiscation of property from offenders although the procedures for carrying this out are set out in Article 48 of the Criminal Code.Confiscation of property can be applied by a court decision as a measure of of criminal law enforcement.Money and other goods are subject to confiscation:1)if received due to the commission of a criminal offence,also any income derived from it,with goods and additional income subject to return to the rightful owner;2)if obtained because of the commission of a criminal offence and the proceeds from this property have been partially or completely transformed or transformed;3)used or intended to finance or otherwise support extremist or terrorist activities or a criminal group;4)being an instrument or means of committing a criminal offence.Code in Administrative Offences of the Republic of KazakhstanCode in Administrative Offences of the Republic of Kazakhstan The acquisition,sale,transportation,import,export,and storage of wild animals and plants,their parts or derivatives is regulated under Article 389 of the Code on Administrative Offences dated 5th July 2014 No.235-V.The minimum penalty for violations entails a fine of 10 calculation incidences for individuals 30 calculation incidences for small businesses,50 for medium-sized businesses,or 70 calculation indices for large businesses,with confiscation of the wild animals and plants and their products.The maximum penalty for violations entails a fine of 20 for individuals,60 for small businesses,100 for medium-sized businesses,or 140 calculation indices for large businesses,with confiscation of the wild animals and plants and their products.The use of wildlife and hunting rules is regulated under Article 382 of the Code on Administrative Offences.28 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife The minimum penalty for violations entails a warning or a fine of 5 for individuals,25 for small businesses or non-profit organisations,50 for medium-sized businesses,or 100 calculation indices for large businesses.The maximum penalty for violations entails a fine of 70 for individuals,110 for small businesses or non-profit organisations,150 for medium-sized businesses,or 1,000 calculation indices for large businesses or loss of the right to hunt for a period of up to two years,with confiscation of items and(or)instruments for an administrative offence.Confiscation of hunting weapons,ammunition and other permitted hunting and fishing tools cannot be applied to those for whom hunting(fishing)is the main legal source of subsistence.National legislation does not have separate rules regarding confiscation of property from smugglers and poachers.Individuals from the regional territorial inspectorates for forestry and wildlife and the specialist State Enterprise PA“Okhotzooprom”organisation were asked about the Articles of the Administrative and Criminal Codes that regulate environmental legislation and are actively used by them in their work although no feedback was received on any need to improve or change their structure.Information onInformation on gross violations in the field of wildlife protection identified in West gross violations in the field of wildlife protection identified in West Kazakhstan for 2022 Kazakhstan for 2022 are are provided in Appendix 4provided in Appendix 4.EAEU legislation and how it affects state implementation at the national levelEAEU legislation and how it affects state implementation at the national level The following have been approved by order of the Minister of Ecology,Geology and Natural Resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated 12th August 2020 No.187 within the framework of the EAEU:1)Rules for Issuance of a licence for the export from Kazakhstan of wild live animals,individual wild plants and wild medicinal raw materials as a public service.2)Rules for Issuance of a licence for the export from Kazakhstan of rare and endangered species of wild animals and wild plants included in the Red Data Book of the Republic of Kazakhstan,in accordance with the Decree of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan 31st October 2006 No.1034 as a public service.The following has been approved by order of the Acting Minister of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan within the framework of CITES:1)Rules for“Issuance of permits by the Management Authority for import into the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan,export and(or)re-export from the territory of the Republic 29 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife of Kazakhstan of animal species subject to CITES”dated 27th February 2015 No.18-03/143;The following has been approved by order of the Minister of Ecology,Geology and Natural Resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan:2)Rules for“Issuance of permits by the Management Authority for import into the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan,export and(or)re-export from the territory of the Republic of Kazakhstan of flora specimens,their parts and derivatives subject to CITES”dated 10th June 2020 No.138.In Kazakhstan licensing procedures are clearly regulated under the Law“On Public Services”dated 15th April 2013 No.88-V.All the Rules are public services,in accordance with lines 644,645,741 and 743 of the register of public services approved by the Order of the Acting Minister of Digital Development,Innovation and Aerospace Industry dated 31st January 2020 No.39/K.According to paragraph 1 of the note to section 2.7 of the Decision of the Board of the EAEU On measures of non-tariff regulation dated 21st April 2015 No.30,products specified in section 2.7 can be moved across the customs border of the EAEU without issuing a licence in accordance with CITES procedures.Similarly,species included in the CITES Appendices can be moved across the customs border of the EAEU without issuing a licence for the export of wild animals and plants included in the Kazakhstan Red Data Book in accordance with the Decree of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated 31st October 2006 No.1034 approved by order of the Minister of Ecology,Geology and Natural Resources dated 13th September 2021 No.368.An issue with this system is that any changes to CITES-listed species are not automatically reflected in section 2.7 resulting in constant bureaucratic procedures to amend it.This could be addressed through linking section 2.7 directly to the CITES website.Both Rules for the Management Authority to issue permits for import,export and(or)re-export to/from Kazakhstan of CITES-listed animal species have been approved by order of the Minister of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated 27th February 2015 No.18-03/143 and Rules for the Management Authority to issue permits for import,export and(or)re-export to/from Kazakhstan of CITES-listed flora species,their parts and derivatives have been approved by order of the Minister of Ecology of Geology and Natural Resources dated 10th June 2020 No.138,encapsulate all the Rules for Issuance of a licence for the export of rare and endangered species of wild animals and wild plants included in the Red Data Book of the Republic of Kazakhstan,in accordance with the Decree of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated 31st October 2006 No.1034 as public services.Note,30 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife however,that licences for the export of rare and endangered species of wild animals and wild plants included in the Kazakhstan Red Data Book have never been issued.31 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife Table 2:A summary of the strengths and weaknesses of existing rules Strengths Weaknesses Of issuance a licence for the export of live wild animals,individual wild plants and wild medicinal raw materials Automated procedure for submitting documents to obtain a licence Limited reasons for refusal to issue a licence Insufficient time for full consideration of all relevant documents The documents required for obtaining a licence need to be clearly specified.Currently the term“other document”is used,meaning it is possible to submit any document,creating a clear risk for system abuse Issuance of a licence for the export of rare and endangered species of wild animals and wild plants included in the Kazakhstan Red Data Book in accordance with the decree of the government of the Republic of Kazakhstan dated 31st October 2006 no.1034 Automated procedure for submitting documents to obtain a licence Limited reasons for refusal to issue a licence Insufficient time for full consideration of all relevant documents The documents required for obtaining a licence need to be clearly specified.Currently the term“other document”is used,meaning it is possible to submit any document,creating a clear risk for system abuse No licences have ever been issued under this system even though it is possible to do so Rules for the issuance by a Management Authority of permits for import,export and(or)re-export to/from Kazakhstan of CITES-listed flora species,parts or derivatives Automated procedure for submitting documents to obtain a licence Limited reasons for refusal to issue a permit Insufficient time for full consideration of all relevant documents One type of permit for all categories of plants,regardless of the purpose of their movement Permits only valid for 6 months 32 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife Based on one permit,it is possible to export only two types of plants,without limiting their number Rules for the issuance by Management Authority of permits for import,export and(or)re-export to/from Kazakhstan of CITES-listed animal species,their parts or derivatives Automated procedure for submitting documents to obtain a licence Limited reasons for refusal to issue a permit Insufficient time for full consideration of all relevant documents Permits only valid for 6 months One type of permit for all categories of animals,regardless of the purpose of their movement PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND GAPS IDENTIFICATION The Law On the protection,reproduction and use of wildlife dated 9th July 2004 No.593Law On the protection,reproduction and use of wildlife dated 9th July 2004 No.593,is aimed at helping to conserve wildlife,maintain biological diversity,and ensure the sustainable use of wildlife.Article 19 of the Law regulates artificial breeding of animals,including those species listed in CITES.According to subparagraph 40)of Article 1 of the Law,artificial breeding is the maintenance and breeding of animal species held in captivity and(or)semi-free conditions,including lake fish farms,caged fish farms,pond fish farms and fish farms with a closed water supply cycle.Article 259 of the Environmental Code dated 2nd January 2021 No.400-VI also regulates the artificial breeding in captivity and(or)semi-free conditions of rare and endangered species of animals,including those listed in CITES.These species are listed in subparagraph 4)paragraph 2 of Article 259.However,Articles 19 and 259 do not correspond to one another.Furthermore,an order of the Deputy Prime Minister Minister of Agriculture dated 25th August 2017 No.354,stating the Rules for keeping,breeding in captivity and semi-free conditions of rare and endangered species of animals and those listed in CITES corresponds to neither of these Articles.According to subparagraph 56)of Article 1 of Law No.593,permission from the authorised body(Committee of Forestry and Wildlife)is required for artificial breeding of animals in any category.However,the title of the permit for this is not given,nor apparently is there such a permit for the Committee of Forestry and Wildlife to issue.Clearly this situation can lead to considerable confusion.Article 43-1 of Law No.593 does reference the need for permission to breed animals artificially but makes no reference as to whether these include rare and endangered species as well as those listed in CITES.It is therefore unclear whether 33 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife one or two different permissions are needed to breed these species.To complicate matters further,the Law“On amendments and additions to certain legislative acts of the Republic of Kazakhstan on the reduction of permit documents and simplification of permit procedures”dated 29th March 2016 No.479-V,the competence of the authorised body(Committee of Forestry and Wildlife)to register those engaged in artificial breeding of CITES Appendix I and II-listed species was not established.The Rules for this were established by order of the Minister of Agriculture dated 31st March 2015 No.18-03/288,but were invalidated by a subsequent order of the Minister of Agriculture dated 12th May 2016 No.215.There is therefore little clarity on the procedure to be followed when applying for permission to artificially breed animals,in particular CITES Appendices I and II listed species.There is also a lack of legal clarity on the requirements for the legalisation of animals seized from smugglers and animals found sick or in a state of distress.There is additional confusion in the current legislation.According to subparagraph 29)of Article 1 of the Law On Permits and Notifications dated 16th May 2014 No.202-V,state bodies should be informed about any intention to artificially breed animal species listed in CITES Appendices I and II before operations commence.Article 16 of the same Law stipulates that a permit or notification procedure is required for artificial breeding to take place depending on the level of danger of the activities,as indicated below:1)category one permits:licences to carry out activities or operations associated with a high level of danger;2)category two permissions:permits(not licences)to carry out activities or operations associated with a medium level of danger;3)notifications:those carrying out activities or operations associated with a low level of danger are required to inform relevant state authorities about the beginning or termination of such activities or operations.According to subparagraph 2)of paragraph 3 of the Rules for issuing permits by the Management Authority for import,export and(or)re-export to/from Kazakhstan of CITES-listed animal species dated 27th February 2015 No.18-03/143,when samples are imported into Kazakhstan,a copy of the export permit or re-export certificate from the country of origin is required if the sample is listed in Appendices I,II or III of CITES.This does not precisely align with CITES regulations,creating a legal conflict with negative consequences for zoos and private organisations involved in the official trade of animal products.34 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife Paragraph 3 of the Rules for issuance of permits by the Management Authority for import,export and(or)re-export to/from Kazakhstan of CITES-listed specimens of flora,their parts and derivatives,approved by Order of the Minister of Ecology,Geology and Natural Resources dated 10th June 2020 No.138 specifies that permission to do so requires a positive conclusion of a scientific body in accordance with Articles III-V of CITES.However,the legislation does not define the scientific body for flora,so it is not possible to obtain this positive conclusion.To clarify this,the legislation therefore needs to identify the scientific body for flora issues,perhaps adding the name of the relevant institution through an amendment to the existing Decree“On measures to ensure the fulfilment by the Republic of Kazakhstan of obligations arising from CITES”dated 28th December 1999 No.1994.Similarly,small changes to the Order of the Minister of Agriculture dated 16th February 2015 No.18-03/105 would help improve their legal clarity.Paragraph 3“Derivatives of Animals”could have the terms“Meat”,“Wool”,“Hair”,and“Skins”added,while paragraph 4“Products made from animals and their derivatives”could have“Meat products”,“Wool products”and“Leather products”added.Such amendments would specify exactly what the two terms mean,which in turn would help court cases deal with offences made under this legislation.However,as noted earlier,this study concluded a more radical overhaul of all current wildlife trade legislation is needed.35 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife THE REPUBLIC OF TAJIKISTAN GENERAL INFORMATION The Republic of Tajikistan(hereafter Tajikistan)is a relatively small(143,100 km2)mountainous country in Central Asia.The Pamir,Tien Shan,and Gissar-Alai mountain ranges occupy 93%of Tajikistan which is bordered In the south and east by Afghanistan and China and to the north and west by Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan.There are more than 1,000 mountain glaciers in Tajikistan,the largest of them the Fedchenko mountain-valley glacier,which is around 70km long.The country has 950 rivers of more than 10km in length that originate mainly in the Pamir and Gissar-Alay mountains in the Amudarya river basin.Most of the 1,300 lakes are located in the Pamir and Gissar-Alay mountains too,the largest of them is Lake Karakul(located at an altitude of about 4000 m above sea level).There are also nine artificial reservoirs.The flora of Tajikistan is very rich and diverse with more than 4,500 plant species,around 1,000 of them found only in Tajikistan and neighbouring countries.The country is home to 84 mammal species and subspecies,around 400 bird,49 reptile,80 fish,2 aquatic animal,and more than 13,000 invertebrate species.A number of species of global significance occur,including Snow Leopard Panthera uncia,Pamir Mountain Sheep Ovis ammon polii(Argali),Mountain Goat Capra falconeri(Markhor),and Bukhara Deer Cervus elaphus yarkandensis.8 8The State Environmental Program of the Republic of Tajikistan for 20232028 36 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife Tajikistan is a party to several international agreements related to the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity,including CITES,the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals(CMS),the Convention on Wetlands,of international importance mainly as habitats for waterfowl(Ramsar),as well as the UN Convention to Combat Desertification(UNCCD).REVIEW OF LEGISLATION Tajikistan has several laws that relate to the trade and use of wild animals and plants.For a complete list,see Appendix 6.Following the countrys accession to CITES on 24th June 2015,the government passed a Resolution on 26th November 2015,No.696,which designated the Committee for Environmental Protection as the authorised body for liaising with the CITES Secretariat and on 2nd July 2021 passed a Decree,No.7,which approved the procedure for issuing permits for the import and export of CITES-listed animals and plants.The same Decree approved the Management Authority(Committee for Environmental Protection)and the Scientific Authority(National Center for Biodiversity and Biosafety)and determined the responsible person for communicating with the CITES Secretariat and CITES parties.Issuance of permitsIssuance of permits Tajikistan has several laws relating to the protection and use of flora and fauna,including their import and export,the hunting of animals and the collection and sale of wild plants including:“On the protection and use of flora”,“On the licensing system”,“On licensing certain types of activities”,On hunting and hunting activities,On wildlife,On other obligatory payments to the budget.There are also Regulations on licensing of certain activities,approved by a Resolution dated 3rd April 2007 No.172,Regulations on hunting and game management approved on 16th July 1997 No.324,and a Resolution“On approval of the rates of collection for the implementation of legally significant actions and fees for issuing a permit for the use of natural and other available resources”dated 2nd November 2007 No.546,In addition,the import and export of CITES-listed animals and the procedures for issuing permits are set out in an approved Decree dated 2nd July 2021,No.7.Import and export of all other animals,including those included in the national Red Data Book,is carried out on the basis of phytosanitary and veterinary standards.For plants,the Law On the protection and use of flora includes provisions for the authorised body to limit or temporarily suspend the use of certain species.These can be applied to particular regions,for example,so that plants within protected areas cannot be 37 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife exploited commercially.The law does not cover all aspects of the use and trade of plants however.Indeed,the laws surrounding licensing legislation for the use and trade in plants include several areas where they could be improved.For example,there is no clear distinction between the establishment of limits and quotas and the issuance of permits based upon them for the use of flora species(including forests).According to the Law“On the Permitting System”,the authorised body that oversees environmental protection can issue two types of permits relating to the use of flora:permission to use objects of flora and fauna;forest use permit However,in accordance with Article 50 of the Forest Code,the right to use forests on state forest fund lands requires a forest ticket that is issued annually by the state forest owner to the forest user to use the forest resources specified in an agreement.The fact forest tickets are issued by state forest owners and not by the Committee for Environmental Protection is not considered in the Law“On the Permit System”.Limits and quotas should be clearly linked with the types of use of flora provided for in Article 13 of the Law“On the Protection and Use of Flora”,as well as Article 56 of the Forest Code.However,the Law does not specify which plant products can be used with or without permits or what restrictions there are on different types of use.These factors are also missing from the Forest Code.The Law“On the Protection and Use of the Flora includes a list of wild plant species(or parts thereof)that cannot be removed or whose removal is restricted from their natural environment.However,the national Red Data Book also covers this too.This ambiguity in legislation means that confusion over the establishment of limits and quotas and the issuance of permits essentially means there is no effective control over the use of flora(including forestry use)of species listed in CITES and/or the national Red Data Book.This is in contrast to e.g.animal hunting where a special Procedure has been adopted for the export and import of CITES-listed animals.Clearly there is a need to develop legislation along similar lines to cover CITES-listed flora species.LITIGATION AND CAPACITY There are three bodies in Tajikistan responsible for the production and consideration of administrative cases relating to wildlife offences:1.Judiciary 2.Committee for Environmental Protection 38 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife 3.State forestry and hunting inspection of the Forestry Agency.Courts consider administrative offence cases in violation of Articles 182,189,part 2 of Article 198,Articles 205,207,208,210214,577,579 of the Procedural Code of Administrative Offences of the Republic of Tajikistan.Additionally,regardless of jurisdiction,courts can impose penalties in the form of a fine of up to 300 calculation indices,loss of a licence to carry out certain activities,loss of an individuals rights and seizure or confiscation of items relating to an offence.Bodies controlling the use and protection of the environment consider administrative offence cases in violation of Articles 203,204,206,209,215,216,217,218,220,227 of the Procedural Code of Administrative Offences with specialist forestry and hunting control bodies considering such cases in violation of Articles 183188.1)Judicial review of cases1)Judicial review of cases There are no specialised judges in Tajikistan to consider different categories of offences,such as civil,administrative,and criminal cases.The training of specialised judges could reduce the burden on the court system by increasing the efficiency with dealing with cases relating to wildlife crime.However,for several reasons,not least the cost of setting up such a system,this is not a practical proposition.Interviews with Committee for Environmental Protection and Forestry Service staff indicate that most judges lack specialist knowledge of environmental protection issues.This is exacerbated by conflicting regulations and a lack of access to information.For example,the regulations regarding the import and export of wildlife are not available on the Committee for Environmental Protection website or the legal database“Adlia”or the Tajikistan Trade Portal.The Committee for Environmental Protection Order regarding the procedures to be followed during import and export are not even registered with the Ministry of Justice.There is also no approved list of animals in accordance with CITES.This inevitably has impacts on the actions taken by enforcement agencies against illegal wildlife trade and the implementation of sanctions following court cases.It would be appropriate to develop a methodology defining the administrative procedures for criminal investigation of these cases as well as for their consideration by the courts.To worsen matters,the Decree of the Plenum of the Supreme Court of the Republic of Tajikistan“On the practice of application by courts of legislation in cases arising from violations of laws on nature protection”was adopted on the basis of legal acts that have long since become invalid.Therefore,the adoption of a new Resolution of the Plenum on generalised practices in such cases would be very apposite.2)Institutional issues2)Institutional issues There are issues around the demarcation of the roles of nature protection and forestry authorities regarding their oversight of wildlife use issues.Even though the Committee for Environmental Protection has broad powers to control the use of flora and fauna 39 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife resources,it does not have sufficient institutional capacity to perform all the functions assigned to it.The Committee does not control the authority that carries out wildlife inspections although some of the role of inspectors is carried out from the Central Office of the Committee i.e.by staff whose departments are also entrusted with policy development and industry regulation.This can lead to inefficiencies in operation.Meanwhile the dedicated State Forestry and Hunting Inspectorate is limited to dealing with forestry matters and lacks inspectors in the field.3)Issues in dea3)Issues in dealing with administrative offencesling with administrative offences a)detentiona)detention The Procedural Code states that those arrested on suspicion of committing an administrative offence should only be detained for up to three hours,although in exceptional cases this can be extended up to ten days.A suspect can also be detained until a judge can consider the case,with a written notification sent to the prosecutor although the detention time cannot be more than 24 hours from the time of arrest.The Procedural Code also stipulates that detainees are kept in premises or special institutions created by local authorities that meet sanitary and maintenance requirements and exclude the possibility of escape by detainees.Neither the Committee for Environmental Protection nor the Forestry Agency has such premises,nor does either possess adequate facilities for storage of contraband.This is partly because Committee for Environmental Protection staff do not have the capacity to carry out routine inspection work.b)protocols on administrative offencesb)protocols on administrative offences Although the Procedural Code specifies a wide range of those entitled to draw up protocols on administrative offences,such as the director,deputies,heads of departments of reserves and national(natural)parks,various officials of the Forestry Department,Forestry Agency,and Hunting Department,the staff in these positions are not inspectors but deal with managerial issues.The same list also appears in the Regulations on the procedure for exercising state control over the use,reproduction,and protection of forests in Tajikistan dated 21st September 2000 No.388.However,the Regulations do not reflect the structural changes in the system that have occurred in recent years.c)exemption from administrative responsibilityc)exemption from administrative responsibility There are problems applying legal exemptions from administrative liability in relation to most fauna and flora-related offences.Article 25 of the Code of Administrative Offences states that when an offence is insignificant the judge can release the accused without punishment and confine himself/herself to an oral remark.The Procedural Code recognises as insignificant an offence that inflicted material damage to an individual of up 40 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife to one calculation indices,and to a legal entity up to ten calculation indices.However,the level of compensation for damage caused to forests and other forms of wildlife is much larger and calculated in accordance with the Decree“On the procedure for the amount of compensation for damage caused to the forest fund and other objects of the flora and fauna by individuals and legal entities”dated 31st December 2014,No.790.This is much higher.The fine for unauthorised felling or damage to trees and shrubs(to the extent of cessation of growth)for a tree with a stump diameter of 28.1cm or more is 1234 calculation indices.Illegal hunting or keeping in captivity of wild animals and birds not included in the national Red Data Book can be from 2030 calculation indices or for hunting animals included in the national Red Data Book between 118,000 calculation indices.In practice this results in much abuse of the system and misapplication of environmental legislation with an increase in cases of illegal wildlife trade.4)criminal proceedings4)criminal proceedings Part 1 of Article 232 of the Criminal Code stipulates that illegal hunting can be considered a criminal offence if it causes major damage with compensation calculated as 300 calculation indices.However,this fails to consider the damage to wild animals and birds listed in the national Red Data Book for which the compensation rate is 5508,000 calculation indices.The outcome is that it can be hard to decide whether illegal hunting causes sufficient damage to be considered a criminal act.Paragraph b of Article 232 also provides for criminal liability for hunting birds and animals when it is prohibited.In effect this means that criminal liability only applies for hunting of birds and animals listed in the national Red Data Book.However,Article 207 of the Code of Administrative Offences provides for administrative liability for the destruction of rare animals and plants,i.e.those listed in the national Red Data Book.This situation leads to an increase in criminal convictions of citizens but also to the improper application of environmental legislation,including liability for illegal trade.It also leads to abuse and ineffectiveness in efforts to address illegal wildlife trade.Furthermore,the Criminal Code does not provide for criminal liability for violation of hunting rules,for example,in the methods used.APPLICABLE SANCTIONS According to the Committee for Environmental Protection,in 2022 there were 1,684 cases involving the illegal use of flora.The administrative fines imposed totalled TJS521,875(USD47,500)in 384 cases with recovered damages to wildlife totalling TJS1,224,000(USD111,500).There were 562 cases relating to the illegal use of fish in 2022.These accrued total fines of TSJ127,628(USD11,600).There were 427 cases involving illegal use 41 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife of fauna with total fines of TJS78,754(USD7,200)applied and compensation damage recovered in 62 cases totalling TSJ50,454(USD4,600).According to the EPC(Environmental Protection Committee)of Tajikistan,in recent years the number of illegal wildlife trade cases has decreased,possibly because of the creation of hunting organisations,while no cases have taken place under Article 205 of the Code of Administrative Offences,i.e.the import or export of flora and fauna commodities without permission.Note that the issuance of an import and/or export permit is regulated only by the above Article,which was developed in accordance with CITES.Article 18 of the Law“On hunting and hunting economy”states that users of hunting grounds and hunters who have the right to special use of game animals also own the hunting products obtained and can,if they wish,trade these products without seeking additional permission aside from their compliance with veterinary rules.Therefore,this Law does not provide for obtaining import or export permits.In practice Article 18 is not applied and when hunting commodities are imported or exported permissions are only required as to their use.It is not necessary to have a separate permit for the extraction and export of hunting commodities given hunting permits include state approval for the extraction of animals from their habitat and the right of the hunter to export them.According to the Forestry Agency,most of their recent cases have been brought to court under Article 194 of the Code of Administrative Offences.However,there is some ambiguity in the wording of Article 194,including regarding the hunting of fauna and types of environmental destruction.This can lead to inefficient application of the provisions under the Law for penalties to be applied.PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND GAP IDENTIFICATION FaunaFauna The Law of the Republic of Tajikistan“On hunting and game economy”has several gaps in the regulation of hunting activities.The Law divides game animals into those with limited or non-limited quotas.Non-limited species are those with significant populations and a high rate of reproduction and therefore are considered not to require strict limits on the maximum allowable share of the population that can be hunted.Nevertheless,there may be restrictions on the allowable offtake,such as a specified hunting season or a limit on the number of permits granted allowing extraction of the animals or the number of hunting trips that can be made on one permit.Limited species are those whose removal,in order 42 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife to ensure the sustainability of populations,requires a clear restriction(in the form of the maximum allowable proportion of the population)that can be harvested.There are internal contradictions and ambiguities between the Articles of this Law regarding the issuance of permits for limited and non-limited types of hunting.Article 10 says that users of hunting grounds need a permit for non-limited game species and also a permit from an authorised state body for limited game species.It is unclear how the two permits differ.Paragraph 7 of Article 10 relates to the special use of game animals by hunters and users of hunting grounds on the basis of a hunting permit issued under this Law and in compliance with the Hunting Rules,which raises questions about the relationships between different permit types.Export and import of harvested animals included in the CITES Appendices are regulated by the Committee for Environmental Protection under Decree,No.7.In order to obtain permits for this a hunter must present licences and permits obtained to show they can hunt the animals in question,which are also distributed from the Committee for Environmental Protection.For the hunting of species included in CITES Appendix I,permission from the authorised CITES Scientific Authority of the host country is also required.However,the approved procedure does not provide for their involvement,nor does it set out clearly what the main tasks and functions are of the CITES Management and Scientific Authorities.Before such a permit can be issued,the hunter must pay an additional fee amounting to three calculation indices.There would be merit in developing a single,simplified procedure for the issuing of export and hunting permits,with a single permit to cover both,together with clarity over the fees paid by hunters.This would,however,be a complex process given the overlap of functions performed by the different state authority bodies(see below).Duplication of powersDuplication of powers It is often unclear which is the relevant authorised body that sets limits and quotas or restrictions and prohibitions in the use of wildlife resources.According to Article 11 of the Forest Code,forestry authorities are responsible for establishing the annual levels of permitted timber harvesting and firewood collection together with how much wild food,medicinal products,industrial fruits and plants can be harvested in state forests as well as the approval of quotas for animals hunted in them(with the exception of national Red Data Book-listed species).However,according to the Laws“On Flora”and“On Environmental Protection”,limits and quotas for the use of natural resources are established by the authorised state body on environmental protection.Furthermore,the Decree dated 3rd July 2014,No.435,says the 43 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife Forestry Agency is designated as the authorised state body in the fields of forestry and hunting.In accordance with subparagraph c of paragraph 5 of the Regulations of this body,the determination and approval of quotas for the use of forest and hunting resources by business entities,legal entities and individuals,as well as foreign citizens,with the exception of species listed in the national Red Data Book,falls under their authority.However,according to Regulations relating to the Committee for Environmental Protection dated 2nd September 2021,No.357,the authority of this body includes issuing permits to businesses and individuals for the use of natural resources,including flora and fauna commodities,import and export of plants(including timber),and waste for recycling.The Law“On Licensing Certain Types of Activities”sets out the regulations regarding the use of flora and fauna listed in the national Red Data Book.Licences for this are issued in accordance with an annual quota approved by the government.In accordance with Part 3 of Article 34 of the Law“On Hunting and Game Management”,the annual quotas for game animal species are determined by a special permit commission comprising representatives of authorised state bodies including those in the field of environmental protection,the Academy of Sciences and the society of hunters.Each licence is issued not for economic activity but for single action use of a specified flora or fauna commodity.This makes the licence a permissive document although the Law does not distinguish between licences and permits which causes confusion.The“Procedure for Issuing Permits for the Harvesting of Migratory,Rare and Endangered Species”dated 3rd July 2003 No.301 has not yet been brought into line with the provisions of the above Law.The Procedure allows for special permits to be issued by the Ministry of Nature Protection for the harvest of such species if there is a positive opinion from the Republican Commission.The latter can include representatives of interested ministries and departments and relevant local executive authorities.Neither this Procedure nor the CITES Permitting Procedure approved by the Committee for Environmental Protection addresses the functions of the CITES Scientific Authority,the National Center for Biodiversity and Biosafety.There is no by-law that clearly regulates the procedure for issuing permits for hunting animals not included in the Red Data Book Fees for the use of flora commoditiesFees for the use of flora commodities There is a contradiction in the legislation regarding the payment of fees for the use of flora commodities.The Law“On other obligatory payments to the budget”provides for a fee to be charged for the issuing of permits to use these commodities.The fee amount is established in accordance with the Resolution On approval of the rates of fees for the implementation of legally significant actions and fees for issuing permits for the use of natural and other available resources dated 2nd November 2007 No.546.However,the Law“On the Permit System”provides for a different fee amount,charged not for the permit 44 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife issuing but for the actual use of the forest and other flora commodities,and is calculated on the basis of three indicators.In this case the payment is transferred to the state budget.However permit issuing fees charged under the Law“On other obligatory payments to the budget”are paid into special funds of an authorised body on environmental protectionalthough the Forestry Agency is not included as one of them,again causing further confusion.Regulations goRegulations governing CITES implementation in Tajikistanverning CITES implementation in Tajikistan Import of regulated materials into Tajikistan is allowed under the Resolution of 4th October 2013,No.450,provided:An import quarantine permit has been issued by the central office of the Committee for Environmental Protection,who assess the risks after considering the international review of quarantine pests.A phytosanitary certificate has been issued by an authorised state body in the exporting country.Materials exported must meet the requirements stipulated by international agreements on quarantine and plant protection recognised by Tajikistan.Each batch of materials exported is subject to certification and must be accompanied by a standard phytosanitary certificate issued by inspectors although there is no legal act that regulates in detail the procedure for issuing these documents.Tajikistan does not have specific laws regulating the procedure for the import and export of CITES-listed flora commodities.Therefore,import and export of such commodities takes place only with the quarantine permit and phytosanitary certificate systems mentioned above.For customs clearance,the Customs Service has approved the documents and information required through an Order registered by the Ministry of Justice dated 16th July 2009 No.532.It details the permits,licences,certificates etc issued by authorised bodies that must be submitted during customs clearance and includes those that relate to international treaties to which Tajikistan is a party as well as those relating to national legislation.Import and export of hunting productsImport and export of hunting products There is no special legal act regulating the activities of foreign hunters in Tajikistan although any hunting trophies they take can only be exported if accompanied with a veterinary certificate.According to the Law“On Veterinary Medicine”a veterinary certificate is an international document issued by an authorised state body at the state border to 45 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife confirm the legal origin of the goods and ensure compliance of the exported goods with the requirements of the importing country regarding their veterinary and sanitary safety.The veterinary and sanitary certificate(for non-Commonwealth of Independent State(CIS)countries)or veterinary certificate(for CIS countries)is issued by the food safety committee.Their issuance of such permits is partly regulated by the Law“On the Permit System”although this Law does not specify the complete list of documents required to obtain a veterinary certificate nor do any by-laws regulate this issue either.The import and export of animal commodities included in Appendix I of CITES also requires permission from the Committee of Environmental Protection and an import permit issued by the CITES administrative authority of the host country.For those species listed in Appendices II and III only permission from the Committee of Environmental Protection is needed.However,the animal species listed in the CITES Appendices that occur in Tajikistan are not included in this legal procedure which leads to problems with its implementation by authorised bodies,including customs authorities.46 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN GENERAL INFORMATION The Republic of Uzbekistan(hereafter Uzbekistan)is a large(448,900 km),landlocked country with a range of habitats including deserts and semi-deserts and high mountains,among them the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai ranges.The former are home to a great diversity of forest types and unique plant community associations and are of global importance as a centre of origin for a number of cultivated fruit crops.More than 27,000 species have been recorded in Uzbekistan.A total of 688 vertebrate species are known although some,particularly the larger species,are now very rare or have disappeared.They include Tiger Panthera tigris,Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus,Snow Leopard Panthera uncia,Striped Hyena Hyaena hyaena,Saiga Saiga tatarica,Syr Darya Sturgeon Pseudoscaphirhynchus fedtschenkoi and Amu Darya Sturgeon Pseudoscaphirhynchus kaufmanni.There are more than 11,000 species of flora(higher plants,fungi,algae)that include over 2,000 species of fungi while of the 4,300 plant species,some 1,500 are used medicinally and 400 are endemic.The latter are often rare and localised.The Red Data Book of Uzbekistan includes 321 species of higher plants and three species of mushrooms.The misuse of biological resources9including overhuntinghas led to the depletion of many species while the Aral Sea has completely disappeared.Although Uzbekistan has not adopted specific legislation on combating illegal wildlife trade,several laws govern the use and protection of wildlife resources,in particular the Law On the protection and use of wildlife(new edition)10 dated 19th September 2016 No.408.9Uzbekiston Republic sining Qizil kitobi.-Toshkent,(hayvonot dunosi)2nd volume,“Chinor”,2019.B.4.23 Uzbekistan Republic Sining Qizil kitobi.-Toshkent,(simliklar va zamburular)Volume 1,“hinor”,2019.B.7.10Uzbekiston Republican Oliy Majlisi Palatalarining Akhborotnomasi,2016 Yil,9-son,273-modda.47 Laws related to use and trade of wildlife Uzbekistan acceded to CITES in 1997 with national legislation to implement CITES measures later introduced through Appendix 3 to a Resolution of the Cabinet of Ministers dated 20th October 2014 No.290.REVIEW OF LEGISLATION Uzbekistan has adopted basic laws regulating issues related to the import and sale of wild fauna and flora.In particular:Law“On the protection and use of wildlife”(new edition)dated 19th September 2016 No.408;Law“On the protection and use of flora”(new edition)dated 21st September 2016 No.409;Law“On Forest”(new edition)dated 16th April 2018 No.475.These pieces of legislation provided the basic set of rules and powers for the development of regulations on trade in animals and plants.Their development drew on experience from elsewhere,notably:Ukraine,Belarus,Armenia,China,the USA,Japan,Canada,and Switzerland as well as intergovernmental agreements including CITES(Washington,1973),Convention for the Protection of Wild Fauna and Flora and Natural Habitats in Europe(Bern,1979);Convention on Biological Diversity(Rio de Janeiro,1992);International Plant Protection Convention(Rome,1951);International Convention for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants(Geneva,1961);Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity(Cartagena,2000);Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance,principally as habitats for waterfowl(Ramsar,1971);Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage(Paris,1972).11 In total,some 60 regulatory legal acts on biological diversity have been adopted,including Resolutions of the President of Uzbekistan,Resolutions of the Cabinet of Ministers of Uzbekistan and departmental acts aimed at the effective use of animal and plant species.Specific Laws relating to the licensing
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January 2024(NISMS)IN CAMEROONNationalivory stockpile management system ESTABLISHING A ROBUSTABOUT US TRAFFIC is a leading non-governmental organisation working globally to ensure that trade in wild species is legal and sustainable,for the benefit of the planet and people.Reprod uction of material appearing in this report requires written permission from the publisher.The designations of geographical entities in this publication,and the presentation of the material,do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of TRAFFIC or its supporting organisations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,or area,or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.PROJECT SupervisorSSone Nkoke CPublished by:TRAFFIC International,Cambridge,United Kingdom.SUGGESTED CITATIONTRAFFIC,Central Africa Programme Office.2024.Realising a Robust National Ivory Stockpile Management System(NISMS)in Cameroon.TRAFFIC International,Cambridge,United Kingdom TRAFFIC 2024.Copyright of material published in this report is vested in TRAFFIC.UK Registered Charity No.1076722DesignCressida StevensA grant from the U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service funded this study.The opinions,findings,and conclusions stated herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the USFWS.TRAFFIC REPORTACKNOWLEDGEMENTSContributions to the production of this work came from several Government Officials,who generally expressed the wish to remain anonymous.From Cameroons Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife(MINFOF),the Ministry of Justice and Keeper of the Seals(MINJUSTICE),Cameroon Customs,Police and Gendarmerie,we wish to thank these individuals immensely and extend our gratitude for their assistance.We thank the Consultant,Samuel Nnah Ndobe,for the groundwork of this report.We equally thank experts from the Last Great Ape Organisation,the World Wildlife Fund,and the Zoological Society of London.We thank TRAFFIC staff across the network for their role in reviewing and designing this document,including Denis Mahonghol,Luc Evouna,Luc Tedonzong,and Nicola Okes.Finally,our appreciation goes to Tom Milliken for doing the external peer review.This Report was made possible with the support of the US Government through the US Fish and Wildlife Service(USFWS)African Elephant Conservation Fund(award#F22AP01375)”.The content is the responsibility of the Authors and does not necessarily reflect the opinion of the USFWS or the US Government.Ivory seized by the Ministry of Forests and Wildlife,Cameroon ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 3contentspage 14 1:INTRODUCTIONpage 76 6:CONCLUSIONS and Recommendationspage 18 2:UNDERSTANDING THE CAMEROON CONTEXT:CITES,TRADE AND ELEPHANTSpage 27 3:ASSESSING EXISTING FRAMEWORKS AND SYSTEMS OF IVORY STOCKPILE MANAGEMENTpage 86 APPENDICESpage 6 Executive SummaryResumpage 40 4:ASSESSING THE CURRENT IVORY STOCK MANAGEMENT SITUATION IN CAMEROONpage 56 5:ISSUES TO ADDRESS FOR DEVELOPING STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES FOR THE NATIONAL IVORY STOCK MANAGEMENT SYSTEM OF CAMEROON page 82 ReferencesEndnotesImage credits4 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROONACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONSBABattues Administrative(a French expression for the selective culling by the wildlife administration or under the directive of the wildlife administration)CAFTRAFFIC Central Africa Programme OfficeCARCentral African RepublicCBDConvention on Biological DiversityCBFPCongo Basin Forest PartnershipCITESConvention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and FloraCOMIFACCommission des Forts dAfrique centrale(Central Africa Forest Commission)CoPConference of the Parties(to CITES)CPCCriminal Procedure Code(of Cameroon)DRCDemocratic Republic of the CongoEIAEnvironmental Investigation Agency(an NGO of the UK)EPIElephant Protection Initiative(an NGO of the UK)ETISElephant Trade Information System(CITES elephant monitoring programme administered by TRAFFIC)GEFGlobal Environment FacilityIBlivoire brut(Raw ivory)IFlivoire frais(Fresh ivory)ICCNInstitut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature(Congolese Institute for the Conservation of Nature)INTERPOLThe International Criminal Police OrganisationISTlivoire semi travaill(Semi-worked ivory)ITlivoire travaill(Worked ivory)IUCNInternational Union for Conservation of Nature(Inter-governmental Organisation)IWTIllegal Wildlife TradeJPAJudicial Police Agent(of Cameroon)JPOJudicial Police Officer(of Cameroon)JPOGCJudicial Police Officers with General Competence(of Cameroon)JPOSCJudicial Police Officers with Special Competence(of Cameroon)LABLutte Anti-braconnage(Anti-poaching operations)LAGAThe Last Great Ape Organisation(an NGO of Cameroon)LEALaw Enforcement AgencyMINJUSTICEMinistry of Justice and Keeper of the Seals(of Cameroon)MIKEMonitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants(CITES elephant monitoring programme administered by the CITES Secretariat)MINFOFMinistry of Forestry and Wildlife(of Cameroon)MNMorts des causes Naturelles(Death from natural causes)NGONon-Governmental OrganisationNIAPNational Ivory Action Plan(a CITES programme to support elephant conservation)NISMSNational Ivory Stockpile Management SystemNttPNotifications to the Parties(CITES)PAPECALFPlan dAction sous Regional des Pays de lEspace COMIFAC pour le Renforcement de lApplication des Legislations Nationales sur la Faune Sauvage(Central African Wildlife Trade Law Enforcement Action Plan CAWLEAP)PVProcs-Verbal(Offence report)SCScells des Contentieux(Seals from ongoing litigation)SMSStockpile Management SystemSOPsStandard Operating ProceduresToRTerms of ReferenceTRIDOMTri-National Dja-Odzala-Minkb transboundary conservation landscapeUSFWSU.S.Fish and Wildlife ServiceVIViel ivoire(Old ivory)WiTISWildlife Trade Information System(TRAFFICs database system for tracking illegal trade in wildlife)WWFWorld Wildlife Fund(an international NGO)ZSLZoological Society of London(an NGO of the U.K.)ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 5An African Elephant sprays itself with mud6 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROONEXECUTIVE SUMMARYCameroon harbours important populations of both the Critically Endangered Forest Elephant and the Endangered Savannah Elephant.However,well-documented evidence shows that elephant numbers have plummeted due to a variety of factors,especially poaching and illegal trade in ivory.The actors driving this scourge are also varied,ranging from low-level opportunistic poachers to non-state heavily armed militia groups supplying local ivory traders,carvers,domestic black markets,and Asian-run,African-based transnational crime syndicates operating along illegal trade chains that link Cameroon with neighbouring Central and West African countries to distant end-use consumers primarily in Asia,especially Viet Nam and China.An African Elephant Loxodonta africana ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 7Leakage of elephant ivory from government-held stockpiles has been identified as an important perennial source of raw material fueling illegal commerce.From the report findings,the causes behind this cycle of ivory theft and trafficking include the absence of effective mechanisms to safeguard and track existing stocks,recurring corruption and other governance shortfalls,an accrued lack of capacity and resources,and poorly coordinated actions and awareness between government agencies that come into possession of ivory.To mitigate this situation,Cameroon has put into place a series of legal measures to address wildlife management,protection,and crime.The overarching statute is Law No.94/01 of 20 January 1994,placing the management of forests,wildlife,and fisheries under the auspices of the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife(MINFOF).The legal framework also serves to implement the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES),to which Cameroon has been a Party for over four decades.For example,Order No 0053/MINFOF of 1 April 2020 designates both Forest and Savannah Elephants as Class A protected species,corresponding to the CITES Annex I listing which prohibits commercial international trade.Regardless,CITES has formally recognised Cameroon as a country of concern in the illegal ivory trade and,since 2015,engaged the country in a remedial oversight process to address illicit trade ivory issues through the implementation of a National Ivory Action Plan(NIAP).Consequently,Prime Ministerial Order No 055/CAB/PM of 06 July 2015 established an Inter-Ministerial Committee to monitor and steer the implementation of Cameroons NIAP,which includes the development of a robust national ivory stock management system as one of the key activities for addressing ivory trade crime,as well as better reporting of ivory seizure data to the CITES illegal ivory trade tracking programme,the Elephant Trade Information System(ETIS).Despite these efforts,illegal ivory trade and stockpile leakage remain problematic,with known stockpile leakage having occurred previously.As a component of the project“Supporting the implementation of Cameroons CITES National Ivory Action Plan and reducing the supply of ivory from Cameroons TRIDOM region,through effective stockpile management”(which is funded by the U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service(USFWS)and endorsed by MINFOF),the TRAFFIC Central Africa Programme Office directly supports the governments efforts to improve the situation with the contents of this report.The overarching objective of this initiative is to present a comprehensive examination of the status of ivory stockpile management in Cameroon so that targeted follow-on steps can be taken to realise an effective National Ivory Stockpile Management System(NISMS)that is operationally buttressed by detailed Standard Operating Procedures(SOPs).The findings of this report rest upon a comprehensive desktop literature assessment of Cameroons legal framework,CITES obligations and best practice tools for ivory stock management,the use of comprehensive questionnaire interviews with government officials,and a series of missions to the field to observe current practices first-hand.As the lead governmental authority for ivory stock management,MINFOF needs to play the principal leadership role in instigating further iterative steps to develop a sound ivory stock management system in Cameroon.In recognition of CITES obligations and CITES-approved best practice guidelines for managing stockpiles,an important initial undertaking should be a comprehensive review to update Decision 0003/D/MINFOF/SG/DFAP/SDVEF/SC of 07 January 2014(Decision 0003/2014).This decade-old legal instrument defines the countrys administrative foundation for ivory stock management,but there are numerous issues which require further consideration to align with CITES and address practical deficiencies of the current system.Some of the key deficiencies include the non-recommitment to implement existing legal mechanisms addressing ivory stockpile management,MINFOFs Decision 0003/2014 that is almost obsolete and not well disseminated;non-recording and untimely reporting of ivory seizures;the persistent failure of reporting seizures to ETIS and the status of the 8 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROONcountrys ivory stockpiles to CITES;accrued lack of capacity of MINFOF and other LE Officials,weak operational collaboration and coordination;bad governance,including corruption resulting to leakages;and inadequate financial and material resources.The findings of this report suggest three parallel tracks of work to be simultaneously addressed.Firstly,with reference to Articles 1,2,4,5 and 7 of Decision 0003/2014,a re-evaluation of the basic definitions and codes concerning sources of ivory and ivory types,the prescribed marking and labelling systems for ivory specimens,and the stock registration process is warranted.This review should ensure that all manual and electronic data collection forms,templates,and registers for capturing seizure,marking,labelling,inventory,and registration data are standardised and formally issued.This process should lead to a series of revisions and amendments to the Decision,as appropriate,to clarify and improve the legal framework supporting ivory stock management.Secondly,with reference to Article 11 of Decision 0003/2014,as the core pillar of any reliable stockpile tracking system,the utility and operation of the centralised database requires a thorough re-examination.This includes an evaluation of its human resources,overall management protocols,data collection and reporting processes,and the adequacy of equipment,especially hardware and software needs and their functional specifications.As the backbone of ivory stock management,a computerised centralised database inherently should be a sophisticated IT operation that strives to capture and manage detailed information on every specimen of ivory in government custody.At the present time,however,it remains unclear whether the centralised database in Cameroon has a functioning computerised system.Thirdly,with reference to Articles 8 and 9 of Decision 0003/2014,other concerns point to the need for a resolute reassessment of ivory storage facilities currently used by MINFOF and other LEAs,including the Courts,to ensure that at least the minimum security and accountability measures as recommended in the legal framework are in place and being implemented.Coupled with this evaluation should be the related issues of ivory stock movements between decentralised authorities and the Courts,and the consolidation of ivory specimens in the centralised ivory storage facility in Yaound.This three-part effort to re-examine and strengthen Decision 0003/214 should collectively and decisively redefine the legal framework,operational structure,and security spheres for a robust and fully functional ivory stockpile management system in Cameroon.To compliment this endeavour,a range of other issues will necessarily come into focus,resulting in the clarification of:institutional roles and individual responsibilities of all stakeholders along the chain of custody for ivory specimens;channels of communication and collaboration mechanisms between MINFOF and other LEA stakeholders such as Customs,Ministry of Justice(Courts),Police and Gendarmerie;timely international reporting of the status of Cameroons ivory stockpiles and ivory seizures in compliance with CITES obligations and internal reporting requirements;and the financial and resource requirements of the system,including recurrent expenditure needs,from a holistic perspective.The final step should lead to the development of comprehensive SOPs to guide the operational roll-out of the system at every level as an essential element to buttress inter-agency collaboration and standardised performance of routine functions and tasks,including data collection,information management and reporting,at every step of the chain of custody for all ivory specimens under governmental control.In this regard,a sustained programme of capacity building and training for stockpile management in conjunction with the roll-out of detailed written procedural guides will be necessary.There is no doubt that personnel,logistical and financial considerations of a comprehensive national ivory stock management system will be substantial,ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 9including consideration of recurrent expenditure beyond the initial investment.To accommodate the range of resource needs,careful holistic planning and concerted donor engagement will be required.It is recommended that the Prime Ministers Office should ensure that the costs of implementing the Cameroon NIAP is captured in the national budget and that the NIAP Steering Committee is functionally sustained as a proactive follow-up to Order No 055/CAB/PM of 06 July 2015.Further,the Prime Ministers Office should coordinate actions with other Ministries and government stakeholders to identify and tap additional funding sources and donors,such as the African Elephant Fund under CITES,the Global Environment Facility(GEF),the Congo Basin Forest Partnership(CBFP),the African Development Bank,the TRIDOM project budget,and other IGOs and NGOs as appropriate.Whilst much remains to be tackled to realise a dynamic national ivory stockpile management system in Cameroon,this report highlights the salient issues that need to be addressed for that rewarding achievement to occur.Ivory chopsticks and beads10 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROONRSUMLe Cameroun abrite dimportantes populations dlphants de fort en danger critique dextinction et dlphants de savane en danger.Cependant,des preuves bien documentes montrent que le nombre dlphants a chut en raison de divers facteurs,en particulier le braconnage et le commerce illgal de livoire.Les acteurs lorigine de ce flau sont galement varis,allant des braconniers opportunistes de bas niveau aux milices non tatiques lourdement armes qui approvisionnent les marchands divoire locaux,les sculpteurs,les marchs noirs nationaux et les syndicats du crime transnationaux dirigs par des Asiatiques et bass en Afrique oprant le long du chanes du commerce illgal qui relient le Cameroun aux pays voisins dAfrique centrale et occidentale des consommateurs finaux loigns principalement en Asie,en particulier au Vietnam et en Chine.African Elephants at sunset ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 11La fuite divoire dlphant des stocks dtenus par le gouvernement a t identifie comme une importante source prenne de matire premire alimentant le commerce illgal.Les causes de ce cycle de vol et de trafic divoire comprennent labsence de mcanismes efficaces pour sauvegarder et suivre les stocks existants,la corruption rcurrente et dautres lacunes en matire de gouvernance,un manque accru de capacits et de ressources,et des actions et une sensibilisation mal coordonnes entre les agences gouvernementales qui entrent en possession divoire.Pour attnuer cette situation,le Cameroun a mis en place une srie de mesures juridiques pour la gestion,la protection et la lutter contre criminalit de la faune.La loi prpondrante est la loi N 94/01 du 20 janvier 1994 plaant la gestion des forts,de la faune,de la pche sous la tutelle du Ministre des Forts et de la Faune(MINFOF).Le cadre juridique sert galement mettre en uvre la Convention sur le commerce international des espces de faune et de flore sauvages menaces dextinction(CITES)laquelle le Cameroun est partie depuis plus de quatre dcennies.Par exemple,larrt N 0053/MINFOF du 1er avril 2020 dsigne les lphants de fort et de savane comme espces protges de classe A,correspondant linscription lAnnex I de la CITES qui interdit le commerce international.Quoi quil en soit,la CITES a officiellement reconnu le Cameroun comme un pays proccupant dans le commerce illgal de livoire et,depuis 2015,a engag le pays dans un processus de surveillance corrective pour rsoudre les problmes de commerce illgal de livoire grce la mise en uvre dun Plan daction national pour livoire(PANI).Par consquent,larrt du Premier Ministre N 055/CAB/PM du 06 juillet 2015 a mis en place un comit interministriel charg de suivre et de piloter la mise en uvre du PANI du Cameroun,qui comprend le dveloppement dun systme national solide de gestion des stocks divoire comme lune des activits cls pour aborder la criminalit lie au commerce de livoire,ainsi quune meilleure communication des donnes sur les saisies divoire au programme de suivi du commerce illgal de livoire de la CITES,le Systme dinformation sur le commerce des lphants(ETIS).Malgr ces efforts,le commerce illgal de livoire et les fuites de stocks continuent dtre problmatiques.Dans le cadre du projet Soutenir la mise en uvre du plan daction national pour livoire de la CITES du Cameroun et rduire lapprovisionnement en ivoire de la rgion TRIDOM du Cameroun,grce une gestion efficace des stocks(qui est financ par le U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service-USFWS-et approuv par MINFOF),le Bureau du Programme Afrique Centrale de TRAFFIC soutient directement les efforts du gouvernement pour amliorer la situation avec ce rapport.Lobjectif primordial de cette initiative est de prsenter un examen complet de ltat actuel de la gestion des stocks divoire au Cameroun afin que des mesures de suivi cibles puissent tre prises pour raliser un systme national efficace de gestion des stocks divoire(NISMS)qui est tay sur le plan oprationnel par des Procdures dOpration Standard(SOP).Les conclusions de ce rapport reposent sur une valuation complte de la documentation sur le cadre juridique du Cameroun,les obligations de la CITES et les outils de meilleures pratiques pour la gestion des stocks divoire,lutilisation dentretiens complets par questionnaire avec des responsables gouvernementaux et une srie de missions sur le terrain pour observer pratiques.En tant quautorit gouvernementale chef de file pour la gestion des stocks divoire,le MINFOF doit jouer le rle principal de leadership en incitant de nouvelles tapes itratives pour raliser le dveloppement dun systme solide de gestion des stocks divoire au Cameroun.En reconnaissance des obligations de la CITES et des lignes directrices sur les meilleures pratiques approuves par la CITES pour la gestion des stocks,une premire entreprise importante devrait tre un examen complet pour mettre jour la Dcision 0003/D/MINFOF/SG/DFAP/SDVEF/SC du 07 janvier 2014(Dcision 0003/2014).Cet instrument juridique vieux de dix ans dfinit les fondements administratifs du pays pour la gestion des stocks divoire,mais de nombreuses questions ncessitent un examen plus approfondi pour saligner sur la 12 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROONCITES et remdier aux lacunes pratiques du systme actuel.Les conclusions de ce rapport suggrent trois pistes de travail parallles aborder simultanment.Premirement,en rfrence aux articles 1,2,4,5 et 7 de la Dcision 0003/2014,une rvaluation des dfinitions et codes de base concernant les sources divoire et les types divoire,les systmes de marquage et dtiquetage prescrits pour les spcimens divoire,et le processus denregistrement des actions est justifi.Cet examen devrait garantir que tous les formulaires,modles et registres de collecte de donnes manuels et lectroniques pour la saisie,le marquage,ltiquetage,linventaire et les donnes denregistrement sont normaliss et officiellement publis.Ce processus devrait conduire une srie de rvisions et damendements la Dcision,le cas chant,afin de clarifier et damliorer le cadre juridique soutenant la gestion des stocks divoire.Deuximement,en rfrence larticle 11 de la dcision 0003/2014,en tant que pilier central de tout systme fiable de suivi des stocks,lutilit et le fonctionnement de la base de donnes centralise ncessitent un rexamen approfondi,y compris une valuation de ses ressources humaines,des protocoles de gestion globale et les processus de collecte et de communication des donnes,et ladquation de lquipement,en particulier les besoins en matriel et logiciels et leurs spcifications fonctionnelles.En tant qupine dorsale de la gestion des stocks divoire,une base de donnes centralise informatise devrait par nature tre une opration informatique sophistique qui sefforce de capturer et de grer des informations dtailles sur chaque spcimen divoire dtenu par le gouvernement.lheure actuelle,cependant,il nest pas clair si la base de donnes centralise au Cameroun dispose dun systme informatis fonctionnel.Troisimement,en rfrence aux articles 8 et 9 de la dcision 0003/2014,dautres proccupations soulignent la ncessit dune rvaluation rsolue des installations de stockage divoire actuellement utilises par le MINFOF et dautres organismes dapplication de la loi,y compris les tribunaux,pour sassurer quau moins le minimum de scurit et les mesures de responsabilisation recommandes dans le cadre juridique sont en place et en cours de mise en uvre.A cette valuation devraient sajouter les questions connexes des mouvements de stocks divoire entre les autorits dcentralises et les tribunaux,et la consolidation des spcimens divoire dans lentrept centralis divoire Yaound.Cet effort en trois parties pour rexaminer et renforcer la dcision 0003/214 devrait redfinir collectivement et de manire dcisive le cadre juridique,la structure oprationnelle et les sphres de scurit pour un systme de gestion des stocks divoire robuste et pleinement fonctionnel au Cameroun.Pour complter cet effort,une srie dautres questions seront ncessairement mises au point,ce qui entranera la clarification de:les rles institutionnels et les responsabilits individuelles de toutes les parties prenantes tout au long de la Raw ivory tusks ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 13chane de possession des spcimens divoire;canaux de communication et mcanismes de collaboration entre le MINFOF et les autres parties prenantes des organismes dapplication de la loi telles que les Douanes,le Ministre de la Justice(Tribunaux),la Police et la Gendarmerie;des rapports internationaux en temps opportun sur ltat des stocks divoire du Cameroun et des saisies divoire conformment aux obligations de la CITES et aux exigences internes en matire de rapports;et les besoins financiers et en ressources du systme,y compris les besoins en dpenses rcurrentes,dans une perspective holistique.La dernire tape devrait conduire llaboration de SOP compltes pour guider le dploiement oprationnel du systme tous les niveaux en tant qulment essentiel pour renforcer la collaboration interinstitutions et lexcution normalise des fonctions et tches de routine,y compris la collecte de donnes,la gestion de linformation et rapport,chaque tape de la chane de possession pour tous les spcimens divoire sous contrle gouvernemental.cet gard,un programme soutenu de renforcement des capacits et de formation pour la gestion des stocks en conjonction avec le dploiement de guides de procdure crits dtaills sera ncessaire.Il ne fait aucun doute que les considrations de personnel,logistiques et financires dun systme national complet de gestion des stocks divoire seront substantielles,y compris la prise en compte des dpenses rcurrentes au-del de linvestissement initial.Pour rpondre lventail des besoins en ressources,une planification holistique minutieuse et un engagement concert des donateurs seront ncessaires.Il est recommand que le Cabinet du Premier Ministre sassure que les cots de mise en uvre du PANI du Cameroun sont pris en compte dans le budget national et que le Comit de pilotage du PANI est fonctionnellement soutenu en tant que suivi proactif de larrt n 055/CAB/PM du 06 juillet 2015.En outre,le bureau du Premier ministre devrait coordonner les actions avec dautres ministres et parties prenantes gouvernementales pour identifier et exploiter des sources de financement et des donateurs supplmentaires,tels que le Fonds pour llphant dAfrique dans le cadre de la CITES,le Fonds pour lenvironnement mondial(FEM),le Partenariat pour les Forts du Bassin du Congo(PFBC),la Banque africaine de dveloppement,le budget du projet TRIDOM et dautres organisations intergouvernementales et organisations non-gouvernementales,le cas chant.Bien quil reste encore beaucoup faire pour mettre en place un systme national dynamique de gestion des stocks divoire au Cameroun,ce rapport sert mettre en vidence les problmes saillants qui doivent tre rsolus pour que cette ralisation gratifiante se produise.14 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROONThe overarching objective of this report is to present a comprehensive examination of ivory stockpile management in Cameroon so that necessary steps can be taken to realise an effective National Ivory Stockpile Management System(NISMS)that is operationally buttressed by detailed Standard Operating Procedures(SOPs).Whilst the legal framework outlined in the Government of Cameroons Decision 0003/D/MINFOF/SG/DFAP/SDVEF/SC of 07 January 2014 specifies several actions to be taken for stockpile management,security and reporting,this important first-generation legal instrument needs to be reviewed,updated and strengthened so that the evolving requirements of CITES Resolution Conf.10.10(Rev.CoP19)can be fully implemented in the country.Achieving a robust NISMS will also fulfil a key pillar in Cameroons National Ivory Action Plan(NIAP),which is part of the CITES oversight process to combat illegal trade in ivory.Attainment of a NISMS in Cameroon will enhance accountability and transparency of government-held ivory stocks,preventing future leakage into black market supply chains that fuel ivory trade crime.1:INTRODUCTIONElephants often spray themselves with dust,it is thought to protect them from the sun and insectsa NISMS in Cameroonwill enhance accountability and traceability,preventing leakage of ivory into the black market1.1 OBJECTIVES ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 15The five specific objectives of this report include:1.To identify government agencies and personnel at all levels that may be required to play direct or supporting roles in the implementation and operation of an integrated ivory stock management system as part of the fight against illegal trade in elephant ivory and other derivatives.2.To build the capacity of concerned stakeholders for ivory stockpile management at all stages of the chain of custody,including the provision of operational guidelines for the marking,registration,movement,security,storage,auditing,and reporting of ivory specimens,as well as the development of skills for the timely filing of Elephant Trade Information System(ETIS)data collection forms on ivory seizures and annual stockpile status reports as mandated by CITES.3.To improve coordination and collaboration between MINFOF and other Ministries and law enforcement agencies in Cameroon that are charged with wildlife law enforcement and security of ivory products within their competencies and jurisdictions to reduce ivory leakage through effective inventory,data collection,and production of records and reports.4.To identify gaps,deficiencies and problematic issues in existing legislation and regulations that need to be addressed to realise a robust NISMS,including where additional legislative or regulatory mechanisms need to be codified.5.To begin developing draft SOPs that will form the basis for governing all ivory stock management procedures and actions along the chain of custody for each ivory specimen acquired by the government regardless of the institution involved.The methodological approach used included desk work to review relevant literature and information,questionnaires and interviews with various stakeholders,and field observations.Collectively,this work enabled a situational analysis to be developed based on a review of existing systems and best practices concerning the management and protection of ivory that accumulates from seizures and other administrative interventions.1.2.1 Desk workThe assessment of published literature and documents on existing systems and best practice was important to establish the context and scope of effective stockpile management systems.The literature review mainly supported the introductory and background part of this work so that a clear understanding of the critical factors that give rise to ivory specimens,such as poaching and illegal trade in elephant ivory and other derivatives,are well understood.The impact of illicit ivory trade on elephant populations is necessarily framed by the imposition of mitigation measures at international,regional,and national levels,including participation in the NIAP process and the MIKE and ETIS elephant monitoring systems under CITES and implementation of PAPECALF under the Central Africa Forest Commission(COMIFAC)alliance.The need to develop a credible NISMS for Cameroon is inherently linked to these international and regional initiatives.The desktop research effort also served to provide a brief overview of Cameroon and its biodiversity,international wildlife trade,especially the challenges of elephant conservation,the problem of ivory stock leakage and the international context of this work.Concerning documents on existing mechanisms and systems on ivory stockpile management,the following core references were consulted:CITES Resolution Conf.10.10 on Trade in elephant specimens and related Resolutions,Decisions,Notifications and Recommendations on managing and reporting ivory stockpiles.The NIAP Action Plan of Cameroon submitted to CITES in April 2015 and the five progress reports submitted 1.2 METHODOLOGY16 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROONby Cameroon to the CITES Secretariat between January 2015 and April 2022.Decision N 0003/D/MINFOF/SG/DFAP/SDVEF/SC of 07 January 2014 fixing the rules and procedures for marking,labelling,registration,and storage of administrative ivory.CITES guidance documents for ivory stockpile management systems,including Milliken,T.,&Compton,J.(2019).Ensuring Effective Stockpile Management:A Guidance Document.Published reports on regional stockpile management systems,including Elephant Ivory Stocks in the Democratic Republic of Congo:What Management System Should be Put in Place?Mashini,M.C,.et Nkoke,S.C.(2020);Les Stocks dIvoire dElephant de la Rpublique Dmocratique du Congo:Quel Systme de Gestion Mettre en Place?TRAFFIC International.Yaound,Cameroun and Ringuet,S.,et Lagrot,J.F.(2013);and Dveloppement dun Systme de Gestion des Stocks dIvoire au Gabon:Propositions de Standards Minimums.CITES,Geneva,Switzerland.EPI documents on ivory stock management stock taking,including Elephant Protection Initiative,2019c.Gold Standards for the Management of Ivory&Other Wildlife Products.Document prepared July 2019,69 pp and Elephant Protection Initiative,2017.Ivory Inventory Protocol for Planning and Conducting Ivory Inventories Version 1.4.Document prepared July 2017.These documents collectively formed the basis for assessing the requirements of stockpile management and a review of existing frameworks and tools used for that purpose.This effort also informed the process of developing SOPs to support the implementation of a future integrated stockpile management system in Cameroon.These desk-based studies were supplemented by interviews and field visits.1.2.2 InterviewsBoth structured and semi-structured interviews were conducted between 19 December 2022 and 17 February 2023 with relevant law enforcement agencies(LEAs)and NGOs,following the development of an interview guide and the identification of resource persons based on prior knowledge of their activities and the role they play in wildlife law enforcement.In this manner,individuals involved in ivory seizures and the attendant management of seized products were specifically targeted.Interviewees included officials of MINFOF,Justice,Police,Gendarmerie,and Customs,all of whom have authority to seize ivory products(expatiated in section 4.4),and many wished to remain anonymous.Further,certain staff of TRAFFIC and other NGOs,including the World Wildlife Fund(WWF),the Last Great Ape Organisation(LAGA),and the Zoological Society of London(ZSL)were selected for interviews as these individuals were sometimes directly engaged in assisting government officials to conduct their duties,which involved the seizure of ivory stocks and their subsequent management.For conducting structured interviews,61 questionnaires(Appendix 1)were distributed from which 53 responses were received and compiled.This effort yielded an understanding of the current management of seized ivory and other elephant products in Cameroon,the mechanisms used for these purposes,the identification of particular challenges,and proposed recommendations for the mitigation of problematic issues.Semi-structured interviews permitted more open-ended,face-to-face,or virtual discussions(by phone)with selected officials from the different LEAs,NGOs,and select experts.These contacts also focused on getting a general overview of current stockpile management practices,outstanding difficulties,and recommendations on how to enhance the robustness of the system and improve collaboration between the different stakeholders.Both sets of interviews produced mainly qualitative data which is reported and assessed in sections three and four of this report.In general,the information obtained helped in analysing and comparing the attributes of formal mechanisms advocated by CITES or proposed by MINFOF against what was observed in the field,with the final objective of helping to shape future SOPs and other recommendations for stockpile management.ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 171.2.3 Field ObservationsField observations were conducted during missions to Yaounde,Sangmelima,Djoum,Ebolowa,Abong Mbang,Bertoua,and Douala between 3 January to 17 February 2023.This permitted direct and first-hand assessments,resulting in additional information on how existing stockpiles are managed,the identification of gaps and where improvements could be made from a logical and practical standpoint.The selection of locations visited was based on assuring adequate geographic coverage for the project and was informed by a scoping exercise and information from MINFOF and TRAFFIC.1.2.4 LimitationsIt needs to be recognised that there were several limitations related to the research effort of this project.These include:The projects geographic focus on the TRIDOM landscape does not directly consider other parts of Cameroon and other transboundary realities,especially concerning the long border with Nigeria on the other side of the country.In this regard,it should be noted that Cameroon plays a central role in the illegal ivory trade,with products coming from other countries such as the Central African Republic,Chad,Congo,Gabon,and Equatorial Guinea through Cameroon to Nigeria,which serves as a major entrept and hub for export to Asian markets.The short time frame for this work did not allow more field activities.If additional time in the field had been possible,more first-hand observations and interviews could have transpired,resulting in a better overview of the challenges presently being faced.In this regard,more time would have helped to secure a bigger sampling size with a wider spectrum for analysis.Initial reticence from some government officials to give information on ivory stockpile management was also experienced.These individuals had to be persuaded that the information they provided would result in better ivory stock management and they needed to be reassured that their responses would remain strictly confidential.This report is divided into the following nine narrative sections:1.Introduction which provides the objectives,scope,and methods of this report.2.Understanding the Cameroonian Context:CITES,Trade and Elephants which establishes the necessity of ivory stock management in the Cameroonian context with essential background on elephants,wildlife conservation and trade crime,the international ivory trade and mitigation measures and obligations under CITES.3.Assessing Existing Frameworks and Systems of Ivory Stockpile Management which presents the international legal framework under CITES in detail and reviews regional reports on other stockpile management systems and processes in Central Africa,as well as various guidance documents and tools for stockpile management that CITES promotes.4.Assessing the current ivory stock management situation in Cameroon which assesses the administrative and legal framework in Cameroon that underpins current ivory stock management practices,including a review of the results of the questionnaire surveys and field visits.5.Issues to Address for Developing Standard Operating Procedures for the National Ivory Stock Management System of Cameroon which outlines a range of issues that need to be considered during the process of developing SOPs to backstop ivory stock management in the country,including a series of recommendations.6.Conclusions and Recommendations which highlights the salient conclusions of this report on the stockpile management system in Cameroon and presents 19 recommendations that would support the development of a robust NISMS in the country.1.3 Structure of the WorkCameroon plays a central rolein the illegal ivory trade,a transit point between other African countries and Nigeria,before export to Asian markets18 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROONCameroon bridges West and Central Africa and encompasses an intricate mosaic of habitats,ranging from tropical lowland rainforests in the south to mangroves along the Gulf of Guinea coastline,giving way to mountainous vistas,forests,and savannahs as one travels into the interior or moves northward(Hudgens&Trillo,2003).The forests along the border with Nigeria are the wettest part of Africa and,as such,support the continents second highest concentration of biodiversity,and most,if not all,of the countrys many endemic species(Nkoke,2012).With a surface area of 475,442 km2,Cameroon is the 53rd largest country in the world(DeLancey&DeLancey,2000),but ranks 5th for fauna and 4th for flora diversity in Africa,harbouring 409 species of mammals,183 species of reptiles,849 species of birds,190 species of amphibians and over 9,000 plant species(WWF,2023).Amongst these species are African Elephants,arguably the worlds most charismatic mega-herbivore.2:UNDERSTANDING THE CAMEROON CONTEXT:CITES,TRADE AND ELEPHANTSA verdant landscape in CameroonCameroon is highly biodiverseranking 5th for fauna and 4th for flora deversity in Africa2.1 General background to Cameroon and biodiversity ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 19Occurring in a wide variety of habitats(Blanc et al.,2007),African Elephants are the worlds largest terrestrial mammal and an animal of considerable economic,ecological,cultural,and aesthetic value to many people(African Elephant Action Plan,2010).Although long regarded as distinctive subspecies(Wilson&Reeder,2005),since 2021,the two forms of Loxodonta africana are now officially recognised as separate species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature(IUCN).Accordingly,the genus Loxodonta was deemed to comprise two extant elephant species:the African Savannah Elephant Loxodonta africana and the smaller Forest Elephant Loxodonta cyclotis.Further,the IUCN Red List assessment of the same year changed the status of the African Elephants,which was Vulnerable as a single species,to Endangered for the African Savannah Elephant(Gobush,2022)and Critically Endangered for the African Forest Elephant(Gobush,2021).These developments were already reflected in Cameroons Ministerial Order No 0053/MINFOF of 1 April 2020 of the Ministry of Forestry and Wildlife(MINFOF),which recognised Forest and Savannah Elephants as Class A protected species,a listing that corresponds to a CITES Annex I designation.The Savannah Elephant is the largest land animal,with males standing at 3.2m to 4m at the shoulder and weighing from 3,500kg up to reported 12,000kg;females are smaller,standing about 3 m at the shoulder(Nowak,1999).Most often,Savannah Elephants are found in open grasslands,marshes and lakeshores(Grzimek,1990),ranging over much of the savannah and woodland zones,south of the Sahara Desert(Nkoke,2012).Forest Elephants are usually smaller and rounder,weighing up to 4,500 kg and standing about 3 m tall(Nowak,1999),with thinner and straighter tusks compared to the Savannah Elephant(Grzimek,1990).Normally,Forest Elephants inhabit the dense African rainforests of central and western Africa,although occasionally,they roam the edges of tropical forests,thus overlapping with Savannah Elephant home ranges,which can sometimes result in hybridisation between the species(Nkoke,2012).Mammal tusks are continuously growing(elodont)anterior teeth(incisors,canines)that protrude from the mouth(Steenkamp,2003).Elephant tusks are their second upper incisors,which grow continuously;for example,an adult males tusks can grow at a rate of about 18 cm a year(Nowak,1999).Tusks are used to dig for water,salt,and roots,to debark trees in order to eat the bark or to get at the pulp inside,or even to move trees and branches when clearing a path(Steenkamp,2003).They are also used for marking trees to establish territory and occasionally as weapons(Grzimek,1990).Like humans who are typically right-or left-handed,elephants are usually right-or left-tusked,and the dominant tusk called the master tusk,is generally shorter and more rounded at the tip from wear(Feldhamer et al.,1999).Both male and female African Elephants have large tusks that can reach over 3m long and weigh over 90kg(Nkoke,2012).Africas elephants continuously face many threats,including illegal killing for ivory and other products,conflict with humans,local overabundance,habitat loss and fragmentation,and impacts from climate change.The Forest Elephant range is decreasing rapidly,and the majority of remaining populations are found in six central African countries where the species currently occupies an estimated 25%of its former range(Maisels et al.,2013).The 2021 IUCN Red Lists“Critically Endangered”assessment made the dire statement that“analysis of estimates from 161 localities across Forest Elephant range indicates a reduction of more than 80%of the continental population in the past three generations(93 years)that is understood to be continuing and likely irreversible”(Gobush et al.,2021).Although comparatively more numerous and broadly distributed,the Red Lists“Endangered”assessment of Savanna Elephants by IUCN states“analysis of estimates from 334 localities across their global range indicates a reduction of more than 50%of the continental population in the past three generations(75 years)that is understood to be continuing 2.2 General introduction of elephantsthe Savannah Elephantis the largest land animalelephant tusks can growover 3m long and over 90kgin weight20 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROONand likely irreversible.The continental trend is not,however,spatially uniform;some subpopulations are increasing or stable while others are declining significantly faster than the continental rate.Many local subpopulations have been extirpated”(Gobush et al.,2022).Recent results from aerial surveys in 2022 of the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area(KAZA TFCA-covering five countries and representing over 50%of the remaining Savanna Elephants)suggest that,while spatial variation in dynamics is to be noted,the overall elephant population in the KAZA TFCA appears to be stable(Bussire et al.2023).Both Savanna and Forest Elephants uniquely inhabit various parts of Cameroon.In the 1930s,elephants were still found in every part of the country(Douglas-Hamilton 1979),but today,they exist in pockets in the northern,south-eastern,and south-western parts of Cameroon,mainly in protected areas.Cameroons elephant population presented in the 2016 African Elephant Status Report by the IUCN/SSC African Elephant Specialist Group constitutes the latest available consolidated qualitative data on numbers.For Cameroon,an estimate of 6,830 animals of both species was derived from aerial and dung count surveys,which was augmented by the possible addition of between 1,570 to 2,745 more elephants on the basis of informed guesses for areas which had not been surveyed(Thouless et al.,2016).These latest figures were considerably diminished from the 1995,1998,2002,and 2007 African Elephant Database estimates that suggested Cameroons total population,including estimates,were upwards to between 15,387 and 17,241 elephants throughout this period(African Elephant Database,2023).Still,and significantly,Cameroon continues to host an important but dwindling population of African Forest Elephants(Thouless et al.,2016),found mostly within the Cameroon segment of the Tri-National Dja-Odzala-Minkb(TRIDOM)transboundary conservation landscape1,but numbers are believed to have declined by more than 70%in less than a decade(Ngoran,2017).2.3 Elephants in Cameroon:Contemporary DevelopmentsCameroons elephants primarily remain at severe risk from poaching and the illegal ivory trade,exacerbated by threats from ongoing deforestation and habitat loss.Illegal wildlife trade(IWT),in general,is recognised as the second highest threat to biodiversity loss.Wildlife trafficking is frequently viewed as a low-risk,high-profit activity for offenders who face limited penalties(INTERPOL,2022).Some observers regard IWT as the fourth largest illegal international trade after drugs,counterfeits,and human trafficking,with an annual value estimated at USD19 billion(Hakin,2011).Driving the illegal killing of elephants is a complex,international ivory trade that thrives on poverty,organised crime,corruption,and greed(Rochon,2013),not only in African source countries but also in consuming Asian markets,especially those in China and Southeast Asia.According to domestic ivory market survey findings in Africa(Nkoke et al.2017),a mix of African and non-African ivory carvers,sellers,and customers are involved.At local,regional,and national levels an ever-changing cast of actors play direct or indirect roles in facilitating illegal ivory trade,including high-ranking administrative,military and judiciary officials(Nkoke et al.2017).Collaborative activities include the provision of arms and ammunition to poachers for the acquisition of ivory,assistance to middlemen in the transport of elephant tusks along the trade routes into markets,collection centres and ports of export,and various forms of collusion with traffickers to evade law enforcement actions or avoid judicial punishments(Nkoke et al.2017).The increasing presence of Africa-based,Asian-run organised crime syndicates,especially those with links to China and 2.4 ILLEGAL WILDLIFE TRADE background and ivory tradeAfrica-based,Asian-run syndicateshave been a potent feature of ivory trafficking in recent years ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 21Viet Nam,has been an intractable potent feature of illegal trafficking and processing of elephant ivory both inside and outside of Africa in recent years(Milliken et al.,2016;Nkoke et al.,2017;EIA,2018a;WJC,2021).In this regard,the contemporary ivory trade operates as a giant illicit resource transfer from Africa to Asia that is robbing local communities of an important source of potential wealth,destroying the prospects of critical economic sectors such as tourism,and financing a wide range of predatory and corrupt actors across the continent(Vira&Ewing,2014).Overall wildlife trafficking threatens security,hinders economic development,and undermines the rule of law in many parts of Africa(US Department of Justice,2023).In fact,IWT has a long historical presence in West and Central Africa dating back centuries and deeply associated with the colonial period.Focusing on the most recent iteration of this trade since 1975 when CITES took effect,the region has been a well-established commercial source for illegal ivory not only moving out of Africa to overseas markets,but also being sold as worked products in local domestic markets,which in Cameroon have now largely been suppressed through concerted law enforcement actions in recent years(Nkoke et al.,2017).Data from an EIA report indicates that a significant proportion of ivory trafficked globally is sourced from Forest Elephants in West and Central Africa(EIA,2020).In Cameroon,the most direct threat to elephants remains their killing for ivory tusks(Nkoke,2012).In terms of recent ivory trade developments,the two dedicated programmes under CITES to support elephant conservation Monitoring Illegal Killing of Elephants(MIKE)and the Elephant Trade Information System(ETIS)reported a pronounced upward trend in both the poaching of African Elephants and the illicit trade in ivory from 2007 onwards(CITES,2013;Milliken et al.,2013).These reports to CITES indicate that,in 2011 and 2012,the illegal ivory trade rose to its highest levels in two decades following a sharp increase in the seizure of large-scale shipments of elephant tusks in Africa and abroad(CITES,2016a;Milliken et al.,2016a,b).Whilst it is very difficult to establish the precise number of elephants killed annually,the African Elephant Database reported an estimated continental population loss of between 104,000-114,000 elephants between 2007 and 2015(Thouless et al.,2016),whilst the MIKE programme estimated that annual losses to illegal killing could have ranged as high as 20,826 to 36,734 in 2013 and 2015,respectively,depending on the underlying rate of natural mortality(CITES,2016b).Another key source of ivory in the illegal trade is leakage from government-held stockpiles.In this regard,corrupt administrative,law enforcement or judicial officials illegally sell confiscated or otherwise acquired ivory back into black market trade channels for profit.The problem of effective security for these holdings is an important,unresolved matter.In most countries of Central Africa,including Cameroon,existing mechanisms are insufficient to safeguard valuable ivory stocks,and the development of proper management and security systems are needed to ensure adequate protection(Nkoke et al.,2017).Persistent governance shortfalls and other issues,such as poor storage facilities,continue to provide avenues for illegal ivory trade based on stockpile losses.Delays in the recording,inventorying,and reporting of seized ivory account for a significant volume of national ivory stockpile leakage at the regional level,giving rise to persistent corruption(Nkoke et al.,2017).For example,in August 2013,a highly placed Yaounde official was arrested in conjunction with the disappearance of more than 200 elephant tusks from the national stock,some of which were later identified among 18 elephant tusks seized in Douala in June 2013(LAGA,2013).Another example is the 2015 sentencing of two court officials in 2.5 Ivory Stockpiles and Ivory Tradethe ivory traderobs local communities of potential incomeexisting mechanisms are not sufficientin safeguarding valuable ivory stocks from corrupt officials22 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROONYokadouma in the Eastern Region to three years imprisonment for stealing two elephant tusks in their custody at the Yokadouma Court of First Instance(WWF,2015).In 2015,another case was heard in the Bertoua Military Court against two government officials,a Divisional Officer and a Gendarmerie Officer,for misappropriating 49 elephant tusks in their keeping at Moloundou,also in the Eastern Region(WWF,2015).Mashini&Nkoke(2020)indicate that ivory stockpiles often remain in disparate locations,record keeping is generally poor or absent altogether,transparency and public reporting on the status of such stocks is very limited,and gaining access to government-held stocks is highly restricted and involves protracted procedures for obtaining permission or even the most basic information.These systemic weaknesses are compounded by inadequate security measures to safeguard accumulated stocks and poor infrastructure.The inherent lack of robust and transparent mechanisms for effective management also leads to poor compliance at the national level in terms of CITES reporting requirements for elephant ivory(and rhino horn and pangolin scales as well).According to Nkoke et al.(2017),the extent of Central African stockpile losses has been calculated based on year-to-year comparisons of estimated ivory stock accumulation deriving from ivory seizure data reported to ETIS over a 26-year period from 1990 through 2015.A minimum of some 56,497kg of ivory apparently went missing from government custody in five Central African countries and is presumed to have gone back into the illegal ivory trade(Nkoke et al.,2017).Still in Nkoke et al.(2017),the Republic of Congo(40,507 kg)accounted for 72%of this figure and the Democratic Republic of the Congo(DRC)(7,686 kg)for another 14%,owing mostly to the subsequent disappearance of large ivory stockpiles that had been previously reported in the early 1990s.The Central African Republic(CAR)(4,301 kg),Cameroon(2,837 kg)and Gabon(1,165 kg)accounted for lesser quantities of“lost”ivory during this period,but nonetheless also demonstrated significant stockpile leakage(Nkoke et al.,2017).These figures represent minimum estimates as there are serious knowledge gaps in the status of ivory stockpiles in these countries throughout this period,as well as the salient fact that many(perhaps even most)ivory seizure cases have gone unreported to ETIS(Nkoke et al.,2017).Cameroon has undertaken several international,regional,and national initiatives to counter wildlife crime.The country signed and ratified the CITES Convention in 1981,an intergovernmental agreement that aims to ensure that international commercial trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival.CITES is the leading global instrument for governing international trade in wildlife.In 1992,Cameroon also joined the Convention on Biological Diversity(CBD),a multilateral agreement that encompasses biodiversity conservation,the sustainable use of its components,and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.Cameroon is also one of the African Unions 55 Member States and,since May 2015,has adhered to the“African Strategy on Combating Illegal Exploitation and Illegal Trade in Wild Fauna and Flora in Africa”(Africa Union,2015).At the regional level,Cameroon is a Member State of COMIFAC,committing to implement COMIFACs Central African Wildlife Trade Law Enforcement Action Plan PAPECALF 2014(Plan dAction sous Regional des Pays de lEspace COMIFAC pour le Renforcement de lApplication des Legislations Nationales sur la Faune Sauvage).COMIFAC was established in 1999 through the Yaound Declaration that followed a meeting of the Heads of State of Cameroon,Congo,Chad,Equatorial Guinea,Gabon,and CAR.The Declaration establishes a commitment to collaborate and promote the sustainable use of Congo Basin Forest Ecosystems as an integral part of the development process(COMIFAC,1999).At the national level,Law No.94/01 of 20 January 1994,on Forestry,Wildlife and Fisheries was adopted in Cameroon to support wildlife conservation and protection.2.6 Cameroons responses to wildlife crime ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 23Other related national penal and criminal procedure codes are also in force.In theory,these regulatory frameworks should permit an effective fight against wildlife crime,but continued seizures of wildlife products,including ivory,are indicators that more needs to be done.Contemporary cases of illegal ivory trade involving Cameroon abound.In a shocking singular incident in 2012 in Cameroons Bouba Ndjidda National Park,650 elephants were killed by heavily armed poachers from Sudan who represented an organised group of armed non-state actors whose operations spanned the Central African region(Lawson&Vines,2014).Data held in TRAFFICs Wildlife Trade Portal(WiTIS)shows that,from 2010 to 2020,there have been 95 seizures made at three major exit points in Cameroon(i.e.Douala,Yaounde and Limbe),and those concerning ivory include 441 elephant tusks,149 raw ivory pieces,and 397 worked ivory pieces for a total weight of 6,218 kg.A recent example of such trade is the arrest made by Cameroon Police of four wildlife traffickers attempting to smuggle a combined shipment of pangolin scales(from over 300 pangolins)and 300 Forest Elephant tusks to Asia via Nigeria(Kindzeka,2019).The Last Great Ape Organisations(LAGA)Cameroon Report for 2020 found that 29%of 39 seizure and arrest cases involved ivory trafficking(LAGA,2020).Some of these cases resulted in the dismantling of a large trafficking network in Bertoua in the Eastern Region of Cameroon.In October 2020,Customs in Ambam in the Southern Region of Cameroon seized 118 elephant tusks weighing 626 kg(TRAFFIC,2020),which was the largest seizure made in the area where Cameroon,Gabon,and Equatorial Guinea share national borders.Cameroons role in the illegal ivory trade has been highlighted in successive ETIS reports presented in CITES fora.At the 16th meeting of the CITES Conference of Parties(CoP16)in Bangkok in March 2013,the CITES Parties agreed to commence an oversight process directed at selected countries heavily implicated in illegal ivory trade.The core element of this remedial intervention entailed the development and implementation of tailored,country specific NIAPs to address a range of national issues that facilitate such trade(see Annex 3 of Resolution Conf.10.10).In the ETIS analysis at CoP16,Cameroon had been identified as a Category B(i.e.,second tier)country of concern in the ivory trade.The Guidelines to the National Ivory Action Plan Process establish“the foundation for identifying Parties to participate in the NIAP Process as the ETIS report submitted to each meeting of the Conference of the Parties(CoP)”.Further,the Resolution mandates that all decisions concerning any countrys participation in,or subsequent exit from,the NIAP process must be made by the CITES Standing Committee,the Conventions governing body between CoPs.Consequently,at its 65th meeting held in Geneva in July 2014,the Standing Committee requested Cameroon to draw up a comprehensive NIAP in the prescribed format and submit it to the CITES Secretariat by 15 May 2015.Since then,Cameroon has remained in the NIAP process,which at the national level is steered by an Inter-Ministerial Committee created by the Prime Ministerial Order No 055/CAB/PM of 06 July 2015.TRAFFIC,pursuant to the USAID-funded Wildlife Trafficking,Response,Assessment and Priority Setting Project(Wildlife-TRAPS)2,supported MINFOF in the development and implementation of the first stages of Cameroons NIAP.The vision of the Cameroon NIAP is to preserve elephants by reducing poaching and illegal trafficking through the implementation of a series of 18 priority activities specified under six thematic categories:1.Legislation and Regulations;2.Legal Proceedings;3.Intelligence and Investigations;4.National and International Cooperation on Wildlife Crime;5.Law Enforcement Operations;and 6.Communication and Public Awareness 2.7 Cameroons ivory trade and CITES6,218kg ivoryconfiscated in Cameroon across 95 seizure incidents between 2010-2020 24 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON(Cameroon Government,2015;Table 1).Table 1 shows the different priority activities for each of Cameroons NIAP pillars,all of which are further buttressed by a series of sub-activities,indicators of success,projected timelines for realisation and identification of responsible agencies for their implementation.TABLE 1Cameroon NIAP pillars and priority activities.Cameroon NIAP PillarsPriority Activities1.Legislation and RegulationsIncorporating appropriate penalties as part of the process of revising the law for wildlife trade crime.Revising Decree 0648/MINFOF of 18 December 2006 setting the list of animals in protection classes A,B and C,and Decree 649/MINFOF setting the geographical limits for hunting.2.Legal ProceedingsDisseminating the legislative and regulatory instruments relating to wildlife to all institutions charged with enforcement(Justice,Customs,Gendarmerie,Police,MINFOF,etc.).Training in the major specialised teaching establishments.(i.e.,National School of Administration and Magistracy,Police College and Gendarmerie College).3.Intelligence and InvestigationsEstablishing a system for information-gathering and investigation.4.National and International Cooperation on Wildlife CrimeSetting up platforms for national cooperation.Strengthening and operationalising the arrangements for tracking the implementation of the NIAP.Building up international cross-border cooperation to combat poaching.5.Law Enforcement OperationsSecuring the administration of ivory stocks.Capacity-building in contraband detection.Enhancing controls at the countrys entry/departure points(seaports,airports,checkpoints,barriers at the borders,etc.).Intensifying crackdown operations in the areas where the pressure on elephants is severe and high levels of ivory trafficking(e.g.,Boumba Bek national park,Nki,Lobk,Dja,Bouba Ndjidda,Bnou,Faro,Waza).Operational capacity-building for the enforcement services.Improving the collection of ETIS data.Enhancing the tracking of wildlife cases.6,Communication and Public AwarenessRaising stakeholder awareness of the arsenal of legal instruments for combating poaching and illegal trade.Coordinating with personnel from airlines and those working at river and land locations on the smuggling of wild species.Publicising the activities related to combating wildlife crime.NIAP implementation has been subjected to an annual review by the Standing Committee to track progress.Since 2013,23 CITES Parties have participated in the NIAP process,of which ten have successfully achieved their goals to the satisfaction of the CITES Standing Committee and subsequently exited the oversight mechanism.Currently,13 countries,including Cameroon continue to implement NIAPs.In Cameroons NIAP,one of the recognised priority actions was“Securing the administration of ivory stocks”.Toward that end,three short-term priority actions were to be taken:1.Carrying out an independent audit of the systems for storage and management of the ivory seized;2.Enhancing the security of the ivory storage facilities;and 3.Collecting and securing all the ivory seized(courts,decentralised departments of MINFOF).ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 25The realisation of“securing the administration of ivory stocks”through these three priority activities essentially commits Cameroon to the development of a NISMS as a key output in the context of its NIAP participation.Realising this goal would effectively ensure that Cameroon fulfils a NIAP goal so that the country can eventually exit the CITES oversight process.This initiative would also serve to establish the basis for meeting annual reporting obligations to the CITES Secretariat on the status of ivory stockpiles with accuracy.In the most recent NIAP progress report covering the period July 2018 to April 2022,the Cameroon government regarded these three activities as“substantially achieved”,“on the right track”and“substantially achieved”,respectively.However,in sharp contrast,at its 75th meeting of in November 2022 which reviewed the report,the Standing Committee regarded Cameroons NIAP progress in a very different light and gave“an overall rating of limited progress and encouraged Cameroon to intensify its efforts to seek funding for the effective implementation of its NIAP”.Accordingly,the effective management of national ivory stockpiles has been a longstanding focus within CITES.Since CITES CoP16,the Parties agreed that reporting of ivory stocks in the hands of government authorities should occur annually.Resolution Conf.10.10(Rev.CoP16)was amended to mandate that all Parties:Maintain an inventory of government-held stockpiles of ivory and,where possible,of significant privately held stockpiles of ivory within their territory,and inform the Secretariat of the level of this stock each year before 28 February,indicating:the number of pieces and their weight per type of ivory(raw or worked);for relevant pieces,and if marked,their markings in accordance with the provisions of this Resolution;the source of the ivory;and the reasons for any significant changes in the stockpile compared to the preceding year.To assist the Parties in this regard,CITES Decision 17.171 directed the Secretariat to“develop practical guidance for the management of ivory stockpiles,including their disposal,based on an analysis of best practices and in accordance with provisions in Resolutions Conf.17.8 on Disposal of illegally traded and confiscated specimens of CITES-listed species and Resolution Conf.10.10(Rev.CoP17)on Trade in elephant specimens”(CITES,2018).The importance of having operative best-practice ivory stock management systems is increasingly being recognised at the international policy level(Nkoke et al.,2017).CITES has responded by creating a portal on this topic on its website addressing“Practical guidance for the management of ivory stockpiles,including their disposal”(CITES 2023),which states that:Accumulations of elephant ivory will occur in many Parties due to the confiscation of illegally possessed or traded(both internationally and nationally)ivory.In range States,accumulations will also occur due to found ivory resulting from natural mortality and from illegally killed elephants where the perpetrators have not removed the tusks.In relation to confiscated and accumulated dead specimens of Annex I species,such as elephants,Resolution Conf.17.8 on Disposal of illegally traded and confiscated specimens of CITES-listed species recommends that they be disposed of“only for bona fide scientific,educational,enforcement or identification purposes,and save in storage or destroy specimens whose disposal for these purposes is not practicable”.The demand for ivory for scientific,educational,enforcement or identification purposes being limited,storage or destruction are often the options chosen by Parties.Concerning ivory that is stored,Resolution Conf.10.10(Rev.CoP18)on Trade in elephant specimens,paragraph 7e)urges Parties to maintain an inventory of government-held stockpiles of ivory and,where possible,of significant privately held stockpiles of ivory within their territory.Several important areas of work are still to be addressed in Cameroon to fulfil its NIAP commitments,as highlighted in a report by the Environmental Investigation Agency(EIA)that comparatively assessed progress by countries at CITES CoP16Parties agreed on annual reporting of the governments ivory stocks26 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROONin the NIAP process(EIA,2018b).Outstanding issues for Cameroon included creating a robust national ivory stockpile management system(NISMS)and building capacity for its effective implementation.Activities such as improved coordination between law enforcement agencies,better and more timely reporting of ivory seizure information to ETIS,and annual reports on the status of ivory stockpiles and NIAP implementation to the CITES Secretariat need to be reinvigorated.Key concerns from the EIA Report and the Wildlife-TRAPS project evaluation on Cameroons NIAP include:Inadequate ivory stock management:Cameroon still lacks an accountable,transparent ivory stock management system that tracks the collection of ivory from protected areas,seizures and human-elephant conflicts.The chain of custody,security and management of ivory held by government authorities requires codification and standardisation by applying comprehensive standard operational procedures(SOPs).MINFOFs centralised and decentralised stocks have continued to suffer from reported cases of leakage of both marked and unmarked seized ivory(EIA,2018b).Poor ivory seizure reporting:Despite the large number of ivory seizures occurring in Cameroon,the CITES Management Authority is not regularly reporting ivory seizures to ETIS directly or via the CITES Secretariat as required by Resolution Conf.10.10.In some instances,unmarked ivory obtained through investigations or during the reporting phase has been hidden by unscrupulous law enforcement or judicial police officials to be sold to third parties or even back to the original trafficker(Nkoke et al.,2016).The lack of coordination between relevant agencies to investigate poaching and ivory trafficking events and the absence of a centralised intelligence database impedes effective law enforcement to the benefit of organised crime.Judicial process deficiencies:There is an overarching need for more effective law enforcement to tackle the illegal ivory trade and better prosecutorial performance in the courts to secure deterrent sentencing of traffickers.In some cases,during court procedures,offence reports are not accompanied by the confiscated ivory,and there is no accountability for the whereabouts of the evidence in question(Nkoke et al.,2016).In other instances,ivory that has been officially documented as received by the courthouses as evidence suddenly disappears either before or after judgement(Nkoke et al.,2016).The TRAFFIC Central Africa Programme Office(CAF),through the project“Supporting the implementation of Cameroons(CITES)National Ivory Action Plan and reducing the supply of ivory from Cameroons TRIDOM region,through effective stockpile management”,which is funded by the U.S.Fish and Wildlife Service(USFWS)and endorsed by MINFOF,is continuing to help develop a NISMS with associated SOPs.This effort respects the framework provided in the Government of Cameroons Decision 0003/D/MINFOF/SG/DFAP/SDVEF/SC of 07 January 2014.This regulation outlines the rules and procedures for the marking and management of ivory stocks and supports the implementation of CITES Resolution Conf.10.10.MINFOF has demonstrated an acute willingness to utilise tools developed by TRAFFIC and other organisations that are geared towards facilitating proper stockpile management and reporting at all levels.confiscated,unmarked ivoryis sometimes sold to third parties or back to the original trafficker by corrupt officials ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 27This section reviews the most important documents and resources available for considering the development of an ivory stock management system.To the extent possible,all CITES prescriptions and the best practice attributes of other existing management protocols all need to be incorporated into Cameroons NISMS and SOPs to ensure high standards which tick all of the relevant boxes in terms of crafting a robust and secure system to safeguard the countrys ivory stocks.In this regard,key documents and publications are assessed to inform this important undertaking.3:ASSESSING EXISTING FRAMEWORKS AND SYSTEMS OF IVORY STOCKPILE MANAGEMENTIvory tusks under extreme security in South Africa28 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROONAs a valuable product historically and a current illegal trade commodity of international focus,various countries worldwide now possess elephant ivory stocks which are expected to be managed effectively without leakage into illegal trade channels.Whilst many nations have developed management systems to meet national objectives,CITES has taken the lead in defining international standards that need to be incorporated into all systems.Pursuant to the Convention,the overarching ivory stockpile management framework emanates from Resolution Conf.10.10 and associated decisions and notifications that periodically arise through deliberations at CITES meetings.It needs to be appreciated that the decision-making meetings of the Conference of the Parties are generally held every three years,which necessarily results in the adoption of amendments to existing Resolutions and agreement on new Decisions on a range of issues,including elephants,ivory trade,and stockpile management.Further,in the interim period between CoPs,meetings of the Standing Committee can also result in decisions that relate to stockpile management and ivory trade matters,especially the annual review of NIAPs.Thus,in recognition of the dynamic iterative nature of the Conventions workings,national mechanisms for the management of ivory stockpiles need to be designed to respond and adapt to support CITES requirements that might change over time.Table 2 outlines and describes the CITES Resolutions,Decisions and Notifications to the Parties which are currently relevant for these purposes following the deliberations at CoP19 in November 2022.The relevance of these Resolutions and Decisions to the development of NISMS is also given,using a High,Medium and Low ranking.As a longstanding CITES Party of some 42 years,Cameroon is obligated to incorporate CITES requirements for ivory stockpiles into its national management system.3.1 The Management of Ivory Stocks under CITESTABLE 2CITES Resolutions,Decisions and Notifications to the Parties currently in effect following the 19th meeting of the Conference of the Parties that relate to elephants and ivory trade issues.Number/TitleBrief Description/Link to CITES website/Relevance to NISMS(High,Medium,or Low)CITES ResolutionsResolution Conf.10.10(Rev.CoP19)Trade in elephant specimensThe preeminent CITES Resolution for elephants presents definitions,prescribes a marking system,reporting requirements and various other directives concerning trade,quotas,traceability,and monitoring.The three Appendices establish the two monitoring systems,MIKE and ETIS,and the NIAP oversight process.https:/cites.org/sites/default/files/documents/COP/19/resolution/E-Res-10-10-R19.pdf Relevance:HighResolution Conf.16.9 African Elephant Action Plan and African Elephant FundThis Resolution establishes a conservation plan for African Elephants and a funding mechanism under the auspices of UNEP,which potentially could be tapped for establishing and implementing ivory stock management systems.https:/cites.org/sites/default/files/documents/COP/19/resolution/E-Res-16-09.pdfRelevance:MediumCITES DecisionsDecision 17.170(Rev.CoP19)Stocks and stockpilesDirected to the Standing Committee,with the assistance of the Secretariat,this decision calls for a review of existing provisions concerning controls on stocks of specimens of CITES-listed species,including their objectives,implementation,and resource implications and shall report its conclusions and recommendations at the 20th meeting of the Conference of the Parties.https:/cites.org/eng/dec/index.php/44447 Relevance:High ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 29Decisions 18.184(Rev.CoP19);18.185(Rev.CoP19);19.156;19.157Stocks and stockpiles(elephant ivory)These decisions direct the Secretariat to identify Parties that are not annually reporting the status of their ivory stockpiles or where stockpiles are not adequately secured,and to request Parties to submit information on stockpile management tools,techniques and technologies relevant to the“Practical guidance on ivory stockpile management”.The Standing Committee is charged with determining if further interventions against Parties not reporting stockpile information are required.Parties are directed to comply with requirements for annual reporting on stockpile inventories to the Secretariat and to ensure that adequate funding,capacity building and training are available to ensure ivory stockpiles are inventoried,secured,and when appropriate,disposed of properly.https:/cites.org/eng/dec/index.php/44353 Relevance:HighDecisions 19.68;19.69;19.70 Review of National Ivory Action Plans ProcessThese decisions direct the Secretariat to engage a consultant to conduct a review of the National Ivory Action Plan Process and associated Guidelines,to consider ways to facilitate timely reporting and the relationship between the NIAP process and other Article XIII processes,to review the different reporting requirements and advise how the NIAP process could be strengthened.The Standing Committee reviews the report and prepares recommendations for updating the NIAP Process at the next CITES CoP.https:/cites.org/eng/dec/index.php/44287Relevance:HighDecisions 19.99;19.100;19.101Ivory seizures and domestic ivory marketsThese decisions direct the Secretariat to advise whether an analysis of ivory seizures connected to each Party with a legal domestic market is possible and,if so,have such analysis included in the ETIS reports to the Standing Committee and CoP20.The Standing Committee will agree appropriate measures in this regard.https:/cites.org/eng/dec/index.php/44306Relevance:HighDecisions 18.117(Rev.CoP19);18.118;18.119(Rev.CoP19)Closure of domestic ivory marketsThese decisions direct Parties“that have not closed their domestic markets for commercial trade in raw and worked ivory”to report to the Secretariat on what measures they are taking to ensure that their domestic ivory markets are not contributing to poaching or illegal trade.The Secretariat will compile a report to the Standing Committee for consideration and any subsequent recommendations,as appropriate and consistent with the scope and mandate of the Convention,to CoP20.https:/cites.org/eng/dec/index.php/44378Relevance:MediumDecisions 19.275;19.276;19.277Taxonomy and nomenclature of African Elephants Loxodonta spp.These decisions direct the Secretariat to seek the perspectives of Parties and other stakeholders on the potential effects of recognising the African Forest Elephant Loxodonta cyclotis as a separate species to African Savannah Elephant Loxodonta africana for CITES purposes;to develop a list of all CITES Resolutions and Decisions that would be impacted by such a change and prepare a review on impacts and findings to the Standing Committee for its consideration.The decision directs the Animals Committee to consult the IUCN African Elephant Specialist Group,review the taxonomic-nomenclature and make recommendations on this issue.The Standing Committee shall review these deliberations and provide recommendations to CoP20.https:/cites.org/eng/dec/index.php/44323Relevance:HighDecisions 19.167;19.168Trade in live African Elephants Loxodonta africanaThese decisions direct the Standing Committee to mandate a CITES dialogue meeting as per Resolution Conf.14.5 on Dialogue meetings for African Elephant range States to deliberate on trade in live African Elephants and propose recommendations to CoP20,including any appropriate changes to current annotations on this matter.Parties are requested to limit any exports of live wild-caught African Elephants until the Dialogue meeting has transpired,although specified exceptions to this are noted.https:/cites.org/eng/dec/index.php/44459Relevance:LowDecisions 19.94;19.95;19.96Implementation of the priority recommendations from the review of the ETIS programmeThe Secretariat is directed to work with TRAFFIC,in consultation with the MIKE and ETIS Technical Advisory Group(TAG),to implement the high and medium priority recommendations in Annex 3 to document CoP19 Doc.21 and report on progress to the Standing Committee,who is then charged with review and making recommendations to CoP20 if appropriate.https:/cites.org/eng/dec/index.php/44308Relevance:Medium30 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROONDecisions 19.97;19.98ETIS categorisation of PartiesThe decision directs the Secretariat,in consultation with the MIKE-ETIS Technical Advisory Group and TRAFFIC,to develop draft criteria for the categorisation of Parties based on the ETIS analysis and seizure data relating to elephant specimens submitted to TRAFFIC and submit draft criteria to the 78th meeting of the Standing Committee for consideration.The Standing Committee shall review this work and recommend the adoption of criteria for categorising Parties to CoP20.https:/cites.org/eng/dec/index.php/44302Relevance:MediumDecisions 19.35;19.36;19.37Financial and operational sustainability of the MIKE and ETIS programmesThese decisions direct the Secretariat to prepare funding proposals to support the MIKE programme and explore alternative sources,such as private sector and crowdfunding options,to continue to improve the MIKE Online Database and online training operations,and to provide the Standing Committee with a report on the activities it has undertaken.Parties,governmental,intergovernmental,non-governmental organisations,donors and other entities are encouraged to support elephant range States and the MIKE and ETIS programmes.The Standing Committee is directed to review the report by the Secretariat and make recommendations to CoP20.https:/cites.org/eng/dec/index.php/44319Relevance:MediumDecisions 19.102;19.103Trade in mammoth ivoryThe Secretariat is directed to compile information relating to the potential contribution of mammoth ivory trade to illegal trade in elephant ivory and elephant poaching and report its findings to the Standing Committee.The Standing Committee is charged with reviewing the report and making recommendations to CoP20.https:/cites.org/eng/dec/index.php/44366Relevance:LowDecisions 18.226(Rev.CoP19);19.107;19.108Trade in Asian Elephants(Elephas maximus)These decisions direct those Parties involved in the trade in Asian elephants and their parts and derivatives to undertake investigations into the trafficking and illegal commerce and to improve and enforce national laws to prevent illegal trade.These decisions also call for the development of strategies to manage captive Asian elephant populations,including ensuring that all trade and cross-border movements complies with CITES for Asian elephants of wild origin and to establish a regional system for registering,marking,and tracing live Asian elephants.The Secretariat directed to request reports from those affected Parties on their implementation efforts and to develop requirements for a registering,marking,and tracing system for live Asian elephants for presentation to Asian elephant range States with the aim of establishing either a global system or standardised national systems.A report in this regard will be sent to the Standing Committee for review and recommendations to CoP20.https:/cites.org/eng/dec/index.php/44364Relevance:Medium18.90(Rev.CoP19);18.91(Rev.CoP19);19.84;19.85;19.86;19.87;19.88 Wildlife crime enforcement support in West and Central AfricaThese decisions direct those Parties importing CITES specimens from West and Central Africa to reinforce efforts addressing wildlife crime and supporting legal trade at sustainable levels,including the facilitation of robust non-detriment findings,conducting due diligence as outlined in Resolution Conf.11.3(Rev.CoP19)on Compliance and enforcement and closely scrutinising accompanying documents to ensure that illegal species are not laundered into legal trade;any concerns that arise should be communicated to the exporting State,or with the Animals or Plants Committees,the Standing Committee or the Secretariat.The conservation community is encouraged to provide financial and technical assistance to Parties in West and Central Africa in this regard.Parties in West and Central Africa and Parties importing CITES specimens from this region should enhance collaboration and communication,including the use of INTERPOL,World Customs Organization(WCO)and the Enforcement Focal Points designated by National CITES Authorities for communicating sensitive information and utilising international law enforcement mechanisms established by the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime(UNTOC).Seizures of timber from West and Central Africa should be reported to exporting countries as soon as practical,along with implementation of the measures and activities outlined in the Outcome document of the Task Force on illegal trade in specimens of CITESlisted tree species.Parties in West and Central Africa are requested to engage in a wide range of regional and bilateral activities,including the identification of activities to the International Consortium on Combatting Wildlife Crime(ICCWC),donors and other regional development and law enforcement institutions,seeking support and funding for implementation.The Standing Committee is directed to establish a working group promoting enhanced collaboration between source,transit,and consumer countries,to consider a future funding mechanism for addressing West and Central African issues,and to make appropriate recommendations in this regard to CoP20.https:/cites.org/eng/dec/index.php/44304Relevance:Medium ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 31CITES Notifications to the Parties2023/023of 03 March 2023Supports the implementation of ETIS by explaining the data collection process,including the requirements and deadlines for reporting all ivory seizure data via the ETIS Online system or manually through the CITES Secretariat or directly to TRAFFIC.This link also includes the“Explanatory Notes for the Elephant Trade Information System(ETIS)Data Collection Form”:Monitoring the illegal trade in ivory and other elephant specimens.Provides the data collection form for manual submission of individual seizure cases:Annex 1:Elephant Trade Information System(ETIS)Data Collection Form.Provides the data collection form for submission of multiple seizure cases in an Excel spreadsheet format:Annex 2:Collection form.Relevance:High2023/004of 10 January 2023Supports ivory stock management with explanatory information on CITES requirements for marking,inventories,and security of elephant tusks,as well as a recommended data form for annual reporting on the status of national ivory stockpiles to the CITES Secretariat:Elephant ivory stocks:marking,inventories and security.Relevance:HighVarious other Notifications to the Parties(NttP)on the ivory trade and related issues are issued periodically.Some are posted by the CITES Secretariat to communicate trade suspensions that were agreed by the Standing Committee.For example,see NttP 2022/030 of 12 May 2022 that concerned the suspension of live elephant exports from Lao Peoples Democratic Republic(https:/cites.org/sites/default/files/notifications/E-Notif-2022-030_0.pdf).Other Notifications are posted at the request of individual countries who wish to communicate national ivory trade policy changes to the wider CITES community,for example NttP 2020/074 of 11 December 2020 from Israel(https:/cites.org/sites/default/files/notifica-tions/E-Notif-2020-074.pdf),NttP 2020/044 of 26 May 2020 from China(https:/cites.org/sites/default/files/notif/E-Notif-2020-044.pdf)or NttP 2018/061 from Japan(https:/cites.org/sites/default/files/notif/E-Notif-2018-061.pdf).Such information is useful for informing other Parties of policy developments so that their own national policies on related issues can be responsiveRelevance:MediumThese documents collectively show that CITES continually accords the elephant ivory trade in general,and ivory stockpile management in particular,as important reoccurring agenda topics at every meeting of the Standing Committee and the CoP.The arsenal of directives which emanate from this documentation cannot be ignored,especially in the context of the NIAP oversight process that has been operative over the last decade.Whilst all CITES provisions that relate to elephant conservation and trade are worth examination,those that address stockpile management issues hold the greatest relevance to the present initiative and need to be considered in detail,particularly Resolution Conf.10.10(Rev.CoP 19)on Trade in elephant specimens,Notification 2023/004(of 10 January 2023)on marking,inventories,and security of elephant ivory stocks,and Notification 2023/023 of 03 March 2023 on the submission of ivory seizure data to ETIS.Resolution Conf.10.10(Rev.CoP19)on Trade in elephant specimensThis seminal Resolution for elephant conservation,which has been updated and amended numerous times at successive CITES CoPs(most recently at CoP19),covers a wide range of issues,including:agreement on basic definitions of the terms“raw ivory and worked ivory”(see paragraphs 1 a&b under Regarding definitions);the marking of ivory specimens(see paragraph 2 under Regarding marking);requirements for trade in elephant specimens and domestic ivory markets(see paragraphs 3 20 under Regarding trade in elephant specimens and Regarding trade in raw ivory for commercial purposes);32 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON directives on hunting trophies(see paragraph 21 under Regarding quotas for trade in raw ivory as part of elephant hunting trophies);enhancing traceability of elephant ivory(see paragraphs 22 26 under Regarding the traceability of elephant specimens in trade);authorising the two elephant monitoring systems,MIKE and ETIS,under CITES(see paragraph 27 under Regarding monitoring the illegal killing of elephants and trade in elephant specimens);enhancing elephant conservation in general(see paragraphs 28 30 under Regarding improving elephant conservation and management in range States);and ensuring adequate resources for implementation(see paragraphs 31 32 under Regarding resources required for implementing this Resolution).In addition,Resolution Conf.10.10 has three Annexes,which are an integral part of the resolution containing important information and directives to the CITES Parties:Annex 1 is titled Monitoring illegal trade in ivory and other elephant specimens and establishes the mandate for ETIS under the direction of TRAFFIC,with seven subsections addressing introduction,data scope,data governance,data collection and compilation,information,data analysis and interpretation,intersessional remedial action,and funding.Annex 2 is titled Monitoring the illegal killing in elephant range States and establishes the mandate for MIKE under the direction of the Secretariat,with four subsections addressing introduction,scope and methodology,roles and responsibilities,and funding and operational support.Annex 3 is titled Guidelines to the National Ivory Action Plans Process and establishes the five-step NIAP process that addresses the identification of countries for participation in the oversight mechanism,the development of national NIAPs,assessment of the adequacy of NIAPs,monitoring of implementation,and completion of a NIAP and exist from the process.Whilst Annexes 1 and 2 establishing the two monitoring systems that have been part of the Resolution since its initial adoption at CoP10 in 1997,Annex 3 was added at CoP17 in 2016,three years after the NIAP process had commenced at CoP16 in 2013.This was done to ensure that the oversight mechanism benefitted from a credible and transparent structure that was clear to all CITES Parties,including the roles and responsibilities of ETIS,the CITES Secretariat and the Standing Committee.In terms of the current content of Resolution Conf.10.10(Rev.CoP19),with respect to ivory stockpile management,the most important requirements to incorporate in national stockpile management systems include the following:Regarding the definition of ivory(with reference to paragraphs 1 a and b),the Resolution recommends:a.the term raw ivory shall include all whole elephant tusks,polished or unpolished and in any form whatsoever,and all elephant ivory in cut pieces,polished or unpolished and howsoever changed from its original form,except for worked ivory;and b.the term worked ivory shall be interpreted to mean ivory that has been carved,shaped,or processed,either fully or partially,but shall not include whole tusks in any form,except where the whole surface has been carved.Re the marking of ivory stocks(with reference to paragraph 2),the Resolution recommends:that whole tusks of any size and cut pieces of ivory that are both 20 cm or more in length,and one kilogram or more in weight be marked utilising punch-dies,indelible ink or other forms of permanent marking,using the following formula:country-of-origin two-letter ISO code,the last two digits of the year/the serial number for the year/and the weight in kilograms(e.g.KE 00/127/14).It is recognised that different ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROON 33Parties have different systems for marking and may apply different practices for specifying the serial number and the year(which may be the year of registration or recovery,for example),but that all systems must result in a unique number for each piece of marked ivory.In the case of whole tusks,this number should be placed at the lip mark and highlighted with a flash of colour.Re the mandate for ivory stock management(with reference to paragraphs 7a-e),the Resolution urges:those Parties in whose jurisdiction there is an ivory carving industry,a legal domestic trade in ivory,an unregulated market for or illegal trade in ivory,or where ivory stockpiles exist,and Parties designated as ivory importing countries,to ensure that they have put in place comprehensive internal legislative,regulatory,enforcement,and other measures to:a.regulate the domestic trade in raw and worked ivory;b.register or license all importers,exporters,manufacturers,wholesalers and retailers dealing in raw or worked ivory;c.introduce recording and inspection procedures to enable the Management Authority and other appropriate government agencies to monitor the movement of ivory within the State,particularly employing:pulsory trade controls over raw ivory;and prehensive and demonstrably effective stock inventory,reporting,and enforcement systems for worked ivory;d.engage in public awareness campaigns,including supply and demand reduction;drawing attention to existing or new regulations concerning the sale and purchase of ivory;providing information on elephant conservation challenges,including the impact of illegal killing and illegal trade on elephant populations;and,particularly in retail outlets,informing tourists and other non-nationals that the export of ivory requires a permit and that the import of ivory into their state of residence may require a permit and might not be permitted;ande.maintain an inventory of government-held stockpiles of ivory and,where possible,of significant privately held stockpiles of ivory within their territory,and inform the Secretariat of the level of this stock each year before 28 February,inter alia to be made available to the programme Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants(MIKE)and the Elephant Trade Information System(ETIS)for their analyses,indicating the number of pieces and their weight per type of ivory(raw or worked);for relevant pieces,and if marked,their markings in accordance with the provisions of this Resolution;the source of the ivory;and the reasons for any significant changes in the stockpile compared to the preceding year.Re issues of security(with reference to paragraph 11),the Resolution directs the Secretariat:to provide technical assistance to Parties to a.improve legislative,regulatory and enforcement measures concerning trade in ivory and in developing practical measures to implement this Resolution;b.support,where requested,the security and registration of government-held ivory stockpiles,and provide practical guidance for the management of these stockpiles;and c.identify specimens of elephant ivory,other types of ivory and ivory look-alike materials.In Cameroon,MINFOF is charged with the management of seized wildlife products.Article 145,Paragraph 1 of Law No.94/01 of 20 January 1994 to promulgate Forestry,Wildlife and Fisheries Regulations(the 1994 Wildlife Law)provides that“the detention of seized equipment and non-perishable products is entrusted to the competent technical 3.2 National Ivory Stockpile Management Framework in Cameroon34 ESTABLISHING A ROBUST NISMS IN CAMEROONadministration,or failing that,to the nearest pound”.It should be understood that non-perishable products include elephant ivory,that competent technical administration gives reference to MINFOFs national authority over wildlife products,and that nearest impoundment structure refers to other specialised state storage structures such as those for arms and ammunition.The national regulatory framework governing ivory stockpile management in Cameroon is Decision N 0003/D/MINFOF/SG/DFAP/SDVEF/SC of 07 January 2014(otherwise known as Decision 0003/2014)which establishes the rules and procedures for marking,labelling,registration and storage of government-held ivory stocks(see Appendix 2 of this report for a translated English version of this Decision).Decision 0003/2014 is comprehensive and generally compatible with CITES Resolution Conf.10.10(Rev.CoP16),with the following requirements:Article 1 of Decision 0003/2014 defines four sources of ivory,whereby the specimens derive from:seizures made during anti-poaching operations;from administrative culling or hunting exercises;from found carcasses of elephants that died of natural causes:or from court cases.Article 2 categorises five types of ivory,including raw and worked as defined in paragraphs 1 a&b of Resolution Conf.10.10(Rev.CoP 19),however,also notes three other types of ivory:semi-worked,fresh and old.Article 4 concerns the marking of all whole ivory
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Photo credit:Chin Yee Chan/WorldFishFuture fish emissions:Insights from modeling foresight scenarios of regional fish supply and demandNovember,2024ForesightINITIATIVE ONINITIATIVE ONLow-Emission Food Systems2AuthorsChin Yee Chan,Nhuong Tran and Lisa Schindler.CitationThis publication should be cited as:Chan CY,Tran N and Schindler L.2024.Future fish emissions:Insights from modeling foresight scenarios of regional fish supply and demand.Penang,Malaysia:WorldFish.Working paper:2024-61.AcknowledgmentsA special thank you to Yan Hoong and Kai Ching Cheong,who helped us with data analysis.Funding for this study was provided through Mitigate :Initiative for Low-Emission Food Systems,and the CGIAR Initiative on Foresight.We would like to thank all funders who support this research through their contributions to the CGIAR Trust Fund:www.cgiar.org/funders.ContactWorldFish Communications and Marketing Department,Jalan Batu Maung,Batu Maung,11960 Bayan Lepas,Penang,Malaysia.Email:worldfishcentercgiar.org Creative Commons LicenseContent in this publication is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License(CC BY-NC 4.0),which permits non-commercial use,including reproduction,adaptation and distribution of the publication provided the original work is properly cited.2024 WorldFish.Photo creditsFront cover,page,6,8,16,28,Chin Yee Chan/WorldFish.Future fish emissions:Insights from modeling foresight scenarios of regional fish supply and demand3Table of contentsList of abbreviations 4Executive summary 51.Introduction 72.Material and methods 92.1.Fish foresight modeling 92.2.Scenarios 102.3.Post-model estimation of future GHG emissions 123.Results 143.1.Future fish supply and demand under the BAU,Risk and High scenarios 143.2.GHG emissions of fish 203.2.1.Comparison of global GHG emissions for fish and other commodities 203.2.2.Comparison of total GHG emissions from fish and other commodities in Africa and Asia 223.2.3.Comparison of total GHG emissions from marine production at the regional level 233.2.4.Future GHG emissions of fish under the BAU scenario 234.Discussion 255.Conclusions 28References 29List of figures 35List of tables 354List of abbreviationsASEAN Association of Southeast Asian NationsBAU business-as-usual BSF black soldier flyCAPRI Common Agricultural Policy Regionalised ImpactCH4 methane CO2 carbon dioxide eq equivalent FAO Food and Agriculture Organization GDP gross domestic productGHG greenhouse gasesGt giga tonnesIFPRI International Food Policy Research InstituteIMPACT International Model for Policy Analysis of Agriculture Commodities and TradeIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeLAC Latin America and the Caribbean Mt million tonnes N2O nitrous oxidePPP Purchasing power paritiesSDG Sustainable Development Goal SSA Sub-Saharan Africa SSP Shared Socioeconomic PathwayUN United Nations5Executive summary Highlights Aquatic foods provide abundant bioavailable nutrients and are a major protein source for 40%of the worlds population.Compared to most terrestrial livestock,fish production has a relatively low carbon footprint,underscoring its significance for achieving sustainable food systems and promoting global food security.Under the optimistic High scenario in this report,fish supply and per capita fish consumption rise in all regions,with Asia leading in both production and consumption now and in the future.In contrast,the Risk scenario projects a future with stagnating fish production and consumption,while the BAU follows the direction of historical trends.The industrialized parts of Asia display the highest greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions from marine capture fisheries,followed by Sub-Saharan Africa(SSA)and Latin America and the Caribbean(LAC).By 2035,aquaculture emissions will surpass those of capture fisheries,exposing aquaculture production as the main source of GHG emissions among aquatic food production.The High scenario offers opportunities to tackle malnutrition in South Asia and SSA,with potential benefits for enhancing social and climate justice.Low-emission interventions need to focus on feed,waste,and water management in aquaculture to ensure sustainable growth.Such promising systems include coupling crop and fish production to reduce inputs and limit GHG emissions.The acceleration of climate change poses significant threats to agri-food systems.Global food systems are a major driver of the ongoing climate crisis,as they contribute to GHG emissions,causing global warming and extreme weather events.Approximately one-third of global GHG emissions are attributed to food production processes,representing a major source of emissions for mitigation efforts to target.Aquatic foods are increasingly recognized as a vital part of healthy diets,with a low carbon footprint and minimal human health impacts.However,there is considerable uncertainty around emissions from aquatic foods,particularly from sources such as biogenic methane production from ponds,fuel combustion from motorized boats,and carbon dioxide release from seafloor trawling.To inform policy debates on the future of aquatic foods at the global and regional levels,we employed the International Model for Policy Analysis of Agriculture Commodities and Trade(IMPACT)to explore three scenarios of fish supply and demand:business-as-usual(BAU),Risk,and High.In this study,our analysis focused on,five global regionsAfrica,Asia,Latin America and the Caribbean(LAC),North America,and Oceaniaand three subregions Association of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN),SSA,and South Asia.The High scenario anticipates that Asia remains the leading global fish producer in 2050,at more than 213.5 million tonnes,while South Asia emerges as the largest producing subregion.Meanwhile,the ASEAN is projected to remain the subregion with the highest per capita fish consumption in all three scenarios.Under the High scenario,Africas fish consumption is expected to approach the current global average by 2050.In contrast,fish consumption and production stagnate under the Risk scenario,leading to significant implications for food and nutrition security of vulnerable populations in SSA and South Asia,as population growth outpaces fish production.The BAU scenario indicates a continuation of historical trends,limiting the contribution of blue foods to global equality,food security,and scientific innovations.With the most desirable future outlook on climate challenges,the High scenario is expected to produce 15%more farmed fish by 2050 than the BAU scenario.6A post-model analysis was used to estimate the future GHG emissions associated with aquatic foods across the different regions and subregions under this study.In direct comparison to terrestrial meats,capture fisheries and aquaculture production exhibit relatively low GHG emissions,signifying their distinct role in reducing food system emissions while sustainably fighting malnourishment.Nevertheless,growing production under the High scenario in South Asia is projected to result in substantial GHG emissions in the region by 2050.Our results depict aquaculture as the dominant source of emissions by 2035,as those from capture fisheries are expected to plateau.Technological progress and green investments show potential for the sustainable intensification of aquaculture by reducing emissions,increasing output,and adapting to climate impacts.Notable low-emission interventions include implementing co-cultures in aquaponics and optimizing feed and feeding methods,as well as incorporating seaweed farming into aquaculture.Combined rice and fish production in regions with high rates of rice consumption and nutrient deficiencies could benefit human and planetary health by reducing emissions and increasing food production.Photo credit:Chin Yee Chan/WorldFish7Food,land,and water systems face unprecedented threats amid the ongoing climate crisis.Current climate action plans for food systems are insufficient to effectively address the increasingly frequent and intense extreme weather events and large interannual climate variabilities(Hendriks et al.,2023;Mbow et al.,2019).In 2022,total GHG emissions,which are mainly composed of carbon dioxide(CO2),methane(CH4),and nitrous oxide(N2O),reached a new record high of 57.4 gigatons(Gt)CO2 equivalent(eq)(UNEP,2023).This increase in emissions jeopardizes international climate targets such as those set out in the Paris Agreement,which commits to limiting global warming to 1.5C and keeping it well below 2C(UNFCCC,2015).The latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)Report for the Sixth Assessment confirmed an increase of 1.1C in global surface temperature between 2011 and 2020 compared to the reference period 18501900(IPCC,2023).The discrepancy between the de facto GHG emissions and the allowable emissions to reach the 2oC target represents the emissions gap,which under current policies amounts to 16 Gt CO2eq(UNEP,2023).Member states further pledged to deliver climate action in the unconditional nationally determined contributions,but even these recorded commitments deviate from the maximum permissible emission by 14 Gt CO2eq(UNEP,2023),posing the dual threat of climate catastrophe and food insecurity to the Global South(Hendriks et al.,2023).The urgency for accelerated climate mitigation has never been more critical.Agricultural production is not only severely affected by climate change,but greatly contributes to the output of harmful GHGs.Global agri-food systems account for approximately 35%of total GHG emissions,with a striking 72%of this output originating from the Global South,accounting for 16.2 Gt CO2eq in 2021(Cerutti et al.,2023;Crippa et al.,2021;FAOSTAT,2024).These systems hold the potential to contribute 16%of climate solutions between 2030 and 2050 under the two climate forcing scenarios known as Representative Concentration Pathways at 8.5 and 4.5,respectively(IPCC,2022;Riahi et al.,2017).Agri-food emissions are divided into farm-gate emissions,which arise during production,land-use change and supply chain emissions.At 39%,production accounts for the largest share of total GHG emissions from agriculture,followed by 32%emitted by land use and land use change,and 29%from post-production activities(Crippa et al.,2021).Given that food systems are a major contributor to global GHG emissions,there is an urgent need for a comprehensive transformation of diets and food systems to achieve the United Nations(UN)Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)and the targets of the Paris Agreement(Rockstrm et al.,2020).The production of animal protein is estimated to account for around half of all GHG emissions associated with food production over the past two decades(Herrero et al.,2016;Webb&Buratini,2016).In contrast,aquatic foods produce protein with lower emissions per unit of output compared to nearly all land-based sources of animal protein(Tsakiridis et al.,2020;Turrell,2019).GHG emissions from aquatic foods represent around 10%of agri-food emissions,with aquaculture contributing 7%(Hall et al.,2011)and captures fisheries accounting for 4%(Barange et al.,2018;Parker et al.,2018).These emissions encompass pre-farm,on-farm and post-farm or post-dock processes,as well as emissions from land-use change and fuel combustion from fishing boats and larger fishing fleets(Parker et al.,2018).The steady increase in global annual per capita fish consumption,doubling from 10.8 kg in 1970 to 20.6 kg in 2021,translates to increased marine and inland fishing efforts from 63 million tonnes(Mt)to 91 Mt(FAO,2023c),subsequently leading to an increase in emissions from fuel combustion during these 50 years(Greer et al.,2019).Industrial and small-scale fisheries together increased their fuel combustion emissions from 47 Mt CO2eq to 207 Mt CO2eq(Greer et al.,2019).The necessity of large-scale mitigation across all sectors is critical to limit climate change impacts,including the severe consequences for marine biomass production,fishery landings and ecosystem health.A loss of 10%of all exploitable marine biomass is anticipated under high-emission scenarios(Blanchard&Novaglio,2024).In regions heavily reliant on fish for food and nutrition security,the losses in maximum catch potential are expected to reach between 30%and 50%(Bindoff et al.,2019;Blanchard&Novaglio,2024;Lam et al.,2016).Additionally,the poleward migration of commercially targeted species,driven by 1.Introduction8ocean warming,is expected to disproportionally affect tropical and subtropical marine areas(Bindoff et al.,2019;Duarte et al.,2020).Conversely,the risk of biomass loss is significantly reduced under low-emission scenarios(Blanchard&Novaglio,2024).Following the recommendations of the EAT-Lancet commission(Willett et al.,2019),aquatic foods are increasingly recognized as a critical part of a healthy diet with comparably little impact on the environment and a minimal contribution to global emissions(Chan,Prager,et al.,2021;FAO,2024c;Poore&Nemecek,2018;Willett et al.,2019).Aquatic foods,or“blue foods,”serve as an essential source of nutrients(Golden et al.,2021),providing 17%of crude animal protein globally and containing a number of readily available micronutrients,such as iron,zinc,selenium,calcium,and iodine(Boyd et al.,2022;FAO,2024c).Over 40%of the worlds population obtains more than 20%of its protein supply from aquatic foods(FAO,2024c).Meanwhile,dietary transitions and growing population fuel the global demand for aquatic foods(Naylor et al.,2021).Recent studies suggest that many fish species are significantly less GHG intensive than terrestrial meats(FAO,2024c;Gephart et al.,2021;Springmann et al.,2018),positioning aquatic foods as a favorable option for reducing the environmental footprint of agri-food systems.Nevertheless,large uncertainties exist around the amount of emissions from aquatic foods in the future.Addressing these uncertainties is crucial to assess the environmental impacts of aquatic foods and optimizing their role in food system transformation.To bridge this research gap and inform policy debates on the future of aquatic foods,we developed three scenarios of future production:business-as-usual(BAU),High,and Risk.We first project future fish supply and demand at the global,regional,and subregional levels to 2050 using IMPACT.Second,we conduct post-model analysis to extrapolate future GHG emissions from both capture fisheries and aquaculture for the BAU scenario,analyzing future emission trends at all three levels.Photo credit:Chin Yee Chan/WorldFish92.1.Fish foresight modeling In recent decades,aquatic foods have become more integrated into foresight models of the agriculture and land-use sectors.Several partial-equilibrium economic models started integrating fish commodities,such as the IMPACT fish model(Chan et al.,2021;Chan et al.,2019;Kobayashi et al.,2015;World Bank,2013b),the AgLINK-COSIMO model(Lem et al.,2014;OECD/FAO,2021),the Global Biosphere Management Model,and the Common Agricultural Policy Regionalised Impact(CAPRI)model(Chang et al.,2018;Deppermann et al.,2019;Heckelei et al.,2018;Latka et al.,2018).These economic models focus on analyzing the future supply and demand of fish by simulating the impacts of external drivers such as technological progress,population growth,income growth,and climate change on fish production,consumption,and trade at the global,national,and regional levels.Some studies using the CAPRI model focus on simulating the economic impact of fisheries policies on aquafeed production and different fish commodities.Overall,these comprehensive models focus on medium-or long-term projections at the global and regional levels.Other partial equilibrium modeling approaches,such as the AsiaFish model(Dey et al.,2016;Tran et al.,2023;Tran et al.,2017)and the multi-speciesmulti-sector equilibrium model(Tran et al.,2019;Tran et al.,2022),developed by WorldFish,provide more disaggregated projections of the fish sector at the country level.Stakeholder consultation inputs,coupled with historical data,are used to generate projections aligned with historical trends and simultaneously provide direction for future projections.Delgado et al.(2003)were pioneers in using the IMPACT fish model to project global fish production,consumption,and trade for the 19972020 period,as published in Fish to 2020 by the International Food Policy Research Institute(IFPRI)and WorldFish(Delgado et al.,2003).A decade later,the follow-up study,Fish to 2030,was commissioned by the World Bank in collaboration with the IMPACT modeling team at the IFPRI,the Fisheries and Aquaculture Department of the Food and Agriculture Organization(FAO),and the 2.Material and methods University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff(World Bank,2013a).This report incorporates lessons learned from the previous report and a newly developed fish module of the IMPACT model for the 20002030 period(World Bank,2013a).Whereas Fish to 2020 focused on the consumer perspective,using fish species aggregation based on market characteristics,the new model incorporated development in the aquaculture sector and the global seafood markets based on production systems,feeding regimens,and fish diets.The data was disaggregated to envision the link between the fish and agricultural markets and to reflect on the rising role of aquaculture production.Linkages exist through feed markets,which supply the livestock and aquaculture sectors with fishmeal and fish oil ingredients,which are used in both productions.Similarly,both sectors compete for plant-based feeds from terrestrial agriculture,as these feeds play a major role in livestock and aquaculture production.In the IMPACT model,the increasing importance of the linkages between the fish and livestock production,along with the rapid rise in aquaculture compared to capture fisheries,require a market analysis of demand for seafood.In 2017,WorldFish and the IFPRI published Fish to 2050 in the ASEAN region(Chan et al.,2017),which included substantial model updates to simulate FAOs latest historical trends and to adjust future projections in the ASEAN region up to 2050.It takes industry-specific socio-economic and bio-physical factors into account,such as fisheries management regimens,ecosystem carrying capacity,and fish production targets defined by national governments.Previous reports(Chan et al.,2017;Kobayashi et al.,2015;World Bank,2013)presented detailed descriptions of the model structure and model updates.From 2019 to 2021,further updates and calibrations were conducted for Africa(Chan et al.,2019),alongside a post-model analysis to extrapolate future employment and investment costs in the African fish sector(Chan,Tran,et al.,2021)This effort involved extensive consultations with experts during multiple stakeholder consultation workshops to enhance the collaborative effort and improve our future projections.10In this study,our analysis focused on the global level,encompassing the five regions(Africa,Asia,the LAC,North America,Oceania)and three subregions(ASEAN,SSA,South Asia).Since these regions are heterogeneous and dynamic,they exhibit profound socio-economic disparities(Table 1).North America and Oceania are the wealthiest regions,with the highest gross domestic product(GDP),while regions such as South Asia and the ASEAN showed notable GDP growth between 2012 and 2022(World Bank,2023).Regions with the lowest GDP per capita also have large shares of malnourishment,illustrating the correlation between poverty and hunger(World Bank,2023).In contrast,high-income regions display the largest animal protein consumption and generally higher per capita fish consumption(FAO,2023a).Regarding demographic development,Oceania,SSA,and South Asia have the highest population growth rates,while the population in North America and the LAC region almost stagnates.Regions with lower population growth tend to have high urbanization rates(World Bank,2023).Among all of the regions,Asia stands out for its dominant role in global fish production,representing the largest share of both capture fisheries and aquaculture production(FAO,2023a;World Bank,2023).2.2.Scenarios Building upon the previous IMPACT fish model,the current model replicates observed trends in fish supply and demand at both the global and regional levels.The model is updated using historical production,consumption,and trade data compiled by FAO up to the most recent year available(FAO,2023a,2023b).In this study,we update additional historical production data until 2021.Furthermore,it incorporates the latest historical population and GDP data as part of its model updates(FAO,2023a,2023b;World Bank,2022).Three scenarios are examined in this study:the BAU scenario and the two alternative scenarios,High and Risk.These scenarios are derived from the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways(SSPs)1,2,and 3,which represent distinct climate scenarios paired with socio-economic outlooks(Riahi et al.,2017).Notably,the alternative scenarios do not analyze capture fisheries production.These two scenarios diverge from BAU projections starting from 2026 and extending through 2050.The future projection results are presented in two phases:the initial phase covers projections from the latest year of historical data up to 2035,while the subsequent phase extends from 2036 to 2050.BAUThe BAU scenario,also known as SSP 2,represents a middle-of-the-road trajectory that aligns with historical trends,reflecting moderate economic growth that varies across the regions and subregions in this study.A gradual decrease in the population growth rate,indicates a slower pace of demographic expansion over time.Moreover,this scenario presents moderate challenges in adapting to and mitigating climate change while successively degrading the environment(Riahi et al.,2017).As listed in Table 2,future projections anticipate a notable decline in annual GDP growth rates across all of the regions under the BAU scenario from 2021 to 2050,compared to historical growth from 2000 to 2021.Except Africa and SSA,all of the regions experience slower growth in the second half of the projection period(20362050)compared to the first(20212035).The annual GDP growth rate of Africa and SSA accounts for 4.7%and 5.2%from 2036 to 2050,respectively,which is roughly 0.02%to 0.2%higher than the rate from 2021 to 2035,indicating higher economic development in the latter period for Africa.Overall,Africa is projected to add US$11.0 trillion in GDP from 2021 to 2050.Within Asia,projections show that the ASEANs GDP will reach US$5.4 trillion by 2050,while South Asia is expected to reach USD$15.8 trillion.Overall,the global GDP growth rate is declining under the BAU scenario from 5.1%per annum to 2.1%by the end of the second projection period,increasing from US$33.2 trillion in 2000 to US$156.8 trillion in 2050.Under the BAU scenario,global population is expected to reach 9.5 billion in 2050,with a growth rate of 0.8%annually until 2035 and a reduced rate of 0.5%until the middle of the century.Based on historical evidence,Africas population growth will exceed those of other global regions,as it is projected to add 1.1 billion people by 2050.Furthermore,Oceania is projected to experience the second-highest population growth,reaching a population of 60 million within the same time frame.In contrast,other global regions such as the ASEAN,Asia,LAC,and North America are expected to undergo moderate annual population growth between 0.6%and 0.8%until 2035,and almost halved growth rates for the second phase of the projections(20362050).11IndicatorsYear GlobalAfricaSSAAsiaASEANSouth AsiaLACNorth AmericaOceaniaDemographic and socio-economic statusa Population(million)20227,950.91,424.81,211.24,687.2679.41,919.3659.3372.344.8Population growth(%)201220221.12.52.70.91.01.20.90.71.6Urban population(%)202256.944.542.452.051.235.881.682.967.0GDP(current US$trillion)2022101.32.92.137.23.64.46.827.62.0GDP per capita(current thousand US$)202212.72.11.77.95.32.310.374.144.7GDP growth(%)201220223.01.91.83.93.86.60.94.31.2Undernourishment(%)20219.219.221.69.45.216.36.82.57.7Unemployment(%total labor force)20225.87.16.75.52.67.07.03.83.6Year 2019201920212021Population below US$2.15 a day(2017 purchasing power parities(PPP)(%)9.0n.a.35.4n.a.n.a.10.94.6n.a.n.a.Contribution of fish to food supplybTotal fish production(Mt)2022185.412.08.1129.5 32.222.917.15.61.8Capture production(Mt)202291.09.77.346.617.99.212.85.01.6Aquaculture production(Mt)202294.42.30.782.914.313.84.30.60.2Share of aquaculture production(%)202250.919.39.064.044.560.025.211.513.0Aquaculture average annual growth(%)201220224.04.44.74.04.17.96.10.62.4Contribution of fish to food and nutritional statusc,dFish consumption(Mt)2019c157.313.19.2111.926.3.17.86.78.31.0Fish consumption(kg/capita/year)2019c20.39.98.5.24.239.69.110.322.323.1Fish protein(g/capita/year)2022d5.52.6n.a.6.8n.a.2.9n.a.4.85.6Animal protein(g/capita/day)2022d38.115.5n.a.34.3n.a.19.9n.a.81.962.2Fish/animal protein(%)2022d14.516.6n.a.19.8n.a.14.4n.a.5.89.0Authors computation from data sources:a(World Bank,2023),b(FAO,2024b),c(FAO,2023b),d(FAO,2024a)Table 1.Demographic and socio-economic status,and contribution of aquatic foods to food security in different regions and the world.12HighThe High scenario,derived from SSP 1,represents an optimistic sustainable development scenario.Compared to the BAU,this scenario anticipates higher economic growth rates and slower population growth(Riahi et al.,2017).Population growth declines significantly in various regions,while Asia,the ASEAN,and LAC even experience negative rates.Moreover,this scenario emphasizes significant investment in research and development,using sustainable technological advancements to alleviate inequality,reduce energy intensity,and increase land productivity.These advancements enhance societys ability to address and adapt to climate change.Similar to the BAU scenario,Africa and SSA are projected to have higher economic growth in the second half of the projection,accounting for US$23.6 trillion and US$20.7 trillion in 2050,respectively.Within the High scenario,the global GDP is projected to reach US$189.4 trillion by 2050,which is 20.8%higher than the BAU scenario.Furthermore,the High scenario anticipates a slower annual population growth than the BAU across all of the regions,except for North America.Notably,the ASEAN,Asia,and LAC experience negative population growth between 2036 and 2050,resulting in declining population sizes.Altogether,the High scenario is expected to reduce the historical population growth rate of 1.2%to 0.2%and to deviate from the BAU scenario by 60%over the same period of time.Risk In contrast to the BAU and High scenarios,the Risk scenario(derived from SSP 3)represents the slowest GDP growth rates across all of the regions,indicating a future with slow economic development.Rapid population growth in the developing regions contrasts drastically with slow growth in the developed regions,signifying rising inequalities and regional resource scarcity over time.Notably,unequal distribution persists when it comes to investments in education and healthcare,especially in low-income countries.This scenario also projects prolonged challenges to global and regional cooperation because of nationalist movements,security threats,regional conflicts,and a global health crisis(Riahi et al.,2017).Minimal improvements in living standards and limited investment in international coordinating organizations lead to sparse cooperation between high-and low-or middle-income countries on climate change and other issues.This reflects a future with high climate change adaptation and mitigation challenges,resulting in an increase in vulnerabilities to climate-related shocks(ONeill et al.,2017).The Risk scenario is characterized by slower GDP growth rates,which are expected to be 0.4%1.8%lower across some of the regions by 2050 compared to the BAU scenario.Africa and SSA experience the largest negative growth compared to the BAU scenario,projecting a GDP of US$10.3 trillion and US$8.3 trillion,respectively,by 2050.In the Risk scenario,the assumption of ongoing inequalities causing the population growth rate is projected to be higher in the developing regions and lower in the developed regions.Africa(comprising of SSA),Asia(including the ASEAN and South Asia),and LAC experience annual population growth between 0.8%and 2.2%in the first phase of projection and then 0.5%to 1.9%in the second,which is 0.1%to 0.3%higher than the BAU scenario.On the other hand,North America and Oceania experience a slower population growth under this scenario,accounting for approximately 0.3%0.4%annually in the first phase of projection and 0.4%to 0.5%in the second.Table 2 summarizes GDP and population growth under the BAU,High and Risk scenarios from 2000 to 2050 across the various regions.2.3.Post-model estimation of future GHG emissionsThe fish emission factor is a coefficient that describes the rate at which a given fishing or fish farming activity releases GHG into the atmosphere.Yet,due to the informal and dispersed nature of the fish sector,quality emissions data are limited for both capture fisheries and aquaculture at the regional level.We extrapolated the total GHG emissions across different commodities using the fish emission factor/intensity and production databases from various secondary sources,including FAO(2022a,2023a,2023b);MacLeod et al.(2020);Parker et al.(2018);Poore and Nemecek(2018);Porter et al.(2016);and Tran et al.(2023).To account for inconsistent data,we further scrutinize the compiled dataset to ensure a synchronized assessment.13Growth rate(%)GlobalAfricaSSAAsiaASEANSouth AsiaLACNorth AmericaOceaniaGDP growth rate(%)Historicala200020215.16.97.66.78.48.93.94.16.6BAU202120352.84.75.03.52.85.02.91.82.4203620502.14.75.22.12.03.82.31.22.1High202120353.56.26.94.43.46.03.62.22.8203620502.76.47.02.62.54.62.91.62.5Risk202120352.23.73.92.82.34.02.41.41.7203620501.13.03.31.11.32.31.40.60.9Population growth rate(%)Historicalb200020191.22.62.81.11.21.51.10.91.7BAU201920350.81.92.10.60.71.00.70.81.3203620500.51.31.40.20.20.60.30.50.9High201920350.71.71.80.50.50.80.50.81.3203620500.20.91.0-0.03-0.020.3-0.020.60.8Risk201920351.02.22.40.80.81.31.00.41.0203620500.81.81.90.60.51.10.7-0.10.5Sources:Historical data retrieved from aWorld Bank(2022);bUnited Nations(2022)Table 2.Historical(20002021)and future(20212035,20362050)population and GDP growth across the study regions.143.Results Total fish production(Mt)GlobalAfricaSSAAsiaASEANSouth AsiaLACNorth AmericaOceania2021a182.112.78.0126.931.421.717.75.91.72035225.013.08.4163.541.732.519.46.51.32050258.413.78.6191.944.844.322.16.91.4Data source:aFAO(2023c)Table 3.Fish production under the BAU scenario.3.1.Future fish supply and demand under the BAU,Risk and High scenariosFish production under the BAU scenarioUsing the IMPACT model,we conduct the future BAU projection to 2050 using the SSP 2 scenario across the different regions under the study.The historical trend implies that global fish supply grew 1.8%annually from 2000 to 2021,increasing from 126.0 Mt in 2000 to 182.1 Mt in 2021(Table 3).Under the BAU scenario,global fish production is expected to increase by 23.6%(42.9 Mt)from 2021 to 2035 and is likely to increase another 14.8%from 2036 to 2050.This indicates that global fish production will continue to rise until the middle of the 21st century,although at slower rates than in the past.Global aquaculture produced 90.9 Mt of fish in 2021,representing half of total fish production.Under the BAU scenario,aquaculture production is expected to grow further and reach 131.9 Mt in 2035 and then 165.2 Mt in 2050(Figure 2).This represents an increase of 81.7%relative to 2021 and an additional 74.3 Mt in absolute terms by 2050(Table 4).However,while the total quantity continues to increase,the average annual growth rate of aquaculture production is projected to slow down over the coming 25 years,from 5.0%in the 20002021 period to 2.7%in 20222035 and then 1.5%in 20362050.Total aquaculture production(Mt)GlobalAfricaSSAAsiaASEANSouth AsiaLACNorth AmericaOceania2021a90.92.30.780.313.812.83.80.60.22035131.93.00.8116.422.823.56.41.00.42050165.23.60.9144.925.935.29.21.40.6Data source:aFAO(2023c)Table 4.Aquaculture production under the BAU scenario.15Asia remains the major aquaculture producer in the world,representing 88.3%of total production as of 2021.Nevertheless,aquaculture growth across the continent is expected to decelerate,with an annual increase of 2.7%from 2021 to 2035 and 1.5%from 2036 to 2050.By 2050,aquaculture production in Asia is expected to reach 144.9 Mt.Within the continent,the ASEAN region and South Asia are projected to contribute significantly,representing 17.9%and 24.3%of total production in Asia by 2050.Specifically,aquacultural production in the ASEAN and South Asia would reach 22.8 Mt and 23.5 Mt by 2035,and then 25.9 Mt and 35.2 Mt by 2050,respectively.In contrast,regions such as LAC,North America,and Oceania are expected to show moderate growth in aquaculture production,at 2.2%3.9%through 2050.Between 2000 and 2021,Africas growth in aquaculture production was relatively high,at an annual rate of 8.7%.Despite the slow growth rate of 1.9%and 1.2%for the first and second projection phases,Africa is expected to produce 3.6 Mt of fish under the BAU scenario by 2050.SSA is poised to become a significant player in aquaculture,with a few countries leading,and the region is expected to contribute 25%of the total aquacultural output in Africa by 2050.Despite the historically high growth rate of 13.0%from 2000 to 2021,this rate is projected to drop to 1.0tween 2021 and 2050 under the BAU scenario because of low outputs.Fish production under the Risk and High scenariosUnder the pessimistic Risk scenario,the total global fish supply is projected to increase from 182.1 Mt in 2021 to 225.0 Mt in 2035(Figure 1),with an average annual growth rate of 1.5%.From 2036 to 2050,growth is expected to continue,albeit at a slower pace of 0.5%annually.From 2021 to 2050,the overall increase in global fish supply in this scenario is anticipated to add 54.1 Mt,representing a 29.2%reduction from the BAU scenario.This difference amounts to approximately 22.2 Mt fewer in absolute terms compared to the BAU scenario,attributed to constrained environmental considerations and slow technological progress.In contrast to the BAU and Risk scenarios,the High scenario projects strong global growth rates in total fish production from 2021 to 2035,at approximately 1.8%annually,driven by sustainable development,technological advancements,and environmental conservation.This growth trajectory is sustained from 2036 to 2050 at around 1.3%annually,highlighting a continued emphasis on sustainable practices and effective resource management.By 2050,global fish supply is projected to reach 282.9 Mt,which is 9.5%higher than the BAU scenario and the highest level among all three scenarios.In the Risk scenario,driven by higher population growth in the developing regions and slower economic development,the share of aquaculture production is anticipated to decrease slightly,with an estimated 125.6 Mt by 2035 and 143.0 Mt by 2050.Under this scenario,total aquaculture production would be 13.2%lower than in the BAU scenario by 2050.Conversely,under the High scenario,aquaculture production is projected to slightly increase to reach 140.6 Mt by 2035.With greater technological advancement and fewer mitigation challenges,the global aquaculture supply is projected to reach 189.8 Mt by 2050,surpassing the BAU scenario by 15%.Regardless of the scenarios,Asia continues to dominate the aquaculture sector,accounting for approximately 88%of total aquaculture production in 2050(Figure 2).In the Risk scenario,the annual growth rate of aquaculture production declines from 2.7%in the BAU scenario to 2.2%in the first phase of the projection,reaching 110.7 Mt in 2035.Subsequently,production is expected to grow at a slower rate in the second phase,amounting to 125.0 Mt in 2050,with an average annual growth rate of 0.8%compared to the BAU annual rate of 1.5%.In contrast,the High scenario anticipates the highest aquaculture production,exceeding both the BAU and Risk scenarios,adding 13.2 Mt more than the Risk scenario in 2035 and 21.6 Mt more by 2050.The ASEAN and South Asia remain the main producing regions in the BAU,reaching 22.8 Mt and 23.5 Mt of aquacultural production in 2035,respectively.Until 2050,these regions are expected to generate 25.9 Mt to 35.2 Mt under the BAU scenario.The High scenario further boosts estimated production by 9.4.8%in 2035 compared to the BAU,increasing to 23.6%and 26.1%in 2050.In contrast,the Risk scenario projects a reduction of 6.8%7.9%in aquaculture production for both the ASEAN and South Asia in 2035,and a further decline of 19.1.4%relative to the BAU scenario by 2050.16Africa and the SSA region have historically been the fastest growing aquacultural producers,boasting average annual growth rates of 8.7%and 13.0%,respectively.However,all three scenarios indicate a slower growth trajectory for aquaculture compared to these historical rates.Under the High scenario,Africa is estimated to experience growth of 42.7%from 2021 to 2035,reaching 3.5 Mt by the end of the first projection phase.Aquaculture production for Africa is then projected to slow down its production slightly,increasing 31.4%from 2036 to 2050 and reaching 4.6 Mt in 2050.Projections for the Risk scenario indicate an aquaculture output that is 10.6%lower than that of the BAU scenario by 2050.SSA alone is projected to reach 1.4 Mt of aquaculture output by 2050 under the High scenario,marking a 49.8%increase over the BAU projection.Conversely,the Risk scenario anticipates a 9.0crease in SSA compared to the BAU projections.LAC has historically been among the faster-growing aquaculture-producing regions.Under the Risk scenario,the projected additional production in the region is estimated to be 19.7%lower than the BAU from 2021 to 2050.Conversely,the High scenario projects a 17.6%increase compared to the BAU.North America is expected to reach 1.2 Mt of aquaculture production under the Risk scenario,but a 33%higher output of 1.6 Mt under the High scenario.Figures 1 and 2 depict the projections of total fish supply under the BAU,Risk,and High scenarios at the regional level.By 2050,the total regional fish supply is estimated to be 1.0.8%lower in the Risk scenario than the BAU.In contrast,fish supply is projected to be 3.4 .8%higher in the High scenario compared to the BAU.Photo credit:Chan Ching Yee/WorldFish1705010015020025030020002003200620092012201520182021202420272030203320362039204220452048YearA.Total fsh production in Asia and GlobalAsia(Historical)Asia(High)Asia(BAU)Asia(Risk)Global(Historical)Global(High)Global(BAU)Global(Risk)01020304050602000200420082012201620202024202820322036204020442048Million tonneYearB.Total fsh production in ASEAN and South AsiaASEAN(Historical)ASEAN(High)ASEAN(BAU)ASEAN(Risk)South Asia(Historical)South Asia(High)South Asia(BAU)South Asia(Risk)024681012141618202000200420082012201620202024202820322036204020442048Million tonneYearC.Total fsh production in Africa and Sub-Saharan AfricaAfrica(Historical)Africa(High)Africa(BAU)Africa(Risk)Sub-Saharan Africa(Historical)Sub-Saharan Africa(High)Sub-Saharan Africa(BAU)Sub-Saharan Africa(Risk)Million tonneFigure 1.Total fish production under the BAU,High,and Risk scenarios for(A)Asia and Global,(B)ASEAN and South Asia,and(C)Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa.1802040608010012014016018020020002003200620092012201520182021202420272030203320362039204220452048Million tonneYearA.Aquaculture production in Asia and GlobalAsia(Historical)Asia(High)Asia(BAU)Asia(Risk)Global(Historical)Global(High)Global(BAU)Global(Risk)0510152025303540455020002003200620092012201520182021202420272030203320362039204220452048Million tonneYearASEAN(Historical)ASEAN(High)ASEAN(BAU)ASEAN(Risk)South Asia(Historical)South Asia(High)South Asia(BAU)South Asia(Risk)00.51.01.52.02.53.03.54.04.55.020002003200620092012201520182021202420272030203320362039204220452048Million tonneYearAfrica(Historical)Africa(BAU)Africa(BAU)Africa(Risk)Sub-Saharan Africa(Historical)Sub-Saharan Africa(High)Sub-Saharan Africa(BAU)Sub-Saharan Africa(Risk)B.Aquaculture production in ASEAN and South AsiaC.Aquaculture production in Africa and Sub-Saharan AfricaFigure 2.Total aquaculture production under the BAU,High,and Risk scenarios for(A)Asia and Global,(B)ASEAN and South Asia,and(C)Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa.19Fish consumption under the BAU scenarioGlobally,the BAU projections indicate that per capita fish consumption is expected to remain nearly stagnant,increasing only slightly from 20.3 kg in 2019 to 21.3 kg in 2035,and further to 23.2 kg by 2050,marking a 14%rise from 2019 levels(Table 5).In LAC,Oceania,and SSA,per capita fish consumption is projected to decline during the initial projection phase,followed by an upward trend thereafter in the second.In SSA,domestic fish supply is expected to fall 4.9 Mt short of demand by 2035,leading to a slight reduction of per capita fish consumption from 2019 to 2035.Despite the initial decline in SSA and Oceania,almost all of the regions are projected to consume more fish per capita by 2050,except for LAC,where levels in 2050 are expected to be lower than in 2019.Notwithstanding the decrease in per capita fish consumption in SSA during the first phase of projection,Africa is projected to have a rise in per capita fish consumption as a whole,with an increase of 62%from 10.0 kg in 2019 to 16.2 kg by 2050.To reach the current global average of 20.3 kg,Africa will require an additional 30.1 Mt of fish supply to meet domestic demand by 2050.Asia,including the ASEAN and South Asia subregions,is expected to experience a steady increase in per capita fish consumption,from 24.2 kg in 2019 to 26.5 kg in 2035 and then to 28.3 kg in 2050.This is driven by factors such as urbanization,growing income levels,the expansion of fish markets,and increased awareness of the role of fish in healthy diets(OECD/FAO,2021).By 2050,the BAU scenario demonstrates a surplus of fish production in South Asia because of lower fish consumption per capita,which is as low as in Africa(about half the global average)but is expected to rise.Meanwhile,the population in South Asia is expected to surge from 1.9 billion in 2019 to 2.3 billion people in 2035,reaching 2.5 billion in 2050.To attain global fish consumption of 20.3 kg,South Asia requires 7.1 Mt of fish supply to meet this demand by 2050.Annual per capita fish consumption(kg)Global AfricaSSA AsiaASEANSouth AsiaLACNorth America Oceania2019a20.310.08.724.239.69.110.322.323.12035High22.713.59.928.356.912.19.626.922.1BAU21.311.98.626.550.911.09.325.721.3Risk20.110.47.525.247.010.08.926.120.92050High27.221.416.132.980.816.810.834.328.3BAU23.216.211.828.363.313.69.830.025.1Risk19.711.28.124.350.410.68.730.723.1Data source:aFAO(2023b)Table 5.Annual per capita fish consumption in 2019 and projections for 2035 and 2050 under the BAU,High and Risk scenarios.20Fish consumption under the Risk and High scenarios Under the Risk scenario,global fish consumption is projected to rise from 157.3 Mt in 2019 to 199.3 Mt by 2050.However,per capita fish consumption is expected to fall from 20.3 kg in 2019 to 19.7 kg by 2050(Table 5).This decline,despite rising total consumption,is attributed to higher population growth,which results in a 15%lower per capita figure compared to the BAU scenario,where consumption would rise to 23.2 kg in 2050.This indicates that high population growth is outpacing fish consumption,and each consumer will be eating less fish in the future,potentially leading to food and nutrient deficiencies in vulnerable rural communities.In contrast to the BAU and Risk scenarios,global per capita fish consumption under the High scenario increases from 20.3 kg in 2019 to 22.7 kg in 2035,further increasing to 27.2 kg in 2050.LAC and SSA are projected to experience declines in per capita fish consumption under the Risk scenario.In LAC,the average is likely to drop from 10.3 kg in 2019 to 8.9 kg in 2035 and then to 8.7 kg by 2050.Compared to the BAU scenario,per capita fish consumption in this region declines 4.3%in 2035 and drops to 11.2%by 2050.In SSA,the average is projected to decrease from 8.7 kg to 7.5 kg in 2035 under the Risk scenario,and then increase slightly to 8.1 kg in 2050,which still results in a decrease of 31.4%compared to the BAU scenario by 2050.In the High scenario,all of the regions exhibit moderate growth rates in annual per capita fish consumption during the initial projection phase from 2019 to 2035,ranging from 0.5%to 2.8%.Subsequently,this growth accelerates slightly from 0.8%to 3.1%annually from 2036 to 2050.Notably,the ASEAN,Africa,and SSA experience considerable increases in fish consumption compared to the BAU scenario.By 2035,per capita consumption in these regions is projected to grow between 11.8%and 15.1%over the BAU scenario.By 2050,growth is more pronounced,as much as 27.66.4%higher than in the BAU scenario.The outstanding fish consumption in the ASEAN region is projected to be 60.3%higher under the High scenario compared to the Risk scenario and 27.6%higher than the BAU in 2050.3.2.GHG emissions of fish3.2.1.Comparison of global GHG emissions for fish and other commodities A comparison between the total GHG emissions of livestock and fish reveals significant discrepancies in their environmental impacts,despite both being staple foods in human diets.Figure 3 distinctly displays the extraordinary amount of total emissions from the global food system that beef production accounts for,at 22,362.6 Mt CO2eq,which is the highest share of total emissions among the listed commodities.Following beef,other livestock products such as pig and poultry meat also exhibit substantial emissions,reaching 1,481.8 Mt CO2eq and 1,361.9 Mt CO2eq,respectively.Similarly,other animal products such as eggs and milk are associated with GHG emissions exceeding 400 Mt CO2eq and 2,000 Mt CO2eq,respectively.In contrast,fish,whether sourced from capture fisheries or aquaculture,present significantly lower emissions.The capture fisheries sector reports emissions of 200.62 Mt CO2eq,while fish from aquaculture,despite being the highest in the fish category,only emit 376.0 Mt CO2eq.This highlights that even the most carbon-intensive form of fish production remains well below emissions from terrestrial meat production.Within the crop category,highly produced commodities like wheat and rye for bread,maize for meal,and rice remarkably contribute to emissions,surpassing 1,000 Mt CO2eq,exemplifying their substantial environmental footprint.Crop products such as nuts,peas,and fruits(like apples and citrus)have moderate emissions,collectively falling below 100 Mt CO2eq.Overall,Figure 3 illustrates this contrast,emphasizing the need for sustainable practices in food production to reduce GHG emissions.2104,0008,00012,00016,00020,000NutsPeasApplesOatmealOnions&LeeksCitrus FruitBananasBerries&GrapesBarley(Beer)PotatoesDark ChocolateCoffeeRoot VegetablesTomatoesCassavaBeet SugarWheat&Rye(Bread)Maize(Meal)RiceCane SugarCrustaceans(aquaculture)Fish(aquaculture)Fish(capture fisheries)EggsMilkLamb&MuttonPoultry MeatPig MeatBeefCropFishAnimalproductsLivestockMt CO2eq Source:Author computation of emissions from data in Poore and Nemecek(2018)Figure 3.Total GHG emissions across different commodities in 2021.223.2.2.Comparison of total GHG emissions from fish and other commodities in Africa and Asia Historical data from FAO(2022a)highlights the significant GHG emissions in 2015 from livestock in Asia and Africa,particularly cattle and buffalo,which far exceeded emissions from aquaculture and capture fisheries.In Asia,cattle and pigs contributed notably high emissions,reaching 1,043.6 Mt CO2eq from cattle and 535.2 Mt CO2eq from pigs.These values are significantly higher than emissions from either aquaculture(199.5 Mt CO2eq)or capture fisheries(108.7 Mt CO2eq)within the region.Correspondingly,African ruminant production represents substantial emissions,with cattle alone contributing 480.8 Mt CO2eq and goats 70.6 Mt CO2eq.Pig emissions are significantly lower in Africa,mainly because of considerably lower production in Africa.The 10.6 Mt of pigs produced in Asia accounts for 40 times more GHG emissions than African production.Similarly,GHG emissions from Asian poultry production are considerably higher,with chickens contributing 312.4 Mt CO2eq in Asia and 24.1 Mt CO2eq in Africa.African aquaculture and capture fisheries exhibit lower GHG emissions compared to livestock production of sheep,goats,chicken,and cattle,while capture fisheries account for 18.5 Mt CO2eq and aquaculture just 5.5 Mt CO2eq.Although emissions from Africas capture fisheries outweigh those from aquaculture by 13.0 Mt CO2eq,the situation is reversed in Asia.Because of the continents highly developed aquaculture sector,emissions in Asia exceed those of capture fisheries by 90.8 Mt CO2eq.In aggregate,fish production in Asia exhibits significantly higher total emissions,considering the large fish surplus compared to Africa.Nevertheless,beef production emissions outweigh all forms of fish production on both continents.050100150200250300350400450500BuffaloCattleChickensGoatsPigsSheepAquacultureCapture fisheriesLivestockFishMt CO2eqA.Africa02004006008001,0001,200BuffaloCattleChickensGoatsPigsSheepAquacultureCapture fisheriesLivestockFishMt CO2eqB.AsiaSource:Authors computation from data in FAO(2022a,2023a,2023c)Figure 4.Total GHG emissions from fish and livestock in Africa(A)and Asia(B)in 2015.233.2.3.Comparison of total GHG emissions from marine production at the regional level We use data from FAO(2023c)and Porter et al.(2016)to compare total GHG emissions in 2021 from marine capture fisheries production across the different regions(Figure 5).Asia emerges as the region with the highest such emissions,having contributed 187.1 Mt CO2eq.Within Asia,Southeast Asia alone accounts for a substantial portion,having emitted approximately 109.2 Mt CO2eq.Significantly lower carbon footprints are attributed to emissions from marine capture fisheries production in SSA,LAC,and South Asia,at 49.0,48.9 and 36.1 Mt CO2eq,respectively.North America accounts for 24.9 Mt CO2eq and Oceania 7.5 Mt CO2eq,demonstrating the least GHG-intensive marine fisheries.0.020.040.060.080.0100.0120.0140.0160.0180.0200.0Sub-Saharan AfricaNorth AmericaOceaniaLatin AmericaAsia(Industrialized)South AsiaSoutheast AsiaMt CO2eqMarine capture fsheries emissionsSource:Authors computation from data in FAO(2023c);Porter et al.(2016)Figure 5.GHG emissions from marine capture fisheries in 2021 across the study regions.3.2.4.Future GHG emissions of fish under the BAU scenarioFigure 6 projects future global GHG emissions from both aquaculture and capture fisheries through 2050 under the BAU scenario based on extrapolated baseline data from MacLeod et al.(2020)and Parker et al.(2018).Global aquaculture emerges as an increasing contributor to total GHG emissions,with its share growing from 273.6 Mt CO2eq in 2021 to a projected 497.4 Mt CO2eq by 2050.This substantial rise reflects the anticipated rapid expansion of aquaculture in the future,underlying its growing environmental impact.In contrast,GHG emissions from capture fisheries remain relatively stable,with a nominal increase of 4.4 Mt CO2eq,from 200.6 Mt CO2eq in 2021 to 205.0 Mt CO2eq by 2050.This suggests a comparatively steady environmental impact associated with capture fisheries,owing to stagnant production and limited expansion of this sector in the future.24Figure 7 presents the projected GHG emissions of aquaculture across North America,Oceania,SSA,and South Asia through 2050 under the BAU scenario,based on extrapolated baseline data from MacLeod et al.(2020)and Parker et al.(2018).A substantial increase is projected by 2035 and 2050 compared to 2021 across all of the regions,highlighting the growing environmental impact.In South Asia,aquacultural emissions are expected to more than double by 2035,increasing from 38.7 Mt CO2eq to 70.8 Mt CO2eq,and then rising another 50%by 2050 to reach 106.0 Mt CO2eq.A similar trend is projected for North America,demonstrating moderate growth from 1.9 Mt CO2eq in 2021 to 3.0 Mt CO2eq by 2035,reaching 4.2 Mt CO2eq by 2050.Although North America experiences a 120%growth over the projection periods combined,the scale of GHG emissions from aquaculture in North America remains much smaller than that of South Asia.In SSA,GHG emissions from aquaculture are expected to grow from 2.1 Mt CO2eq in 2021 to 2.8 in 2050.Oceania follows a similar trend,with GHG emissions from aquaculture projected to increase gradually from 0.7 Mt CO2eq in 2021 to 1.8 in 2050.020406080100120South AsiaSub-Saharan AfricaOceaniaNorth AmericaMt CO2eq205020352021Source:Authors computation from the baseline data in MacLeod et al.(2020);Parker et al.(2018)Figure 7.Projected aquaculture emissions for North America,Oceania,SSA,and South Asia in 2021,2035,and 2050.050100150200250300350400450500AquacultureCapture fisheries205020352021Mt CO2eqSource:Authors computation from baseline data in MacLeod et al.(2020);Parker et al.(2018)Figure 6.Projected global fish emissions from capture fisheries and aquaculture in 2021,2035,and 2050.25The three investigated scenarios paint very different pictures of the future of fish production and consumption across the globe.In the High scenario,investment in green technology,enhanced international cooperation,and overall sustainable development lead to higher GDP growth than in the Risk scenario.Additionally,targeted investments in education and health trigger a considerable decline in population growth under this scenario.Compared to the Risk scenario,the High scenario presents significantly lower population growth in the future projection period.Unimpaired population growth is closely linked to regional inequalities,natural resource depletion and heightened GHG emissions,diverging further from the targets of the SDGs and the Paris Agreement.The overall trend of declining population growth under the High scenario is primarily driven by substantial reductions within Africa and Asia.Historically,high population growth in Africa and SSA is projected to slow down significantly,alleviating pressure on natural resources and food production systems.Under the BAU scenario,the total fish supply is projected to increase moderately,likely outpacing population growth,as global per capita fish consumption is expected to advance.On the contrary,the Risk scenario displays fast population growth and limited fish production,resulting in reduced per capita fish consumption by 2050.The increase in fish supply until 2050 is projected to be lower than in the BAU scenario,as limited environmental concerns and slow technological progress hinder production growth.Although the alternative scenarios in this study do not include capture fisheries,it is essential to note that pessimistic climate Risk scenarios,as those connected to SSP 3 are linked to declining ocean productivity(Bindoff et al.,2019)and threats to aquaculture(Yadav et al.,2024;Zougmor et al.,2016).The destabilization of fish production systems under the Risk scenario results in significant lagging compared to the BAU and High scenarios,evoking persistent challenges in this pathway in the coming decades.Among the studied regions,LAC and SSA show lower per capita fish consumption in 2050 than in 2019,marking the regional shortfall of fish supply in connection to rapid population growth.This trend is particularly concerning,as many vulnerable communities from SSA and LAC already face high levels of food insecurity and nutrient deficiencies(FAO et al.,2023;Muthayya et al.,2013).Besides being a major protein source,fish products contain crucial micronutrients such as vitamin A,calcium,iodine,zinc,iron,and selenium(Golden et al.,2021).Deficiencies in micronutrients contribute to“hidden hunger,”which poses a burden for national health and economic growth,further exacerbating inequalities(Muthayya et al.,2013).The Risk scenario reinforces the persisting disparities in fish consumption between lower-and higher-income countries.Generally,increased per capita GDP correlates with higher per capita fish consumption,leading to above-average consumption of aquatic foods in North America and Oceania(FAO,2023a,2023c;Naylor et al.,2021;World Bank,2023).According to FAO(2024c),global aquaculture production surpassed capture fisheries for the first time in 2022.This finding is backed by our results,indicating the importance of aquaculture for future fish supply and the limitations of the capture fishery sector due to overexploitation and climate impacts.Nevertheless,under the BAU scenario,annual growth rates of aquaculture are projected to slow from 5%during the period from 2000 to 2021 to just 1.5%from 2036 to 2050.This slowdown is attributed to several factors,including stricter environmental regulations and enforcements,land and water scarcity,and disease outbreaks linked to intensive farming practices(FAO,2022b).In the Risk scenario,global aquaculture is expected to produce 13.2%less fish than in the BAU,causing negative growth in certain regions until mid-century.On the other hand,strong economic growth coupled with manageable climate challenges under the High scenario create enabling conditions for investments into aquaculture development.Although many regions have yet to explore their full aquaculture potential,Asia,particularly the ASEAN region and South Asia,are at the 4.Discussion 26frontline of the global trend toward meeting seafood demand by mid-century.South Asias fish production is expected to surge under the High scenario,surpassing the ASEANs by 12.4 Mt in 2050.This growth could potentially address malnutrition and hidden hunger,as iodine and vitamin A deficiency remains prevalent in the region(Golden et al.,2021;Muthayya et al.,2013;Song et al.,2023).The High scenario further highlights the potential of aquacultural growth in Africa,especially SSA.To reach the current global fish per capita consumption of 20.3 kg,Africa will require additional 30.1 Mt of fish supply to meet the domestic demand by 2050.According to Zougmor et al.(2016),approximately 31%of Africas land area is suitable for small-scale aquaculture,and over 13%could potentially qualify for commercial aquaculture production.The correlation between lower aquaculture growth and a larger urban population suggests that space might be a limiting factor.Therefore,regions with larger shares of rural population,for instance Africa and South Asia,hold greater potential for aquaculture development(World Bank,2023).This indicates that targeted investment and policies could enhance aquacultures role in food and nutrition security in these regions.The comparison between the GHG emissions from various food commodities highlights the significant environmental impact of livestock,particularly beef,which outweighs all other food commodities.Beef accounts for an astounding 22,362 Mt CO2eq of GHG emissions because of its high feed conversion rates and high release of extremely potent methane.In direct comparison to beef,pig,poultry,and lamb meat,aquatic foods feature relatively low GHG intensity.Fish are highly fertile and efficient feed converters,requiring only 13 kg of grains,whereas pork requires 180%more and beef a whopping 350%(Bn et al.,2015;Hall et al.,2011;MacLeod et al.,2020).This efficiency reduces the overall carbon footprint of aquatic food production.As cattle production depicts the main source of GHG emissions in both Asia and Africa,a shift away from beef-heavy food production could result in overall lower food system emissions and healthier diets(TWI2050,2018;Willett et al.,2019).In Africa,the aquaculture sector emits the least amount of GHGs when compared to livestock and capture fisheries,but it is expected to grow significantly in the coming decades.Currently,GHG emissions from capture fisheries in Africa are more than three times higher than those from aquaculture.However,projections indicate that as aquaculture develops,its emissions are likely to increase 80%by 2050.In contrast,emissions from capture fisheries are expected to stagnate,suggesting a shift in the continents seafood production landscape.Asia is currently and in future projections the largest aquaculture producer and,therefore,the main emitter of GHGs among the studied regions.Among the regions,South Asia stands out as a major aquaculture emitter by the middle of the century.The transitional phase presents opportunities to implement climate-smart and low-emission technologies to ensure sustainable growth.Similar to climate-smart agriculture,climate-smart aquaculture aims to boost output,improve resilience,and reduce the environmental footprint of aquaculture production(Ahmed&Solomon,2016).As feed constitutes the main source of GHG emissions from aquaculture,improving the efficiency of feed could significantly reduce the climate impact(Stanford Center for Ocean Solutions et al.,2024;Zhang et al.,2024).For instance,replacing traditional feed as the main protein source with black soldier fly(BSF)larvae exhibits numerous environmental,nutritional,and economic benefits(Manyise et al.,2023;Mohan et al.,2022).BSF constitutes a nutritional,low-cost alternative to soybeans and fishmeal,with the ability to convert organic matter into nutrient-dense feed.Therefore,this form of biowaste management decreases organic pollution from decomposition and thus reduces GHG emissions from aquaculture(Limbu et al.,2022).Biofloc technology offers a sustainable approach to minimize inputs and GHG emissions by turning waste into feed through the growth of bacteria,which also improves water quality(Dauda et al.,2019;Ogello et al.,2021;Zablon et al.,2022).Similarly,aquaponics are a promising form of low-emissions fish production in regard to land and water scarcity(Obirikorang et al.,2021;Yadav et al.,2024),as it combines fish farming with plant cultivation in a closed water system to reduce inputs and pollution(Baganz et al.,2021;Obirikorang et al.,2021).Recent studies confirmed the environmental benefits of the physical combination of rice and fish production(Wang et 27al.,2024).Despite being a plant-based product,rice cultivation emits comparably large amounts of GHGs(3,503 Mt CO2eq),particularly N2O and CH4,making rice a significant source of emissions within food systems.Co-culturing rice and fish can reduce GHG emissions,as fish support the ventilation and oxygenation of rice paddies and aerate the soil(Wang et al.,2024).Innovations like these,including integrating algae production into aquaculture for improved water quality and reduced feed demand(Yadav et al.,2024),can support sustainable intensification in high-emission regions.Policies in the blue economy could further target the energy source of aquaculture,promoting the usage of renewable energies and low-energy practices.Furthermore,the reduction of post-harvest losses and fish waste could have a major impact on fish availability,safety,and sustainability,as global food waste accounts for over 6%of GHGs(Stanford Center for Ocean Solutions et al.,2024).Our projections indicate that the environmental impact from GHG emissions associated with capture fisheries remains steady,given the stagnant future production under the BAU scenario.Fuel combustion constitutes the major source of GHG emissions in capture fisheries,making interventions challenging(Gephart et al.,2021;Hornborg et al.,2020).Overfishing and targeting demersal species,which require more fuel,further increase emissions.Reducing fossil fuel use in fisheries can be achieved by focusing on healthier,smaller pelagic stocks.Optimizing fishing gear and transitioning to electric or hybrid fleets can help lower emissions and promote sustainable fishing practices(Gephart et al.,2021).Nevertheless,the environmental impacts of aquatic food production reach beyond GHG emissions.Capture fisheries are responsible for overexploitation of fish stock and habitat degradation,particularly of benthic ecosystems,as well as marine pollution in the form of lost and discarded fishing nets,among other factors(FAO,2024c;Jesintha&Madhavi,2020).On the other hand,aquaculture production contributes to the deforestation of mangrove forests(Ahmed&Glaser,2016),eutrophication,the release of non-native and genetically modified species(Jeanson et al.,2022),larger amounts of water and energy consumption,and high feed inputs from fisheries,livestock,and crops(Jiang et al.,2022).We addressed the challenges posed by inconsistent and limited fish emission factor metrics from aquaculture and capture fisheries at the regional and national levels.In follow-up studies,we will gather additional insights through stakeholder consultations to include an analysis of alternative scenarios for capture fisheries,and to extrapolate future GHG emissions of fish under the two alternative scenarios,High and Risk,across the different regions under the study.By leveraging expert assessments gathered during stakeholder consultations,we aim to better understand the potential pathways for reducing GHG emissions in both capture fisheries and aquaculture,tailored to specific geographic contexts.This approach will help identify region-specific interventions and strategies for achieving low-emissions fisheries and aquaculture practices.285.Conclusions Our projections show the growing importance of aquaculture around the globe and the overarching benefits of sustainable development and a low-emission pathway.Following global trends of marine biomass reduction and the disappearance of commercially targeted aquatic species,the production of capture fisheries stagnates around its 2021 levels.In contrast,aquaculture is poised for significant growth,particularly in South Asia and SSA,where combined emissions are projected to reach 108.8 Mt CO2eq by mid-century.Despite lower emissions from fish production compared to other livestock,due to its high feed conversion efficiency,the expected rise in aquaculture emissions by 2050 highlights the need for climate-smart,integrated solutions to manage this growth sustainably.Our projections emphasize the High scenario as the most desirable outcome,featuring the least climate-related challenges,moderate population growth,global prosperity,and improved food security.Although fish production alone cannot solve the global food systems emissions challenges,complementing livestock protein with fish protein could enhance both planetary and human health.Achieving these outcomes will require investments in research,technology,monitoring,and management,particularly in sustainable aquaculture practices.This comprehensive approach offers a strong foundation for policy discussions on reducing GHG emissions and promoting sustainable aquatic food systems.Photo credit:Chin Yee Chan/WorldFish29ReferencesAhmed,N.,&Glaser,M.(2016).Coastal aquaculture,mangrove deforestation and blue carbon emissions:Is REDD a solution?Marine Policy,66,5866.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2016.01.011 Ahmed,O.,&Solomon,A.(2016).Climate smart aquaculture:A sustainable 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Sub-Saharan Africa 18Figure 3.Total GHG emissions across different commodities in 2021 21Figure 4.Total GHG emissions from fish and livestock in Africa(A)and Asia(B)in 2015.22Figure 5.GHG emissions from marine capture fisheries in 2021 across the study regions 23Figure 6.Projected global fish emissions from capture fisheries and aquaculture in 2021,2035,and 2050.23Figure 7.Projected aquaculture emissions for North America,Oceania,SSA,and South Asia in 2021,2035,and 2050 24Table 1.Demographic and socio-economic status,and contribution of aquatic foods to food security in different regions and the world 11Table 2.Historical(20002021)and future(20212035,20362050)population and GDP growth across the study regions 13Table 3.Fish production under the BAU scenario 14Table 4.Aquaculture production under the BAU scenario 14Table 5.Annual per capita fish consumption in 2019 and projections for 2035 and 2050 under the BAU,High and Risk scenarios 1936About WorldFish WorldFish is a leading international research organization working to transform aquatic food systems to reduce hunger,malnutrition and poverty.It collaborates with international,regional and national partners to co-develop and deliver scientific innovations,evidence for policy,and knowledge to enable equitable and inclusive impact for millions who depend on fish for their livelihoods.As a member of CGIAR,WorldFish contributes to building a food-and nutrition-secure future and restoring natural resources.Headquartered in Penang,Malaysia,with country offices across Africa,Asia and the Pacific,WorldFish strives to create resilient and inclusive food systems for shared prosperity.For more information,please visit www.worldfishcenter.org
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Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in INDIAThe shaded areas of the map indicate ESCAP members and Associate members.*The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.The Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP)is the most inclusive intergovernmental platform in the Asia-Pacific region.The Commission promotes cooperation among its 53 member States and 9 associate members in pursuit of solutions to sustainable development challenges.ESCAP is one of the five regional commissions of the United Nations.The ESCAP secretariat supports inclusive,resilient and sustainable development in the region by generating action-oriented knowledge,and by providing technical assistance 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the purpose and the extent of reproduction.This report the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP)and Invest India was prepared at the request of Invest India and as part of the“Regional Inclusive Business Models in Agriculture and Food Systems”initiative supported by the Bill&Melinda Gates Foundation.This report was prepared by a team led by Ms.Marta Prez Cus,Economic Affairs Officer,Trade,Investment and Innovation Division,ESCAP and by Mr.Gaurav Sishodia,Vice President,Invest India.The team members included Mr.Ignacio Javier Blanco,Programme Officer and Ms.Duygu Cinar,Media and Communications Consultant of the Trade,Investment and Innovation Division,ESCAP;Mr.Dhruv Sharma,Principal Investment Specialist,and Ms.Kashika Malhotra,Senior Investment Specialist of Invest India;and the research team at Intellecap led by Mr.Santosh Singh,Managing Director,Intellecap,and including Mr.Ankur Kathuria,Partner,Mr.Amar Gokhale,Partner,Ms.Priya Garg,Manager,Ms.Shweta Bhagwat,Manager,Mr.Shivanshu Sharma,Manager,and Ms.Samira Verma,Consultant.Chapter 6 on the Inclusive Business Ecosystem in Haryana was prepared with inputs from Mr.Pawan Choudhary,Advisor to Chief Minister of Haryana for Foreign Cooperation Department,Haryana State Government and the analysis benefited from discussions held with diverse stakeholders in Haryana.Chapter 7 on the Inclusive Business Ecosystem in Telangana was prepared with inputs from Mr.Akhil Kumar Gawar,Director,Ms.Sushma Golconda Dharamsoth,Director Business Development,and Ms.Saachi Singh,Assistant Director,of the Telangana Food Processing Society,Industries&Commerce Department,Government of Telangana,and the invaluable insights shared by numerous stakeholders in Telangana.The development of the report has been possible thanks to the support of the Bill&Melinda Gates Foundation within the framework of the Regional Inclusive Business Models in Agriculture and Food Systems programme.The report was edited informally by Ms.Clare Stewart and Ms.Ipsita Sarkar,and Ms.Su-Arjar Lewchalermvongs provided all the administrative support for producing this guide.Layout and cover design for this guide were prepared by Ms.Ipsita Sarkar.Photos on the cover page:Prashanth Vishwanath,Climate Change,Agriculture and Food Security(CCAFS)AcknowledgementsLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in IndiaviTable of ContentsAcknowledgements AbbreviationsExecutive summary SECTION I.INCLUSIVE AGRIBUSINESSES IN INDIA 1 Introduction 1.1 Context and objective of the study1.2 Methodology2 Understanding Inclusive Businesses2.1 Defining inclusive businesses2.2 Types of inclusive businesses in agriculture and food systems in India2.3 Framework for creating an enabling environment 3 Market Opportunities for Inclusive Agribusiness in India 3.1 Poverty and living standards in India3.2 Agricultural development in India and the role of the private sector 3.3 The role of IBs in the agrifood sector in India SECTION II.THE LANDSCAPE OF INCLUSIVE BUSINESSES4 The Landscape of Inclusive Businesses in Agriculture and Food Systems in India 4.1 The market study 4.2 Profiled companies 4.3 Key findings of the online survey 4.4 Characteristics of the companies surveyed 4.5 Conclusion vix111121213151516182020212526272728292934Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in Indiavii5 IB Ecosystem at the National Level 5.1 Context 5.2 Ecosystem readiness to promote IBs in India 5.3 Strategic recommendations to promote inclusive businesses in IndiaSECTION III.STATE LEVEL IB ECOSYSTEM6 The IB Ecosystem in Haryana 6.1 Overview of agrifood systems in Haryana 6.2 Challenges for agrifood systems in Haryana 6.3 Policy ecosystem through an IB lens 6.4 Key enablers for promoting IBs in Haryana 6.5 Strategic recommendations to promote inclusive businesses in Haryana 7 The IB Ecosystem in Telangana 7.1 Overview of agrifood systems in Telangana 7.2 Challenges for agrifood systems in Telangana 7.3 Policy ecosystem through an IB lens 7.4 Key enablers for promoting IBs in Telangana7.5 Strategic recommendations to promote inclusive businesses in Telangana SECTION IV.CONCLUSION AND WAY FORWARD8 Conclusion 8.1 Promoting inclusive business at the national level 8.2 Promoting inclusive business at the state level Annex I.Inclusive business framework and accreditation AI.1 IB framework AI.2 IB accreditation Annex II.Financial and non-financial incentives for inclusive businesses Annex III.Profiles of 20 inclusive businesses in agrifood systems in India References 3535364051525253555659696971737477888989909393959699140Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in IndiaviiiStrategic recommendations to promote IBs at the national levelStrategic recommendations to promote IBs in Haryana Strategic recommendations to promote IBs in Telangana Methodology used for the landscape study Types of businesses based on profit and social motives Classification of companies The 20 inclusive businesses in agrifood systems in India profiled in this study Strategic recommendations for promoting IB at the national level The proposed National IB Coordination and Advisory Board Strategic recommendations to promote IBs in Haryana Strategic recommendations to promote IBs in Telangana at a glance Inclusive business assessment criteria and weights Features of an inclusive business Solutions offered by inclusive agribusinesses in India Strategic actions to support inclusive business in India Type of business models among the companies surveyed Engagement of the BoP Solutions for the BoP provided by the businesses Types of innovations adopted by IBs Reasons for adopting innovations in the IB model Registries and databases on Agri Stack Key agriculture stats for Haryana Key agriculture stats for Telangana Measures promoting public-private partnerships in agriculture Enhanced environment for private sector investment in agrifood systems Government funding for agricultural enterprises(selected facilities)Examples of inclusive agribusinesses in Haryana Examples of inclusive agribusinesses in Telangana Telanganas ADeX Platform:Driving agricultural transformation through data-driven innovation Financial and non-financial incentives for accredited and registered inclusive businesses347131627284042597794161819293030313249537023234654728795Table 1.Table 2.Table 3.Table 4.Table 5.Table 6.Table 7.Table 8.Table 9.Table 10.Table 11.Table 12.Figure 1.Figure 2.Figure 3.Figure 4.Figure 5.Figure 6.Figure 7.Figure 8.Figure 9.Figure 10.Figure 11.Box 1.Box 2.Box 3.Box 4.Box 5.Box 6.Box 7.LIST OF TABLES,BOXES AND FIGURESLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in IndiaixABIC Agri Business Incubation Centre ADeX Agriculture Data Exchange AI4AI Artificial Intelligence for Agriculture Innovation AIF Agriculture Infrastructure Fund APEDA Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority APMAS Mahila Abhivruddhi Society,Andhra Pradesh ASPIRE A Scheme for Promotion of Innovation,Rural Industries,and Entrepreneurship B2B business-to-businessB2C business-to-consumerBoP base of the economic pyramid CCS HAU Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University CII Confederation of Indian Industry CSR corporate social responsibility DPIIT Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade ESCAP United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the PacificESG environmental,social and governanceFICCI Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry FPC Farmer Producer Company FPO Farmers Producer Organization FTCCI Federation of Telangana Chambers of Commerce and Industry GDP gross domestic product GHG greenhouse gases GIA Gurgaon Industrial AssociationGVA gross value addedHAFED Haryana State Cooperative Supply and Marketing Federation Limited HAIC Haryana Agro Industries Corporation Limited HCCI Haryana Chamber of Commerce&IndustryHEPC Haryana Enterprise Promotion CenterIB inclusive business IBFC India Blended Finance Collaborative ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research ICT information and communications technology IDC Inter-Departmental CommitteeABBREVIATIONS Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in IndiaxINR Indian RupeeIoT Internet of ThingsITC Indian Tobacco CompanyMANAGE National Institute of Agricultural Extension ManagementMoAFW Ministry of Agriculture&Farmers WelfareMOFPI Ministry of Food Processing IndustriesM/o MSME Ministry of Micro,Small and Medium EnterprisesMSMEs micro-,small,and medium-sized enterprisesNABARD National Bank for Agriculture and Rural DevelopmentNBFCs non-banking financial companiesNIFTEM National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and ManagementNSIC National Small Industries CorporationPJTSAU Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural UniversityPMKSY Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada YojanaPPP public-private partnershipRKVY Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana RICH Research and Innovation Circle of HyderabadSaaS software as a serviceSDGs Sustainable Development GoalsSERP Society for Elimination of Rural PovertySFAC Small Farmers Agribusiness ConsortiumSFACH Small Farmers Agribusiness Consortium HaryanaSHGs self-help groupsSIDBI Small Industries Development Bank of IndiaTGFPS Telangana Food Processing SocietyT-IDEA Telangana State Industrial Development and Entrepreneur Advancement TSFPS Telangana State Food Processing SocietyTSIC Telangana State Innovation CellT-SIG Telangana Social Impact GroupUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUSD United States DollarLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India1EXECUTIVE SummaryContext India stands at a critical juncture as it transitions towards becoming a developed country over the next few decades.The Viksit Bharat 2047 initiative identifies agriculture as one of the four essential pillars for achieving this ambitious goal and recognizes the private sectors catalytic role in driving socio-economic transformation.The agriculture and food processing sectors in India are vital to its economy,contributing 21 per cent to the gross value added for India and employing over 50 per cent of the workforce.However,these sectors face various challenges including fragmented supply chains,limited access to markets and finance,low farm productivity,high wastage along the supply chain and low adoption of modern technologies,especially among smallholder farmers who form much of the farming community.Inclusive businesses(IBs)that integrate low-income and marginalized communities into their core business operations offer immense potential to address these challenges,drive agricultural growth,improve the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and promote sustainable food production.Inclusive business models in agrifood systems hold the potential to deliver economic returns and achieve social impact.They offer triple wins:enabling companies to unlock new markets and enhance profitability,empowering low-income communities with better income and market opportunities,and providing governments with scalable solutions to achieve their developmental objectives.The Government of India has taken various steps to build a conducive ecosystem for business growth,such as promoting startups and innovation,encouraging formalization,strengthening data collection,and implementing targeted schemes and incentives.The government is also taking steps to foster private sector participation across Photo:Envato ElementsLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India2agricultural value chains.IB,however,remains a relatively new concept in India and is yet to be explicitly included in national development agendas or sectoral growth plans.In 2023,Invest India partnered with the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP)and the Bill&Melinda Gates Foundation to conduct this landscape study to assess the potential of IBs and to explore avenues to promote them.The study maps diverse IB models prevalent in agriculture and food processing in India and develops actionable insights to foster an enabling IB ecosystem.The study also provides recommendations for the states of Haryana and Telangana.These recommendations are informed by extensive consultations with various government departments and agribusinesses,and a comprehensive review of existing policies.The landscape of IBs in IndiaThis landscape study includes a market analysis of 20 IBs in India(Annex III)and an assessment of the enabling environment.The market study is based on structured interviews with the 20 companies to assess their IB lines by looking at their commercial performance,social impact and innovation,and how these address the needs of the base of the economic pyramid(BoP)segment.These companies have a total annual revenue of about USD 1.05 billion1,and half have been profitable businesses over the past three years.While the number of IB companies identified for this study is small,it must be noted that their social reach is high 20.06 million smallholder farmers and low-income people.2 The companies operate across these areas:market linkage and value chain integration,logistics and supply chain,financial inclusion,sustainable inputs and agricultural practices,and digital advisory and information services.Most companies surveyed harness technology to enhance income opportunities for low-income communities,particularly by engaging smallholder farmers as suppliers.1 Exchange rate of USD 1=INR 82.28 has been considered for all USD calculations in the report.2 As not all companies differentiate smallholder farmers from their total reach,in some cases the number of smallholder farmers was estimated as 86 per cent of the total.This figure is based on the latest census data that found that 86 per cent of Indian farmers are small and marginal.https:/agcensus.da.gov.in/document/agcen1516/ac_1516_report_final-220221.pdf(accessed on 10 August 2024).These enterprises are improving market access,reducing wastage,and providing data-driven advisory services to smallholder farmers.Half of these 20 companies can be considered real inclusive business models as they are profitable and bring value to low-income groups.The remaining 10 companies are considered potential inclusive businesses since they engage with and bring value to smallholder farmers and low-income groups but have not been profitable over the last three years.Promoting IBs at the national levelIndia has a robust ecosystem at the national level that can be leveraged to promote IB models in agrifood systems.There is a concerted push towards agricultural transformation,promotion of farmer aggregation,technology adoption,infrastructure development and digital data infrastructures.IBs can be promoted in India by signalling strategic commitment,institutionalizing support to IBs and taking strategic action across six key areas(see table 1):1.Set the direction to promote IBs2.Raise awareness and recognize IBs3.Build the capacity of firms and intermediary organizations to grow IB models4.Enable access to finance to expand support,particularly for impact growth5.Enable access to information that facilitates the development of IB models6.Enable partnerships with financial institutions,public institutions and Farmers Producer Organizations(FPOs)Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India31.Set the direction for promoting IBs2.Raise awareness and recognize IBs3.Build the capacity of firms to grow IB models Nominate a coordinating department and establish a national IB Advisory Board/Steering Committee to guide IB promotion.Develop an IB framework that defines an inclusive business.Develop an IB promotion strategy that provides incentives for achieving social impact.Raise awareness about IBs by showcasing success stories and providing networking opportunities.Introduce an accreditation system to formally recognize IBs.Integrate training on how to build IB models into existing agripreneurship programmes.Promote support for IBs in the growth stage under existing programmes and initiatives.Establish a mentorship network for IB models.4.Enable access to finance5.Facilitate partnerships6.Enable access to information Extend financial support to IB models through established channels and initiatives.Develop specialized and tailored debt financing solutions for IBs.Develop a targeted,blended finance facility for IBs.Promote collaboration between IBs,the enterprise support ecosystem and financial institutions.Promote collaboration between FPOs and IBs.Enable IBs to provide agriculture-related services.Build on existing platforms to facilitate exchanges regarding IB models.Explore pathways for secure and ethical data sharing in agriculture.Table 1.Strategic recommendations to promote IBs at the national levelLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India4Observations&opportunitiesRecommendationsKey stakeholders1.Set the direction Existing supportive policies:-Haryana Agri-Business and Food Processing Policy 2018-Haryana State Startup Policy 2022-Haryana Enterprises and Employment Policy 2020 Scope to explicitly promote IB models through state institutional structures and development agendas.Support to IBs will significantly contribute to achieving the states inclusive development goals.a)Nominate a department to champion the IBs,and establish an IB steering committee.b)Provide a definition of IBs in Haryana.c)Develop an IB promotion strategy that provides incentives for achieving social impact.Nodal department(s)DA&FW(Haryana)and/orDirectorate of MSME,HaryanaSteering committee-Horticulture Department,Haryana-Department of Animal Husbandry&Dairying,Haryana-Foreign Cooperation DepartmentAllies-Haryana State Cooperative Supply and Marketing Federation Limited(HAFED)-Haryana Agro Industries Corporation Limited(HAIC)-Haryana Chamber of Commerce&Industry(HCCI)-Gurgaon Industrial Association(GIA)2.Raise awareness and recognition Increasing interest among different stakeholders in models that create higher social and financial impact.IBs are a relatively new concept and the lack of a framework for identifying inclusive businesses limits the ability of stakeholders to promote IB.Awareness about IBs can inspire startups,social enterprises and industry associations to come on board.a)Raise awareness about IB among the private sector and government agencies by showcasing success stories and providing networking opportunities.b)Introduce an accreditation system to formally recognize IBs.Convening partnersHCCI,GIA and the Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University(CCS HAU)Accreditation providersDirectorate of MSME(Agro MSME Cell)with support from CCS HAU Ecosystem readiness and recommendations for promoting IBs in Haryana The study examines the existing IB ecosystem in the state of Haryana using the findings of the market study,the analysis of the enabling environment,and the consultations conducted with entrepreneurs and stakeholders in Haryana.The study concludes that the states agribusiness ecosystem is at a pivotal stage with a strong institutional framework,supportive policies and strategic planning,thus laying the groundwork for IB promotion.Building on the above,the ecosystem for IBs can be further strengthened by expanding the digital infrastructure,diversifying financial products and offers,and building capabilities to innovate at scale.Table 2 summarizes the key recommendations for promoting inclusive business in Haryana.Table 2.Strategic recommendations to promote IBs in HaryanaLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India5Observations&opportunitiesRecommendationsKey stakeholders3.Build capacity Currently,the states industry associations and incubators are focusing on building the capacities of startups.There is no particular focus on promoting IB models.a)Create a mentorship network for IBs.b)Extend and broaden the scope of the Agri Business Incubation Centre(ABIC)to include support to growth-stage enterprises.c)Promote IB models under existing programme and initiatives.Partners-Development institutions-Philanthropists-CCS HAU-HCCIEntry points-Agripreneurship Orientation Programme-Pahal-Agribusiness Incubation Programme Safal-CCS HAU curriculum-ABIC-Haryana Enterprise Promotion Centre(HEPC)4.Enable access to finance Presently,financial support for businesses is focused on infrastructure development.There is,however,increasing interest in agri-focused financing and in innovative agrisolution providers.Impact focused funding and funds for piloting and scaling up innovations will ensure adequate support to IBs.a)Pilot innovative financial initiatives for supporting IBs.b)Finance incubators to support early or growth-stage IBs.c)Increase equity investment in businesses with inclusive models by HAIC.d)Provide targeted support for medium and large IB enterprises through existing schemes.e)Raise an Innovation Fund to support IBs in Haryana.Entry points-Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana(RKVY)-Haryana Agri-Business and Food Processing Policy,2018-Haryana Enterprises and Employment Policy,2020 More broadly-Directorate of MSME,Haryana-Department of Horticulture,Haryana -DA&FW-Fund managers-ABIC -Small Farmers Agri-Business Consortium Haryana(SFACH)Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India6Observations&opportunitiesRecommendationsKey stakeholders5.Facilitate partnerships The Haryana Agri-Business and Food Processing Policy 2018 and the Enterprise Promotion Policy 2015 enable participation of the private sector.HAFED is setting up a Mega Food Park to offer infrastructure facilities for the food processing industry.Increasing partnerships with the private sector will create larger opportunities for various stakeholders.a)Promote collaborations between IBs,government and financial institutions.b)Foster collaborations between IBs and research institutions.c)Promote partnership models.Potential partners-HAFED-Small Industries Development Bank of India(SIDBI)-National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development(NABARD)and associated private finance initiatives-National and international partners of CCS HAU -Impact-ecosystem-Private sector incubators-National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management(NIFTEM)-ABIC6.Enable access to information The agriculture department collects farmer information which is a source of rich data for tailored interventions.The Agri Stack can provide national-level data and comparisons.Active associations are working with companies to build their capacities and transfer knowledge.A focus on IB information and knowledge sharing will ensure that IBs dont waste valuable time trying to access farmer data.a)Facilitate information exchanges around building IB models.b)Explore opportunities for open data sharing in agriculture.Entry points-DA&FWLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India7The landscape study finds that Telangana has a strong ecosystem that is conducive to promoting IBs in the agriculture and food processing sector.The state has enabling policies,institutional capacities,digital infrastructure,financial institutions and a robust enterprise support and innovation ecosystem.To further drive the growth of IBs in Telangana,it will be critical to enhance the recognition of IBs and to strengthen the capacity of ecosystem players to support them.Table 3 summarizes the key recommendations for promoting IBs in Telangana.Observations&opportunitiesRecommendationsKey stakeholders1.Set the direction Existing supportive policies:-Food Processing and Preservation Policy,2021-Agriculture Data Management Policy,2022-Telangana State Industrial Development and Entrepreneur Advancement Policy,2014 Scope to explicitly promote IB models through institutional structures and to mainstream IB through state developmental agendas or sectoral growth plans.Explicitly supporting the growth of IBs can significantly contribute to achieving the targets of inclusive development in the state.a)The Industries&Commerce Department may steer the promotion of IB in Telangana.b)Establish a multi-stakeholder steering committee to guide the promotion of IBs.c)Establish the Telangana Food Processing Society as the government agency to champion the promotion of IBs in Telangana.d)Establish a Telangana-specific IB framework to identify and support inclusive agribusinesses.e)Embed the promotion of IB models in the MSME development policy and develop a strategy to promote IBsLead department Industries&Commerce Department,TelanganaImplementing agencyTelangana Food Processing Society(TGFPS)Industries and Commerce Department,Telangana Steering committee-Department of Agriculture,Telangana;-Department of Horticulture,Telangana;-Department of Information Technology,Electronics and Communication,Telangana;-Telangana State Innovation Cell(TSIC);-Federation of Telangana Chambers of Commerce and Industry(FTCCI);AgHub;WE Hub;Confederation of Indian Industry(CII);and Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry(FICCI)Table 3.Strategic recommendations to promote IBs in TelanganaEcosystem readiness and recommendations for promoting IBs in TelanganaTelangana,a key agricultural hub,contributes 18%to the gross state domestic product.Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India8Observations&opportunitiesRecommendationsKey stakeholders2.Raise awareness and recognition In Telangana,entities such as AgHub,T-Hub,a-IDEA NAARM,TSIC,RICH,and WE Hub foster a supportive ecosystem for innovative startups and businesses.However,the absence of an accreditation system to recognize IB models limits the promotion of IBs.Increasing awareness about IB promotion can empower startups,social enterprises and industry associations to come on board.a)Leverage existing initiatives and programmes of key entities to create awareness about IBs.b)Promote success stories and best practices of IBs.c)Establish a common definition and framework for identifying and accrediting IBs in Telangana.d)Leverage the Telangana Social Impact Group(T-SIG)to align CSR efforts with IB promotion.Convening partnersTGFPS,Department of Agriculture,TelanganaAccreditation providersTGFPS with support from TSIC and Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University(PJTSAU).3.Build capacity Robust institutional support for agripreneurship is available through AgHub,a-IDEA,MANAGE Centre for Innovation and Agripreneurship(CIA),and I-Venture ISB.There is a strong innovation ecosystem(e.g.T-Hub and active industry associations)to support agribusinesses.Enabling support providers to integrate a specific focus on IBs and building capacities of businesses to measure impact can help businesses adopt IB models.a)Mainstream IB models through existing programmes and initiatives.b)Strengthen AgHubs capacity to support inclusive agribusiness models.c)Establish a dedicated IB mentorship network by leveraging existing expertise.PartnersMANAGE-CIA,T-Hub,AgHub,a-IDEA,CII-FACEEntry points-Agripreneurship Orientation Programme(AOP)under RKVY-RAFTAAR-Startup Agri-Business Incubation Programmes-Enterprise Acceleration Programmes.Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India9Observations&opportunitiesRecommendationsKey stakeholders4.Enable access to finance Currently Telangana offers support through various state schemes under the Telangana Food Processing Policy and national schemes such as the Agriculture Infrastructure Fund,Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana,along with financing options through banks.However,these sources remain underutilized by IBs which need tailored,affordable and patient capital.Unlocking catalytic and impact finance for IBs that operate in riskier contexts,and have a wide variety of needs,can enable IBs to increase their scale of operations and their impact.a)Extend targeted support to medium and large enterprises with IB models.b)Develop financial products for IBs in collaboration with financial institutions.c)Establish an IB Innovation Fund and conduct innovation challenges.d)Finance incubators to support growth-stage IB enterprises.Entry points-Telangana Food Processing Policy Plug and Play sheds facilitated by TGFPS-Telangana State Industrial Development and Entrepreneur Advancement(T-IDEA)and more broadly the Department of Horticulture,and the Department of Agriculture Fund managersAgHub,T-Hub 5.Facilitate partnerships The Telangana Government champions public-private partnership(PPP)across the agribusiness ecosystem through policy support and flagship;and has partnered with large players for connecting farmers to markets;Project Saagu Baagu drives adoption and scaling of agritech solutions.Existing pilot initiatives can be further scaled and existing collaborations further bolstered to create opportunities for IBs.a)Promote collaborations between IBs and government and financial institutionsb)Foster collaborations between IBs and research institutionsPotential partnersNABARD and its subsidiary network;commercial banks,NBFCs;PJTSAU and its partners;MANAGE and its partners.Impact-ecosystemAgHub,T-Hub,MANAGE and its partners,WE Hub,a-IDEALandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India10Observations&opportunitiesRecommendationsKey stakeholders6.Enable access to information Currently there is a supportive policy environment for promoting digital infrastructure:Agriculture Data Management Policy(ADMP)-2022,the Telangana Agricultural Data Management Framework 2022;Agriculture Data Exchange(ADeX),etc.Enabling access to information will help inclusive agribusinesses to reach the beneficiaries and enhance impact more effectively.a)Facilitate information exchanges around building IB models.b)Build strategic partnerships for data sharing around IB models.Entry pointsArtificial Intelligence for Agriculture Innovation(AI4AI),Department of Information Technology,Electronics and Communication,Telangana Potential partnersInter-Departmental Committee(IDC),Department of Agriculture,Telangana SECTION IINCLUSIVE AGRIBUSINESSES IN INDIAPhoto:Envato ElementsLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India12INTRODUCTION 11.1 Context and objective of the study The agriculture and allied sectors contribute 21 per cent to Indias gross value added(GVA)and employ over 50 per cent of the workforce.Small and marginal holdings represent 86.07 per cent of the total operational holdings in the country.Small and marginal Indian farmers(the average monthly income per agricultural household is INR 10,218/USD 124)3 face multiple challenges:climate change,soil erosion,biodiversity loss,water resource depletion,and the lack of capital,labour and other inputs.Insufficient awareness about best practices in agriculture,low adoption of modern technologies and the lack of access to finance exacerbate these challenges.The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in India aims to double agricultural productivity and incomes for small-scale food producers,with a particular emphasis on empowering women and indigenous communities.4 To achieve this,the government aims to modernize agriculture by:a)integrating technology to increase efficiency and productivity in farming;and b)encouraging private sector participation to enhance access to markets,finance and capacity-building.3 Ministry of Agriculture&Farmers Welfare(2022),NSS Report No.587:Situation Assessment of Agricultural Households and Land and Livestock Holding of Households in Rural India,2019.https:/pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1884228.4 NITI Aayog,Mapping SDGs.https:/www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2019-01/Mapping -SDGs V12 - 8 delinked schemes 110116_1_0.pdf.5 Invest India(2022),Promoting Inclusive Business in Agriculture and Food Systems in India.https:/www.investindia.gov.in/team-india-blogs/promoting-inclusive-business-agriculture-and-food-systems-india.In this context,IBs hold immense potential to drive agricultural growth,improve smallholder farmers livelihoods,and promote sustainable food production.IBs encourage equitable participation of smallholder farmers and the rural populace in their supply chains,help increase productivity and efficiency,and facilitate access to finance,agricultural inputs and markets.Invest India,the National Investment promotion&facilitation agency,has been working to support innovation and enable growth across transformational sectors of India and is seeking avenues to promote inclusive businesses.Invest India has launched a strategic partnership with the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP)and the Bill&Melinda Gates Foundation to promote inclusive business models in Indias agriculture and food systems.5 This landscape study maps out diverse IB models operating in agriculture and food processing in India and develops actionable insights to foster an enabling ecosystem for IB in the country.Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India13This landscape study:Identifies and maps potential IB models in agrifood systems in India.Examines the key drivers for inclusive agribusinesses,and the supply and demand side challenges faced when scaling them.Profiles 20 successful IB models in the agrifood sector in India.Assesses the ecosystem in which IBs operate to identify gaps and opportunities to promote IB models existing policies,strategies and programmes supporting IB models in agribusiness,the role of the private sector,the financing and impact investment ecosystem,and intermediary organizations.Provides recommendations to promote inclusive business in agrifood systems in India.1.2 MethodologyThe study uses a combination of desk research,primary interviews and stakeholder consultations.It is informed by the insights provided during national and regional forums.Secondary researchThe secondary research explored:Inclusive business paradigms.The policy and economic environment of agriculture and agribusinesses in India and the states of Haryana and Telangana.IB models prevalent in various agricultural subsectors.Government schemes at the national and state levels.Financing needs for IB models and the relevant financial instruments.July 2023 August 2023Stakeholder interviews 15 semi-structured interviews with government officials,private sector representatives,investors,academic institutions,intermediary organizations,and financing and development organizations.September 2023 November 2023Table 4.Methodology used for the landscape studyInclusive businesses hold immense potential to drive agricultural growth,improve smallholder farmers livelihoods,and promote sustainable food production.Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India14Dialogues and consultations Promoting Inclusive Businesses in India Public Sector Roundtable,17 June 2022,New Delhi.Promoting Inclusive Businesses in India Private Sector Roundtable,23 June 2022,Online.Promoting Inclusive Business in Agriculture and Food Systems Regional Forum,1 December 2022,New Delhi.Inclusive Business in Agriculture and Food Systems Regional Investment Forum,23 August 2023,Bali.National Investment Dialogue for Inclusive Business in Agriculture and Food Systems India and consultations,37 November 2023,New Delhi.Inclusive Business in Agriculture and Food Systems Haryana Workshop and consultations,1014 December 2023,Hisar and Chandigarh.Inclusive Business in Agriculture and Food Systems Telangana workshop and consultations,1215 February 2024,Hyderabad and New Delhi.Roundtable on Scaling Up Inclusive Business in the Agriculture and Food Sector,03 May 2024,New Delhi(Organised by Ecociate).Impact Harvest Forum,2324 May 2024,Bangkok.Inclusive Growth:Impacting the Agriculture and Food Sector,20 June 2024,New Delhi(Organised by Ecociate).June 2022 June 2024Online business survey An online survey sent to 80 SMEs and large enterprises that fulfil the broad criteria of inclusive businesses.21 enterprises participated in the survey.Based on the responses,16 IB and potential IB models were shortlisted to be profiled.August 2023 October 2023Interviews with potential IBs One-on-one interviews were conducted with 20 IBs(including the 16 shortlisted from the survey)to gain insights on their business model,innovations,impact on the BoP,challenges and plans.September 2023 December 2023Inclusive business profiles The profiles were selected with the objective to illustrate the diversity in inclusive business models in agriculture and food systems.Businesses were shortlisted from the online business survey(16 IB and potential IB models)and from secondary research(4 companies selected due to their impact,profitability and revenues).The information provided during the interviews was triangulated with insights from the secondary research,stakeholder interviews,dialogues and consultations,and the online business survey.The profiles of the companies provided in this report are not an exhaustive assessment of the inclusive business model and are based on information and data shared by the companies.Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India152.1 Defining inclusive businessesInclusive businesses integrate low-income and marginalized communities into their core business operations in a commercially viable manner,bringing value for them and the company.The G20 defines inclusive businesses as companies that“provide goods,services,and livelihoods on a commercially viable basis,either at scale or scalable,to people living at the base of the economic pyramid(BoP)making them part of the value chain of companies core business as suppliers,distributors,retailers,or customers”.The low-income market or the BoP,typically the poorest 40 per cent of the population,includes people living in poverty as well as income groups above the national poverty level but with low income.These groups usually devote a large portion of their income to necessities and are often excluded from economic opportunities.In India,with a total population of 1.4 billion6 in 2022,the average annual income of the BoP was USD 1,774(purchasing power parity)while the average income for the whole population was USD 12,079(purchasing power parity).7 6 World Bank(2022),India.https:/datacommons.org/place/country/IND?utm_medium=explore&mprop=count&popt=Person&hl=en.7 Based on data from the World Inequality Database by United Nations Development Programme.Accessed 26 June 2024.Inclusive business models improve the income and living standards of the BoP by(a)providing access to affordable goods and services,engaging with them as consumers;and/or(b)by creating income opportunities for them by engaging them as suppliers,workers,distributors or shareholders.Inclusive businesses(see figure 1)are business models that:1.Demonstrate an intentional focus on including the BoP as suppliers,distributors,customers or employees.2.Create mutually beneficial outcomes for both the company and low-income participants.3.Have commercially viable operations.4.Demonstrate scalability and growth potential.5.Adopt innovative approaches to effectively serve the BoP market.UNDERSTANDING INCLUSIVE BUSINESSES2Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India162.2 Types of inclusive businesses in agriculture and food systems in IndiaIn agriculture and food systems,business models are inclusive when they involve and bring value to smallholder farmers,generate better incomes for the BoP by paying substantially better than the market rate,increase productivity,generate greater value addition for products and services and provide mechanisms that reduce risks for the poor and diversify their income sources.Contract farming models that only pay the market rate are not necessarily considered IB models.8 Primary Agriculture Cooperative Credit Societies and Large Area Multipurpose Societies9 As outlined in Regulation 292E(2)of the ICDR Regulations of the SEBI,social enterprises should primarily engage in activities that benefit underprivileged groups or regions lagging in development,as specified under Regulation 292E(2)(a).Additionally,a significant portion of their operations quantified as 67 per cent of their average activities,revenue or client base over the past three yearsmust be focused on these target populations.Inclusive businesses are different from mainstream businesses,that put profit first,and from social enterprises,corporate social responsibility(CSR)activities and,in some cases,cooperatives,8 that put impact first(table 5).For IBs,social impact and economic returns reinforce each other.IBs differ from traditional CSR in that the entire business operation aims to bring holistic benefits in the economic,social and environmental dimensions.IBs also differ from social enterprises because they focus on expanding business opportunities to increase their impact.In India,both for-profit and non-profit-making entities are considered social enterprises and in both cases the attainment of a social goal is the primary focus.9 Source:ESCAP,“Triple Wins of Inclusive Business”,n.d.Business approachesNon-business approachesProfit first/only profitNo trade-off betweencommercial and social returnsImpact firstNGO projects and philanthropyNGOGovernment programmes and othersOtherMainstream businessMBInclusive BusinessBusiness actors for social goodIB modelIB-MIB activityIB-ASocial enterprise initiativeSE-ICooperative societiesNGO-driven Social EnterpriseNGO-SETraditional corporate social responsibilityCSRTable 5.Types of businesses based on profit and social motivesShared ValueSource:ESCAP&iBAN(2021),Landscape study of Inclusive Business in Malaysia.Figure 1.Features of an inclusive businessLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India17A company can be a fully dedicated IB or operate both regular and inclusive business lines.For example,some large and multinational companies also innovate for the low-income markets and set up specific IB models.There are three distinct approaches to IB:a)Inclusive business models:IB models are mostly medium-sized enterprises,integrate low-income populations into their core business operations and are specifically designed for realizing both market returns and large-scale social impact.One such example is AgroStar,an agrotechnology startup catering innovative farming solutions to small and marginal farmers in India.AgroStar manages a comprehensive e-commerce platform,facilitating farmers access to high-quality agricultural inputs,advisory services and market connections.This integration optimizes the agricultural supply chain,reducing the time and effort for farmers.b)Inclusive business activity:A company may integrate low-income people into its value chain and bring value to them in a manner that is not central to the companys survival.Inclusive business activities are,for example,strategic CSR activities which,unlike traditional CSR approaches,invest in activities linked to the core business of the firm.They include pilot business lines that can potentially scale up and develop into an IB model.These activities are usually financed by companies internal resources,often complemented by support from commercial funds,concessional funding or grants.For example,ITCs Agri Business Division uses innovation and technology to address gaps in infrastructure,fragmented farms and inefficiencies in the existing value chains to increase the productivity and earnings of smallholder farmers.c)Social enterprise initiatives:These companies are commercially viable activities with explicit social impact objectives but are not necessarily structured to maximize profits for investors.A for-profit social enterprise would usually be a smaller IB line,creating impact in a relatively small geography and having the potential to be scaled up to an IB.For example,Last Forest is a social enterprise working with indigenous communities in the Nilgiris Biosphere Reserve,facilitating the production and marketing of sustainably produced food,and reinvesting 30 per cent of its profits in community development.Characteristics of inclusive businesses in India:Various types of IBs operate in India from impact startups scaling up their operations to large corporations to Farmer Producer Companies(FPCs a hybrid between cooperative societies and private limited companies).IBs provide different types of solutions(figure 2)to smallholder farmers:Market linkage and value chain integration models:Such business models link smallholder farmers to markets and integrate them into value chains.This includes B2B procurement or trade marketplaces and integrated models,like FarMart and Bijak,which connect farmers,supply chain intermediaries and buyers through platforms that provide mutual benefits for farmers and the business community.Supply chain and logistics businesses:Businesses such as Ninjacart and Ergos,optimize the supply chain through logistics,warehousing and transportation activities.This enables efficient linkage between production and consumption markets.They usually work on post-harvest supply chains,storage,transportation and distribution solutions,increasing efficiencies in the supply chain and enhancing product and information flows.Input and production cluster businesses:They supply essential resources(e.g.seeds,feeds,fertilizers,chemicals and animal health products)used in crop and livestock production,and equipment for both manual and mechanized activities.These businesses collaborate with farmers to improve input quality and on-farm efficiency and enable system-wide productivity gains.Additionally,Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India18some companies participate in processing,branding and selling farm output or related services.Farmers and producers benefit from heightened efficiency and value addition.Sahyadri Farms,for example,an umbrella FPC,partners with its members to deliver quality germplasm,training,buyback guarantees,and value-added products.Financial inclusion services:Such businesses provide accessible and affordable financial products and services to small and marginal farmers,women farmers,rural entrepreneurs and other marginalized communities underserved by financial institutions.Through innovative lending models and online platforms,they provide much-needed funding for smallholders and rural entrepreneurs to grow their businesses.Tech-enabled models:These are business models that leverage technology to make farming more efficient and sustainable.They offer innovative solutions such as drones,precision farming,farm management software,crop monitoring tools and e-commerce platforms to better manage crops,optimize yields,reduce wastage and improve profitability.Full-stack businesses:Businesses that provide holistic solutions to farmers.They offer products or services that handle the entire value chain of their activity.Additionally,the combination of technology with business innovation is characteristic of a full-stack business.These businesses provide end-to-end solutions for farmers where holistic value is created across inputs,market linkages for outputs,fintech,advisory and other services.Inclusive businesses in India engage the BoP segment as suppliers of raw materials,retailers,distributors of products and services,employees in operations and as end customers.They encourage rural entrepreneurs and make efforts to include women.IBs are typically medium and large enterprises.There may,however,be small-sized enterprises with the potential to scale.This study focuses on medium(companies with an annual turnover between INR 50 and 250 crores(USD 6 million30 million)and large enterprises(those that have an annual turnover greater than INR 250 crores(USD 30 million).2.3 Framework for creating an enabling environmentIB models can thrive when they can easily access information,finance and markets;when clear and stable regulatory frameworks facilitate business activities;and when adequate incentives motivate investments and partnerships in such business models.Governments play a crucial role in establishing these enabling conditions.Figure 2.Solutions offered by inclusive agribusinesses in India060102030405?Financial inclusion 01 Market linkage and value chain integration02-Supply chain and logistics businesses03-Input and production cluster businessesFinancial inclusion services-04Tech-enabled model-05Full-stack business-06B2C,B2B,B2G,B2B2CB2B,B2C,Integrated business modelB2B,B2B2CB2B,B2B2C business modelB2B,B2B2CB2B,Integrated business modelLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India19Six strategic dimensions are essential for enhancing the enabling environment for IBs in Indias agrifood sector(see figure 3).1.Set the direction:Governments can start promoting IBs by recognizing and integrating IB models into state developmental agendas.This will encourage the private sector to contribute to social impact.By developing specific definitions,establishing dedicated government champions and introducing tailored regulations,IBs can receive the necessary promotion and resources needed to grow their businesses.2.Raise awareness and recognition:Building awareness and recognizing IBs is essential to helping them gain traction and support.Case studies,forums,and pilot programmes(such as state-level pilots leveraged through existing institutions)that showcase the profitability and impact of IBs can help stakeholders understand the potential of inclusive businesses.Such support for IBs can enable them to continue refining their models.3.Build capacity:Companies developing IB models may require training in one or more of these areas:to build their capacity to innovate for and reach those at the BoP,to measure and manage their impact,to include gender considerations and to develop partnerships along the value chain.Government initiatives,peer learning platforms,industry collaborations and investor engagements can help build some of these capacities.Regulators can mandate and facilitate training for impact reporting.Intermediaries can assist in establishing quality standards and processes while simultaneously training IBs to meet these standards.It is equally important to build the capacity of government agencies and support organizations to recognize,understand and differentiate inclusive models from regular commercial models.4.Enable access to finance:IBs often face financial barriers that hinder their growth and impact.Improving market conditions for more affordable equity and debt funding can help IBs access the capital needed to innovate and expand their operations.Targeted credit facilities,subsidies and insurance schemes along with innovative financial products and social venture capital can help bridge these gaps.5.Enable access to information:Access to information is critical for IBs to understand the needs and challenges of their BoP suppliers and customers,to identify market opportunities and to provide tailored financial and non-financial services to the BoP.6.Enable partnerships:IBs can often only flourish when they collaborate with other stakeholders(such as farmer organizations,development partners,government agencies,financial institutions and private sector entities).Partnerships help IBs strengthen their value chains,scale up their operations,conduct quality assessments,develop their distribution channels,engage with(and build the skills of)targeted communities,and access affordable financing.Figure 3.Strategic actions to support inclusive business in IndiaInnovative to be proftable while impactfulScale in business operation,social impact&growthCommercially viable,bankable,and for-proftINCLUSIVE BUSINESSLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India203.1 Poverty and living standards in IndiaIndia is the third-largest economy in the world.Between 2021 and 2022,the country accounted for 7.9 per cent GDP growth(slowing down recently due to COVID-19),making it the fastest-growing economy as compared to the top ten economies of the world(second only to China).10 India also has a favourable demographic dividend,with more than half of the population aged below 30 years.11 India has made significant advances in social development.This has been made possible by rapid economic growth,a thriving entrepreneurial community,and rapid digitalisation.12 The literacy rate in India has increased to 74.4 per cent(as of 2018),13 access to electricity has expanded to 99 per cent of the population14 and life expectancy at 60 has 10 Sharma,S.P.(2023)Indias share in global GDP Increases at Fast Pace.https:/ Observer Research Foundation(2023)Crunching the Numbers.https:/www.orfonline.org/research/crunching-the-numbers.12 World Economics(2023).https:/ Firstpost(2022)75 years of independence:How India has progressed in field of education.https:/ NITI Aayog&UNDP(2024)Multidimensional Poverty in India Since 200506.https:/www.niti.gov.in/sites/default/files/2024-01/MPI-22_NITI-Aayog20254.pdf.15 Economic Advisory Council-PM(2022)Social Progress Index(SPI)for States and Districts,received by EAC-PM.https:/eacpm.gov.in/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Social_Progress_Index_States_and_Districts_of_India.pdf.16 Ibid.17 NITI Aayog&UNDP(2024)Multidimensional Poverty in India Since 200506.improved from 17.2 to 19 years.15 One of Indias biggest advances has been in access to and the use of information and communications technology(ICT).For instance,mobile phone subscriptions have increased to more than 80 subscriptions per head of population.16 The most striking advance has been in lifting the poorest segments of the population out of poverty.World Bank data shows that the share of people living in extreme poverty in India(below USD 2.15 a day,2017 purchasing power parity)has decreased from 18.73 per cent in 2015 to 11.9 per cent in 2021.Multidimensional poverty in India declined from 29.17 per cent in 2013-14 to 11.28 per cent in 2022-23,with about 248.2 million people escaping poverty during this period.17 The Government of India has implemented a broad set of measures to alleviate poverty and MARKET OPPORTUNITIES for Inclusive Agribusiness in India 3Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India21improve the livelihoods of rural communities.The initiatives have largely focused on(a)employment generation programmes(assisting poor families to become self-reliant by providing them with opportunities to organize into SHGs,financial incentives and employment);and(b)basic services programmes(targeted towards the development of regions in vulnerable areas such as wetlands,drought-prone and desert areas).For example,the Pradhan Mantri Jan-Dhan Yojana provides universal access to banking facilities and access to credit and insurance cover.The Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana provides universal health protection as well as access to basic amenities(energy,water and sanitation)to people living in poverty and other vulnerable populations.The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme(through integrated natural resource management and livelihood generation)supports access to assets that generate income for low-income households.18 World Bank(2023)The World Bank in India.https:/www.worldbank.org/en/country/india/overview#1.19 India.Economic Survey:202324.https:/www.indiabudget.gov.in/economicsurvey/doc/eschapter/epreface.pdf.20 Digital Journal(2023)“Agriculture Industry in India Is Projected to Reach INR 158,991 billion,Growing at a CAGR of 12.2%by 2028”.https:/ Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare(2023).Contribution of Agricultural Sector in GDP.https:/www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1909213However,challenges continue to persist.With a Gini index of around 35 over the past two decades,inequality in consumption remains an issue.Moreover,while key employment indicators have improved,there are concerns about the quality of jobs,the real growth in wages,and the low participation of women in the labour force.18 For India to realize its goal of becoming a high-income economy by 2047,it will be critical to promote a broader growth process that enhances economic participation(including by bringing more women into the workforce)and delivers sustainable gains for the BoP.As envisaged in the Economic Survey 202223,19 partnering with the private sector for development and improving agricultural productivity will be critical.3.2 Agricultural development in India and the role of the private sectorThe agriculture and allied sectors are an essential economic segment for India,valued at INR 80,550 billion in 2022,is estimated to reach INR 158,991 billion by 2028.20 While the share of the agricultural sector in Indias economy has declined over time,it still accounts for 18.3 per cent of Indias GVA(202223).21 Agricultural development in India has traditionally been driven by the government,with the focus of public policies evolving over time.During the pre-green revolution period(195051 to 196768),government policy focused on land reform and the development of irrigation,and the agricultural sector grew at an annual average rate of 2.7 per cent.During the green revolution(196869 to 199697),the agricultural sector grew by about 3.1 per cent.During this period,government policies were focused on introducing high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice by encouraging agricultural research,increasing the supply of agricultural Photo:Neil Palmer,Alliance of Bioversity International and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture(CIAT)Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India22inputs(e.g.chemical fertilizers and pesticides),expanding major and minor irrigation facilities,fixing minimum support prices for major crops and providing agricultural credit.22 Over the next decade(1997-98 to 2005-06),there was a diversion of resources away from agriculture to other economic sectors which led to a deceleration of growth in this sector.However,the following years have seen a recovery with growth rates above 3 per cent.Currently,the agriculture sector in India is witnessing a decrease in the size of operational holdings(from 2.82 ha.in 1970-71 to 1.15 ha.in 2010-11),an increase in the gross cropped area,diversification and commercialization of agriculture,a shift towards high value agricultural commodities and the expansion of ICT and agrotechnologies.23For the agriculture sector in India to grow to its full potential it will be critical to:Increase farmers income in the context of smaller landholdings:Smallholder farmers are among the poorest in India and,as the Committee on Doubling Farmers Income put forward,their incomes can be increased through improvements in crop and livestock productivity,diversification towards high-value crops,better resource efficiency,enhanced cropping intensity,improvement of the real prices received by farmers and shifting from farm to non-farm occupations.Reduce the environmental burden of agriculture:Agricultural activities in India are often input-intensive,requiring huge amounts of land,water and fertilizer,and have environmental implications.Past policies promoting cereal cultivation have resulted in the depletion of water resources in the main rice-growing states,and in soil contamination due to excessive use of chemicals.24 22 Mahadevan,Renuka(2003).Productivity Growth in Indian Agriculture:The Role of Globalization and Economic Reform.Asia-Pacific Development Journal,Vol.10,No.2.https:/www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/apdj10-2-4-mahadevan.pdf23 Chand,R.and Parappurathu,S.(n.d.)Historical and Spatial Trends in Agriculture:Growth Analysis at National and State Level in India.https:/www.mospi.gov.in/sites/default/files/Statistical_year_book_india_chapters/ch8.pdf24 Gulati,Ashok et.al.(2022),Agricultural Value Chains in India:Ensuring Competitiveness,Inclusiveness,Sustainability,Scalability,and Improved Finance.25 Economic Survey 2015-16.Agriculture:More from Less.https:/www.indiabudget.gov.in/budget2016-2017/es2015-16/echapvol1-04.pdf.Increase agricultural productivity:The main challenge of Indian agriculture is low productivity.Indias chief food grains(wheat and rice)are grown in the most fertile and irrigated areas and,even though they use a large part of the resources that the government allocates to agriculture(i.e.water,fertilizer,energy,or credit),the average yields of wheat and rice are much below that of China(46 per cent below in the case of rice and 39 per cent in the case of wheat).25 Develop efficient value chains across commodities and geographies:Agricultural policies in India have traditionally focused more on increasing production than on value chain development.As a result,commodity value chains remain relatively underdeveloped and fragmented,and involve a high degree of intermediation,resulting in poor price realization for farmers,losses in quantity and quality of produce,limited value addition,and high price volatility,effectively preventing India from participating in global trade.Enhance the value of womens participation in agriculture:Womens participation in agriculture is increasing due to rural-to-urban migration by men,the rise of women-headed households and the growth of labour-intensive cash crops.Yet,their work is still treated as an extension of household work adding a dual burden of responsibilities on them.The private sector can play a critical role in supporting these priorities and addressing these challenges.In this context,the Government of India is already introducing new schemes to encourage public-private partnerships(PPPs)(see box 1).These initiatives provide opportunities for the private sector to support farmers through inclusive business models.Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India23Over the past decade,the rural ecosystem in India has undergone a significant transition.The government has introduced a series of schemes and initiatives to improve physical and digital infrastructures,improve farmer organizations and develop markets(see box 2 for some examples).These investments together with increased consumer and investor interest in sustainable agriculture are creating a more enabling environment for the private sector to develop IB models in food and agriculture.Box 1.Measures promoting public-private partnerships in agricultureA screening committee to leverage agriculture innovations for farmers to facilitate the combined implementation of pilots of selected technologies and interventions by private companies and startups to develop and refine products based on field-level observations and data.Development of the Digital public infrastructure for agriculture as an open source and with three core registries:Farmer Registry,Geo-referencing of Village Map Registry and Crop Sown Registry.These registries can be used by private sector entities to develop farmer-centric solutions.The Central Sector Scheme for blended capital support to finance startups and rural enterprises working in agriculture and the farm produce value chain.The Innovation and Agri-Entrepreneurship Development programme,under the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana(RKVY),promotes startups using innovative technologies to resolve agricultural challenges by providing them with financial support through knowledge partners and agribusiness incubators.Source:Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare(2023),New Scheme in Public Private Partnership Mode.https:/pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1946811#:text=Government has constituted a Screening,and inferences for a fixedEnhanced infrastructure and connectivity:India continues to invest in road and railway infrastructure and connectivity projects to improve rural connectivity.Under the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana,225,000 kilometres of new roads have been built in the last five years to provide all-weather road connectivity to rural villages.800 new trains have also been launched in the last five years to improve railway infrastructure.In August 2020,the government launched a financing facility of about INR 1000 billion(USD 12 billion)under the Agriculture Infrastructure Fund to support farmer groups and private companies to invest in post-harvest management infrastructure and community farming assets.Increased technology penetration:Smartphone and internet penetration increased 30 per cent per annum over the last five years and data prices have reduced significantly(the cost per gigabyte dropped about 65 per cent between 2018 and 2021).As a result,there are about 300 million internet users in rural India.The Prime Ministers Wi-Fi Access Network Interface,launched in 2020,is an important scheme Box 2.Enhanced environment for private sector investment in agrifood systemsLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India24supporting public Wi-Fi hotspots to bolster a robust digital communication infrastructure,especially in rural areas.Development of digital finance:Digital payments are steadily increasing,owing to government interventions like the Payments Infrastructure Development Fund(under which 246,000 physical payment acceptance devices have been installed as of 2021)and India Stack(which created a single interface for people to transact from any bank account).Digital payments are also increasing with the growth of Unified Payments Interface(UPI)apps like PhonePe and Google Pay.As of 2021,UPIs processed eight times more transaction value than credit cards.Development of the farmer aggregation ecosystem:India is investing in the formation of Farmer Producer Organizations(FPOs),in building the capacities of FPOs and farmers,and increasing the ability of IBs to offer their products and services at scale.In 2021,the“Formation and promotion of 10,000 FPOs”scheme was launched with a budgetary provision of INR 68.5 billion(USD 825,502,520).While FPOs can help businesses engage with farmers,currently,many FPOs lack professional management(i.e.trained CEOs and personnel),access to markets,necessary infrastructure,regulatory know-how and affordable finance.In this context,there may be a role for IBs to step in and address some of these gaps.Growth of investments:Private investment in agriculture increased by 9.3 per cent in 202021.Between 2019 and 2021,agrotechnology businesses received INR 66 billion(USD 790 million)from private equity investments.As a result,India ranks third in terms of agrotechnology funding and the number of startups in this line.Increased interest in sustainable agriculture:The demand for healthy and sustainable food products is growing.According to a 2022 survey by Bain&Company,at least 49 per cent consumers say health benefits are a top purchasing criterion,and for 20 per cent environmental and social benefits are important too.Sustainability has also become an important issue,with 78 per cent of global investors saying that they place more emphasis on ESG now than they did five years ago and 65 per cent believing that ESG will become standard practice over the next five years.Box 2.Enhanced environment for private sector investment in agrifood systems(continued)Source:Jain,Parijat(2022).Innovation in Indias Rural Economy.https:/ of Agriculture&Farmers Welfare(2021).Central Sector Scheme“Formation and Promotion of 10,000 new Farmer Producer Organizations(FPOs)”of Rs.6865 crore.https:/pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1696547.NABARD(2019-20).Farmer Producers Organizations(FPOs):Status,Issues&Suggested Policy Reforms.https:/www.nabard.org/auth/writereaddata/CareerNotices/2708183505Paper on FPOs - Status & Issues.pdf Economic Survey 2022-23,Department of Economic Affairs,Ministry of Finance,Government of India.Invest India(2023).The Rise of Agri-tech in India.https:/www.investindia.gov.in/team-india-blogs/rise-agri-tech-india.The Times of India(2022).60%in India willing to pay a premium for sustainability products,reveals survey.https:/ Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India253.3 The role of IBs in the agrifood sector in IndiaInclusive business models can play a fundamental role in enhancing farmers income and addressing some of the critical challenges the agrifood sectors face today.IBs can:Help increase agricultural productivity and farmers income:by providing them with training and advisory services,by enabling them to access credit and market information,by empowering farmer organizations and by improving infrastructure services.Sellers of seeds,fertilizers and feeds can train farmers on how to best use these inputs to increase productivity and efficiency.For example,Zuari Agro Chemicals Limited has set up company-owned,company-operated multi-brand retail stores called Jai Kisaan Junctions,to deliver quality farm inputs and services at reasonable and fair prices to farmers.This retail chain also provides farmers with free agricultural consultancy services.Help increase the value of womens participation in agriculture:by formalizing engagements with women farmers and providing access to credit for inputs and farm equipment.For example,S4S Technologies helps smallholder women farmers set up their farm factories and start a business of food processing by providing them with technology,affordable financing and market linkages.The company provides food preservation and processing equipment(such as solar powered dehydrators and grain millers,drying equipment,biomass-based milk evaporators and chopping/grinding machines).The women entrepreneurs can buy these using a bank loan.Enhance farmers access to information:For instance,ITC built upon NITI Aayogs e-Choupal ecosystem and 6,000 WhatsApp 26 ITC(2022),Reimagining the Future:Towards the Next Horizon.Sustainability and Integrated Report.https:/ Jain,Parijat(2022),Innovation in Indias Rural Economy.https:/ Jain,Parijat(2022),Innovation in Indias Rural Economy.29 India Stack is the moniker for a set of open APIs and digital public goods that aim to unlock the economic primitives of identity,data and payments at population scale.More information is available at https:/indiastack.orggroups in 11,000 villages to build the capacities of half a million farmers through digital training and dissemination of farming-related information,using local languages and voice messages for communication.26 Expand post-harvest infrastructure:such as warehouses and primary processing facilities.Post-harvest losses can be between 20 and 40 per cent(depending on crop variety)due to limited storage capacity and outdated warehouse units.27 Furthermore,the existing government storage facilities are operating at low efficiency due to infrastructural and personnel skill gaps.The private sector can help increase infrastructural reach and operational efficiencies.Star Agriwarehousing&Collateral Management Ltd.is an integrated post-harvest management services company offering solutions in warehousing,procurement and collateral management of agricultural commodities.Additionally,it works with farmers,FPOs and agri-communities to help them solve the challenge of post-harvest loss,helping to create a more efficient market and better crop price realization for farmers.Star Agri also offers a wide array of value-added services such as risk management,retailing and logistics.Improve access to finance,digital payments and credit for the farming community:Most payments in rural areas are still done in cash in FY20 roughly 90 per cent of all rural payments were in cash.28 The private sector can leverage advancements in the payment infrastructure and India Stack29 to provide last mile access to finance for farmers.Agricultural financing enterprises like Samunnati are developing innovative financing models to provide farmers with easy access to loans,financial literacy training and customized financial solutions.SECTION II THE LANDSCAPE OF INCLUSIVE BUSINESSESPhoto:Leo Sebastian,IIRI-CCAFSLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India274.1.The market study This study presents a diversity of inclusive agribusinesses which intentionally engage and bring value to the BoP segment through commercially viable solutions.The study utilized desk research and secondary sources to develop a longlist of 100 potential IB companies in the agribusiness and food sector.A multi-step process was then employed to create the shortlist.First,only for-profit entities that have been established for over three years were considered for the list.The companies were then grouped by size and thematic area:market linkage and value chain integration,supply chain and logistics,input and production clusters,financial inclusion,tech-enabled models and full stack solutions.Companies were grouped based on their size with the idea of prioritizing medium and larger enterprises.Additionally,smaller tech-driven enterprises with the potential to scale,and larger corporates with an IB line,were also considered.To understand how different IB models work and engage the BoP,20 companies representing different thematic areas,modes of engagement and size were selected(table 6).The business profiles and the market study were based on semi-structured interviews with IBs,an online survey and an analysis of information available in the public domain.The online survey gathered information THE LANDSCAPE of Inclusive Businesses in Agriculture and Food Systems in India 4Table 6.Classification of companiesCommercially viable For-profit entities 3 years since establishmentSize(annual turnover)Small:INR 5 crores-50 crores(USD 600,000 6,000,000)Medium:INR 50 crores-250 crores(USD 6,000,000 30,000,000)Large:INR 250 crores(USD 30,000,000)Thematic area Market linkage and value chain integration Supply chain and logistics Input and production clusters Financial inclusion Tech-enabled models Full stack solutionsLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India28about the company,key initiatives,outcomes achieved,and the obstacles confronted while implementing the IB model.For instance,the survey asked participants how they engage the BoP,which challenges of the BoP their model addresses,what activities do they conduct to target underrepresented populations,and questions on social impact achieved,women empowerment and innovation.30 4.2.Profiled companies The 20 real or potential IB companies profiled in this study have a total annual revenue of about USD 1.05 billion USD.31 More importantly,they have a high social reach:these 20 companies 30 Owing to restrictions of time and resources,this study only assessed 20 companies and is not meant to be a comprehensive market study of all-inclusive businesses in India.31 Exchange rate of USD 1=INR 82.28 has been considered for all USD calculations in the reportengage 20.06 million smallholder farmers and low-income people.These enterprises are improving market access,reducing wastage,and providing data-driven advisory services to address challenges faced by smallholder farmers.Half of these 20 companies can be considered real inclusive business models,as they are profitable and bring value to low-income groups.The other 10 companies are considered potential inclusive businesses because,while they are engaging and bringing value to smallholder farmers and low-income groups,they have not been profitable over the last three years.Table 7 provides an overview of the businesses profiled in this study and their detailed profiles are included in Annex III.Company SizeMode of engagement of the BoPImpact(number of smallholders or low-income persons engaged)Classification1AgroStarLargeDistributors,Customers7,000,000Potential IB2Country ChickenSmallSuppliers12,900Potential IB3EcozenMediumCustomers163,400IB4ErgosMediumCustomers,Suppliers137,600Potential IB5FarMartLargeSuppliers,Distributors,Employees3,090,000Potential IB6FreshoKartz SmallDistributors12,900Potential IB7IFFCO KisanSmallSuppliers,Distributors,Employees,Consumers10,000IB8Millet BankSmallSuppliers860Potential IB9NetafimLargeCustomers946,000IB10NinjacartLargeSuppliers,Distributors,Consumers125,000Potential IB11Osam DairyMediumSuppliers,Distributors,38,700Potential IB12S4SMediumSuppliers,Distributors,Consumers301,000IB13Safe HarvestMediumSuppliers,Employees,Shareholders100,000Potential IB14SahyadriLargeSuppliers,Employees,Shareholders16,900IB15SamunnatiLargeSuppliers,Consumers6,880,000IB16Sids FarmsMediumSuppliers4,300IB17StellappsLargeSuppliers,Consumers43,000Potential IB18WayCoolLargeSuppliers,Distributors288,000IB19WRMSSmallConsumers295,000IB20ZuariLargeConsumers,Employees602,000IBTable 7.The 20 inclusive businesses in agrifood systems in India profiled in this studyLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India294.3.Key findings of the online surveyAn analysis of the surveyed companies shows some broad trends:Most IBs surveyed(over 80 per cent)leverage technology in their operations to deliver goods and services to customers or increase sales of affordable produce to low-income communities.In most cases(76 per cent),rural entrepreneurs are the core constituents of IBs.For example,Ninjacart provides services that enable rural entrepreneurs to scale their businesses in a sustainable manner,and operate more efficiently,by providing post-harvest market linkages.Most companies lack access to affordable financing to build and expand their IB models.The challenge in measuring the impact also severely limits their growth opportunities.Most companies focus on business model innovation to build a strong business case while providing social impact for low-income groups.For example,S4S Technologies engages women micro-entrepreneurs to operate a solar-powered food dehydration system to convert produce into non-perishable products and provides them with fresh produce,technology,finance and access to markets.32 FPOs are legal entities formed by primary producers(i.e.farmers),which provide for sharing of profits/benefits among the members.The ownership of the FPO is with its members and management is through the representatives of the members.Most companies reported not having received any non-financial support from the government or any other organization in the past to help develop or expand their model.In addition to the general trends listed above,data received from the online surveys and interviews conducted with IBs reveal some typical characteristics of IBs in agribusiness in India.4.4.Characteristics of the companies surveyedMost of the companies assessed were for-profit businesses and have been commercially viable for the last 3 years.They were all private limited companies.This includes FPOs and FPCs which,even though they are for-profit and private companies,differ in their ownership status.32 For example,Sahyadri Farms is an FPO formed by farmers and for farmers,to help overcome the barriers to finance,technology adoption,product value addition,and access to markets.Most of the companies surveyed are B2B companies(62 per cent),closely followed by a B2C model.This indicates that B2B agribusinesses are a critical component of the agricultural sector as they help build efficient supply chains from farm to table(figure 4).Figure 4.Type of business models among the companies surveyed 02040608061.9B2BB2CB2B2FB2B2CB2GB2G2FOther57.133.328.619194.8PercentageLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India304.4.1.BoP engagementThree-quarters of the companies surveyed engage the BoP segment as suppliers.Others engage the BoP as consumers(48 per cent)and distributors(38 per cent),often in addition to engaging them as suppliers(see figure 5).Most companies(86 per cent)improve market access and value chain integration for small-holder farmers,and many(8 per cent)provide advisory services or insights to farmers and agribusinesses using data analytics(figure 6).Most companies provide higher income opportunities to low-income communities by helping to increase productivity and reducing the input costs,risks and overheads(insurance,storage,transport,etc.)of farmers.In addition,IBs provide mechanisms for fair sharing of benefits in the value chain and to co-invest.They also facilitate finance and subsidies through supply chain partners or third parties to make the product affordable for low-income people.When IBs provide relevant solutions,they are able to attract more farmers to scale up.For example,WRMS offers a farm-level yield guarantee that protects the downside risk of farmers due to any adverse weather event,pest or diseases.This helps in providing a minimum and sustainable income to smallholder farmers.In addition,the company also uses the grant money it receives from funders to provide up to 20 per cent subsidy in the fees that it charges for providing the guarantee.Figure 5.Engagement of the BoP02040608076.2SuppliersConsumersDistributorsEmployeesOther47.638.128.614.414.3PercentageShare-holdersFigure 6.Solutions for the BoP provided by the businesses02040608010085.7Market accessAdvisory servicesFinancial inclusionFarm inputs Sourcing raw materialsWarehousing/logisticsLivestock manage-ment8171.457.157.147.623.8Percentage9.6OtherLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India314.4.2.Innovation4.4.2.1.Type of innovationsInclusive businesses employ various types of innovations to reach and deliver value for low-income groups(see figure 7).Business model innovation:Many companies are reimagining how they create,deliver,and capture value.Key innovations include developing farmer networks;using apps and technology for transparency and payments;building inclusive value chains;micro-entrepreneur models and innovative financing.15 out of 21 companies(71.4 per cent)focus on business model innovations.For instance,FreshoKartz has restructured its value chain to better connect farmers with markets,ensuring fair prices and reducing intermediaries.Krishijeev Agri and WayCool are using farmer collectivization and working with FPOs to aggregate demand and supply.Ninjacart is using an app to connect farmers to markets and provide credit access.Through value chain integration,Crofarm Agriproducts(Otipy)is reducing crop wastage from 25 per cent to 3 per cent by training farmers on post-harvest practices and managing forward linkages.Product and process innovations:Companies are focusing on developing new products specifically designed for low-income consumers.Examples include introducing appropriate farm equipment,providing financial or insurance products tailored for smallholders,and employing solar energy in production processes to increase reliability and decrease energy costs.15 out of 21 companies(71.4 per cent)introduced new products.For example,WRMS has launched a first-of-its-kind insurance product designed to protect smallholder farmers against unpredictable agricultural risks.S4S Technologies provides solar-powered food processing capabilities at the farm to transform cosmetically damaged produce into valuable food ingredients and help women farmers double their income.In addition,businesses are optimizing operations to improve efficiency and reduce costs.Two-thirds of the companies have optimized their operations,manufacturing or delivery processes to either cut costs,enhance efficiency or improve service delivery.For instance,Stellapps leverages innovative technology to transform the dairy supply chain,improving productivity and sustainability.Marketing and organizational innovation(38 per cent and 28.6 per cent respectively):Companies are adopting unique marketing strategies to effectively communicate with low-income consumers such as,by leveraging culturally relevant messages.They are also reconfiguring organizational structures and reorganizing internal practices to better serve such communities by prioritizing financial inclusivity,adopting inclusive ownership structures and using partnerships with collectives.For example,FarMart enables Figure 7.Types of innovations adopted by inclusive businesses02040608071.4ProductProcessEnvironmentMarketingOrganizationalOther66.742.938.128.64.8PercentageLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India32aggregators to directly sell farmer produce directly to buyers on its mobile app,eliminating intermediaries.This helps farmers in getting a better price.Environment innovation:Nearly half(43 per cent)of the companies implement practices that benefit the environment,such as promoting sustainable agricultural practices or introducing pollution reduction techniques.These innovations not only aim to reduce the environmental footprint but also ensure that low-income communities benefit from improved natural resource management and enhanced resilience to environmental challenges.For example,Safe Harvest promotes sustainable agricultural practices that improve biodiversity and soil health.Companies often adopt multiple innovation types simultaneously to strengthen their business case and maximize their impact on low-income groups.4.4.2.2.Reasons driving innovationMany of the IBs are not just focused on expanding their market reach or improving their business performance,but are also deeply invested in creating positive social impacts for low-income groups(Figure 8).To make the business case stronger while providing social impact for low-income groups:Most of the businesses seek a strategic alignment between business objectives and social goals,where innovations serving low-income groups are seen as integral to business success and sustainability.For example,smallholder farmers remain an under-penetrated segment.Innovations are helping unlock this segment through farmer data platforms(IFFCO Kisan,Country Chicken)and decentralized infrastructure solutions(Krishijeev Agri)which offer an attractive operational scale and build robust supply chains.To reach more low-income groups:Most businesses highlighted lack of access to financial services,market linkages,infrastructure,and capabilities as key challenges for smallholder farmers.So,businesses are innovating in farmer collectivization models,customized infrastructure,and technology interventions to overcome these barriers.IFFCO Kisan for instance,provides a digital platform and analytics capabilities for customized farm advisory services.Leveraging technology and data allows precision agriculture recommendations in a cost-effective manner,even for small and marginal plots.To reduce the risks for low-income groups:Half of the entities adopted innovations to reduce the risks for low-income groups due to the effects of climate change and of price volatility.Companies with climate-smart agriculture solutions(Safe Harvest),Figure 8.Reasons for adopting innovations in the inclusive business model02040608076.2To make the business case strongerTo reach more low income groupsTo deepen social impact for low income groupsTo reduce the risks for low income groupsOther66.752.452.44.8PercentageLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India33financial instruments like weather insurance(WRMS),advisory for crop planning as a risk-mitigation measure(Star Agribazaar),are some examples of innovations that reduce risks for smallholders.To deepen the social impact for low-income groups:Half of the companies innovate to deepen their social impact,seeking to promote income growth,income diversification and job creation.For example,Sahyadri Farms enhances the capabilities of its member farmers to reach international markets by making their products suitable for exports.Moreover,Sahyadris strategy of product-diversification further maximizes value for its member farmers.4.4.3.Social impactThe social impact described in this section is based on interactions with the 20 potential and actual IB models identified for this study.The assessment is aggregated at the sectoral level and thematic levels,and for confidentiality reasons,does not report data that can be attributed to a specific company.33 The average monthly income of an Indian farming householda family,not an individual farmer is INR 10,218.During 2022-2023,the 20 IBs alone benefited about five million people in nearly 1.1 million households while engaging with them as suppliers,consumers and distributors.These businesses have enabled:Opportunities for enhanced income:By helping increase productivity,reducing input costs and providing mechanisms to reduce risks.FarMart is a B2B company that aggregates commodities from farmers and sells them directly to a network of 2,000 businesses.FarMarts business model ensures on-the-spot payment to farmers,reduces post-harvest inefficiencies and optimizes the selling process,thus enabling fair payments.By associating with the company,farmers have been able to increase their net income by 20 per cent.Benefit sharing:The IBs are sharing benefits with smallholders.Sahyadri Farms is a wholly farmer-owned and managed FPC.The company is involved in procurement and post-harvest management,processing,storage,transportation,and marketing of fresh and processed fruits and vegetables and has progressively created additional value streams and income opportunities for participating farmers.The collective has helped increase the average smallholder farmers household income to more than USD 600 per month which is approximately four times as much as the average monthly income33 of an Indian farming household.Access to finance:Facilitating finance through subsidiaries or third-party partners to provide higher income opportunities to low-income communities.For instance,FreshoKartz has partnered with non-banking financial companies(NBFCs)to provide credit support to farmers,and with cooperatives in Rajasthan to enable them to work with the government directly.It has also partnered with SAgri,a Japanese company,to provide credit to farmers.Additionally,FreshoKartz is forging partnerships with various agribusinesses and banks to offer a comprehensive platform that addresses all the needs of farmers(including soil testing,agri-products,financial services,cattle feed and care,crop advisory etc).Photo:CCAFSLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India34Tech-driven efficiencies:IBs have used ICTs to further engage smallholders,reduce the cost of serving them and improve efficiencies.Sahyadri Farmer Producer Company Ltd.uses information technology extensively to improve agricultural productivity and reduce the waiting time for farmers to sell produce at collection centres.The company has also introduced traceability to ensure transparency in the food supply chain and day-to-day operations.4.4.4.Commercial viability Nearly 45 per cent of the IBs surveyed have been profitable in the last three years.32 per cent reported revenue of more than INR 500 crores(USD 60,768,108)in the last year,27.2 per cent in the range of INR 100-500 crore(USD 12,153,62160,768,108)and the remaining in the range of INR 1050 crores(USD 1,215,3626,076,810).While most of the IBs surveyed have been successful in raising grants or financial support from government or non-government entities,they also reported that either the scale of the financing received was insufficient or that access to affordable financing was lacking.Against this context,it is important to identify and encourage more IB models to grow and develop.The government and other stakeholders should also provide such businesses with an enabling environment so that they can upscale and have a greater social impact.4.5.Conclusion The inclusive agribusiness landscape in India displays an encouraging pictureone where both established corporations,and emerging entrepreneurial ventures,are leveraging technology and innovation to transform smallholding farmer livelihoods.IB business models in India are highly diverse in their maturity,focus and reach.They operate across different sector domains of crop production,dairy farming and allied services as well as agrotechnology areas.Yet,three common patterns emerge from these firms:1.The pivotal strategy for generating impact is providing end-to-end market linkages and remunerative value chains.2.Leveraging technology and digitalization enhances information availability,better inputs and operational efficiency.3.Nurturing such initiatives requires patient capital and ecosystem support,particularly from governments and development agencies.Moving forward,these businesses are seeking support to grow.They will also need to define and track impact metrics more systematically to manage and report impact.Landscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India355.1.ContextThe social and economic upside from inclusive business model scaling is immense for the smallholder farmers,and,more broadly,the rural sector.It makes absolute sense to create enabling environments for these businesses to grow and expand.Inclusive business models,as they operate in resource-constrained contexts,face additional challenges to scale up their operations and impact.The lack of reliable roads,energy,and agricultural infrastructure,indebted farmers with no access to affordable finance,and weak supply chains,prevent enterprises from operating at optimum levels.In addition,MSMEs are constrained by their limited ability to access finance from banks and other financial institutions because they lack adequate credit histories or collateral.A significant shortage of skilled human resources is another key challenge.To encourage IBs,concerted actions from both national and state level stakeholders are needed to create incentives to meet the financial and non-financial needs of IBs and implement supportive policy interventions.The following sections will discuss existing government/national level schemes and interventions,the gaps therein and the strategic actions that can be taken at the national level to make the ecosystem more conducive for IBs.IB ECOSYSTEM at the National Level 5Photo:Prashanth Vishwanathan,CCAFSLandscape Study of Inclusive Business in Agrifood Systems in India365.2.Ecosystem readiness to promote IBs in India At the national level,the government is promoting transformation in the agricultural sector using a farmer centric approach by promoting farmer aggregation,technology adoption,infrastructure development and public digital data infrastructures.IBs operate across all these domains and their participation can catalyse the agri-sector transformation.This section highlights some key existing programmes,schemes and initiatives,and the main government agencies that can play an essential role in promoting IBs at the national level.5.2.1.IB champions-government departments and agencies This section highlights key government departments that can play a pivotal role in championing IBs at the national level:The Ministry of Agriculture&Farmers Welfare(MoAFW)is the nodal agency that sets the agenda and initiatives to create a robust ecosystem for farmer support and welfare in India,and is the main agency for the promotion of IBs in the country.The Agricultural Marketing division at MoAFW works actively to make farming more profitable by supporting farmer aggregation and outreach,reducing risks,and promoting agripreneurship.Through the RKVY-Remunerative Approaches for Agriculture and Allied Sectors Rejuvenation(RKVY-RAFTAAR)initiative,it primarily focuses on enhancing pre-and post-harvest infrastructure,in addition to encouraging agripreneurship and innovation.Additionally,the Digital Agriculture division seeks to improve farmer well-being by capitalizing on the growth of agrotechnology in the country.It has partnered with leading technology and agribusiness companies nationwide to create a farmers database.34 Through NSIC Venture Capital Fund Limited-a wholly owned subsidiary of NSIC established the Self-Reliant India(SRI)Fund-a Category II Alternative Investment Fund providing growth capital to underserved MSMEs with high growth potential.The Ministry of Food Processing Industries(MOFPI)is the key agency for strengthening Indias food processing sector by promoting the participation of private,public and co-operative players.It is one of the main agencies to partner with for inclusive agribusiness engagement and promotion in the country.MOFPI facilitates investments and promotes programmes that minimize wastage,enhances farmer incomes and modernizes supply chains to transform the food processing sector.Through its flagship initiatives like the PM Kisan SAMPADA Yojana(PMKSY)and the Production Linked Incentive Scheme for Food Processing Industry,it offers strategic opportunities for mainstreaming IB engagement in government.Its World Food India(2023)event provided a platform to showcase inclusive businesses to audiences and investors around the globe.The Ministry of Micro,Small and Medium Enterprises(M/o MSME)is the nodal agency for enterprise promotion in India and could play a strategic role in promoting inclusive businesses across sectors.The SME division under the ministry actively supports businesses by exploring new technology adoption,facilitating joint ventures,expandin
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ONLINE and international TRADE IN LIVE CHEETAHSJanuary 2024BRIEFING DOCUMENT2 ONLINE AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN LIVE CHEETAHSOVERVIEWA six-month survey undertaken by TRAFFIC between October 2022 and March 2023 reaffirms the use of the internet to trade in or display ownership of live cheetahs as pets.This rapid assessment aimed to build on previous work undertaken by researchers investigating the online trade in live cheetahs to determine if any notable changes have occurred or if new trade dynamics have emerged.Some noteworthy patterns from this survey are highlighted below:PREFERRED ONLINE PLATFORMS:Users have changed their security and privacy settings of online profiles to restrict public accessThe creation of new or multiple profiles by the same user.Users no longer use commerce language;in some incidences,posts contain only images of cheetahs with no accompanying text.Discrepancies existed between the number of URLs advertising or displaying live cheetahs and CITES-reported imports of live cheetahs in Kuwait,Saudi Arabia,and Yemen.Convergence and links to the trade in other wildlifeas pets,including birds,reptiles,primates,and other big cats and small mammals.Countries in Western Asia continued to play a dominant role in the trade of live cheetahs online,many linked to private or individual ownership in addition to zoos or safari parks.INTRODUCTIONThe Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus is one of the most threatened big cats globally,and the species is currently only found in 9%of their historical range limited to highly fragmented pockets in Africa and Asia.According to the International Union for the Conservation of Nature(IUCN)Red List of Threatened Species,cheetahs are classified as Vulnerable to extinction,and only 6,500 mature individuals are estimated to remain(Durant et al.,2022).Cheetahs are especially vulnerable to exploitation because of the simultaneous threats affecting their survival,such as habitat loss and human-wildlife conflict.Therefore,any exploitation of wild individuals through trade could have a detrimental effect on the viability of the global population.Cheetahs are also listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(CITES),prohibiting the international trade in wild-caught cheetah specimens for commercial purposes,except for annual quotas for hunting trophies and live specimens granted to Botswana,Namibia,and Zimbabwe.Additionally,South Africa is the only country with CITES-registered captive-breeding facilities where live specimens can be legally traded internationally,primarily for zoos and safari parks.The proliferation of the use of the internet to trade in live cheetahs has been a subject of growing concern in recent years.Traders make use of various platforms,including social media,e-commerce platforms,and mobile phone applications.In 2022-23,TRAFFIC undertook an online survey spanning six months for incidents of suspected trade in live cheetahs or private ownership of live cheetahs to determine if any notable changes have taken place or if new trade dynamics had emerged.A Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus in NamibiaThe Cheetah is now only found in9%of their historical range Previously collected online data was assessed,covering the period 2010-2019.URLs associated with user profiles and accessible during TRAFFICs survey period were screened for recent(between 2020 and 2023)listings involving live cheetahs.213(75%of the initial total)user profiles were screened for this assessment.In cases where recent listings of live cheetahs were found,users who expressed interest in the posts for additional URLs involving live cheetahs were also assessed.This methodology was used to identify and document other profiles and posts which were included in TRAFFICs data collection.Surveys to record suspected URLs involving live cheetahs in trade or live cheetahs as pets were manually conducted using a combination of keywords in Arabic,Chinese,English,Hindi,Japanese,Punjabi,Russian,Somali,and Swahili on various social media platforms and search engines(see Annex I for list of platforms and search engines).Surveys were conducted by TRAFFIC between October 2022 and March 2023.Surveys were conducted weekly over the 26-week period(there was no surveying for three weeks spanning from mid-December to the first week in January 2023)for a total survey time of 180 hours.The following information from the two datasets for subsequent analysis was recorded:The URL Whether the URL was linked to a users profile or a post Whether the URL was publicly accessible(i.e.,no privacy settings)The year the post was listed or the year of the most recent post involving a live cheetah Country/territory where the cheetah or user was located,as indicated by the user Whether there was a clear intention to trade in live cheetah(i.e.,the trader used commerce language such as buy or sell;the trader provided contact details for further information;or the user encouraged direct or private messaging),or whether the post only displayed ownership or possession of live cheetahs as pets A screenshot of the post or profile was takenSurveyors were not able to record and quantify the number of unique individual animals due to resource constraints.Surveyors,however,did work to ensure that the URLs analysed were unique and that there was no duplication between user profiles and posts(i.e.,a unique post by user X was not captured if user Xs profile was already part of the dataset).METHODSPHASE 1123PHASE 24 ONLINE AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN LIVE CHEETAHSa subset of previously collected URLs were gatheredA survey between October 2022 and March 2023 to record URLs suspected to involve the trade in live cheetahsanalysis of the CITES Trade Database for international trade in live cheetahs between 1975-2021The data analysed revealed 222 unique URLs were linked to:RESULTSScreening of previously collected dataOnline survey171251551091411076589237#%(user appeared to have deleted previous posts involving cheetahs)restricting public access to the profilesthat were uploaded before 2020and were combined with TRAFFICs data for analysisprofiles contained no listings of cheetahsprofiles have changed security and privacy settings,profiles contained posts of live cheetahsprofiles contained recent posts involving live cheetahs between 2020-2023(44%)URLs with a clear intention to trade in live cheetahs(56%)URLs that displayed possession or ownership of live cheetahs with no apparent intention to trade(70%)URLs were found on social mediauser profiles who may have had one or more posts involving one or more live cheetahs(64%)the number/percentage of URLs that involved other exotic pets in trade or as pets,including other big cats,reptiles,birds,primates,etc.In some incidences,users have posted fewer listings of live cheetahs over time and included listings of other wildlife as pets,especially other big cats such as tigers and lionsunique postswebsites(26%)URLs were found on e-commerce platforms(4%)were found on dedicated websites,online forums,or online news/media articles(see Annex II)42 of these appeared or were suspected to be linked to a zoo,safari park,game park,or similar institution83 were suspected to be individually or privately ownedThe regions where URLs involving the intention to trade in live cheetahs were found.Top five countries with URLs displaying live cheetah ownership or possession as pets.A full breakdown by country of URLs involving intention to trade can be found in Annex III 40/32d/66%8/8/15%2/2%1/1%6/5%7/61/25/9%UNITED ARAB EMIRATES WESTERN ASIASUB-SAHARAN AFRICANORTHERN AMERICASOUTHERN ASIAEASTERN EUROPEUNITED STATES OF AMERICASOUTH AFRICASAUDI ARABIAKUWAIT6 ONLINE AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN LIVE CHEETAHSCITES TRADE DATABASESOUTH AFRICASOUTH AFRICACHINAUNITED STATES OF AMERICANAMIBIAZIMBABWE South Africa was the largest exporter,reportedly exporting 1,574 animals over the period,predominantly sourced from captive-bred specimens.Between 2017 and 2021,212 animals were traded,for the purpose of reintroduction into the wild,for zoos,for breeding in captivity,for commercial purposes and hunting trophies.36 animals(17%)of the 212 above were reportedly sourced from the wild and traded regionally with Malawi,Mozambique and Zambia.According to Malawi,Mozambique and Zambia,the animals were traded for reintroduction into the wild.By comparison,South Africa reported that 32 animals were traded for reintroduction into the wild,and 4 animals were traded for the purpose of zoos and hunting trophies.357 animals were imported over the period,predominantly sourced from Namibias wild population before 2000.Only 6 animals were imported from Namibia after 2000 with the purpose of reintroduction into the wild and breeding in captivity.257 animals in total,93 between 2000 and 2009 and 116 between 2010 and 2021,predominantly for zoos.The majority(77%)were captive-bred specimens from South Africa 14 specimens were imported from Namibias wild population between 1995 and 1996.207 animals in total and 133 animals between 2000 and 2020,mainly from South Africas captive-bred specimens.10 animals were sourced from Namibias wild population,reportedly traded in 2001 for zoos.Importers reportedly imported 616 animals from Namibia(a discrepancy with Namibias declared exports of 229 animals).Eighty-five per cent of the discrepancies occurred prior to Namibias independence in 1990.Majority(95%)of the trade occurred prior to 2000,with animals predominantly sourced from the wild,exported mainly to Germany,Japan,South Africa,Thailand and the United States of America,predominantly for zoos and breeding in captivity.10 wild-sourced animals have been exported from Namibia in the last decade(2012-2021)to Cuba for the purpose of zoos.Additionally,Argentina reported importing 1 wild-sourced animal from Namibia in 2015(no corresponding export reported by Namibia).Zimbabwe reported exporting 12 animals(19 according to importers)since 1975,with 3 animals reportedly traded in 2020,sourced from captive-bred specimens to Canada for zoos(no corresponding reported imports).Additionally,Zambia reported importing 4 wild-sourced specimens for zoos from Zimbabwe in 2012(no corresponding reported exports from Zimbabwe).Major importers of live cheetahs:Major exporters of live cheetahs,who are also range States:Cheetah cubs seized from illicit trade8 ONLINE AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN LIVE CHEETAHSSaudi arabiaYEMENOther countries within the region of Western Asia that recorded imports of live cheetahs:United Arab Emirates Reported importing seven live cheetahs,all from the United Arab Emirates,between 1997 and 2006.1 of the 7 animals,traded in 2003 for zoo purposes,was reported as originating from a wild-harvested specimen in Somalia.Since 2006,there have been no reported imports of live cheetahs into Saudi Arabia.Reported zero exports or imports of live cheetahs since 1975.Bahrain 4(from Saudi Arabia,imported in 2014)Kuwait 2(from the United Arab Emirates,imported in 2006)Qatar 5(3 imported from Somalia in 2002 and 2 imported from the United Arab Emirates in 2012)Imported 148 live cheetahs,106(70%)between 2000 and 2009 and 38(25%)between 2010 and 2021,primarily for the purpose of breeding in captivity,personal,and zoos.95%were reportedly captive-bred or captive-born specimens from South Africa(135 animals),Qatar(3 animals),Germany(2 animals)and the Netherlands(1 animal).3 animals were sourced from wild populations in Botswana and Namibia in 1991 and 2008,respectively.By comparison,Qatar declared no exports of captive-bred specimens to the United Arab Emirates but did report a re-export of three animals to the United Arab Emirates,reportedly sourced from wild specimens in Somalia in 2003.Spotlight on countries involved in online advertisements or displays of live cheetahs as pets:This survey has reaffirmed previously drawn conclusions made by other researchers that the internet continues to be used for trading in live cheetahs and for displaying live cheetahs as pets,potentially in violation of national and international laws.Noteworthy patterns were revealed by screening previously collected online survey data:Several URLs associated with social media profiles were no longer publicly accessible due to users changing their security and privacy settings.The users may still have been active on their profiles,but surveyors were unable to publicly screen these profiles for indications of live cheetahs as users have restricted public access to their profiles.Several user profiles,previously identified as advertising live cheetahs for sale,removed or deleted the relevant posts.Additionally,in many incidences where recent posts involving live cheetahs were found on these profiles,the intention to trade was no longer clear,making it difficult to ascertain the users intent.The user may genuinely have no intention to trade in live cheetahs,or this method could be a way to avoid detection of the posts by regulating bodies.Several new profiles were linked to previously identified user profiles(in many cases,it appeared to be the same individual creating a new profile).Based on this surveys findings,it appeared that social media was the dominant mechanism by which internet users attempted to trade live cheetahs or display live cheetahs as pets.This survey also noted the use of e-commerce platforms,online forums,and specifically dedicated websites seemingly created to trade many exotic wildlife pets,including cheetahs.While not the focus of this online survey,surveyors noted the convergence of the trade in live cheetahs or the display of cheetahs as pets with other types of wildlife traded or considered pets.Nearly 65%of the URLs analysed also contained evidence of other wildlife in trade or as pets,including other big cats(lions,tigers,leopards),reptiles,birds,antelope,primates,and other mammals.These were found within the same or in separate listings by the same user.In some incidences,there were fewer posts of live cheetahs found within the last five years and,instead,more posts involving other big cats such as lions and tigers.The regions and countries/territories identified from more recent online posts are similar to those identified from the baseline dataset used in this survey.Countries within Western Asia,specifically Bahrain,Kuwait,Saudi Arabia,United Arab Emirates,and Yemen,were identified as major role players,alongside Kenya,South Africa,and the United States of America.Discrepancies appeared when CITES reported imports of live cheetahs,and the number of URLs found involving live cheetahs was compared.These discrepancies existed for Kuwait,Saudi Arabia,and Yemen.This mismatch is likely explained if the animals were imported illegally or they have been bred within the borders of these countries without reports to the International Cheetah Studbook.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONWhen comparing CITES reported imports of live cheetahs and the number of URLs found involving live cheetahs,discrepancies existed forKuwait,Saudi Arabia,and YemenRECOMMENDATIONSLAW ENFORCEMENT AND COLLABORATIVE AGENCIESInvestigation into the user profiles or accounts previously identified as involving live cheetahs but not publicly available.Expand online surveys to other search engines and platforms in additional languages not covered by this survey.Continuous and regular monitoring of user accounts where previous posts involving live cheetahs have been deleted or removed by the user to determine whether any new violating posts or advertisements are uploaded by the user.Network analysis and further research are warranted to better understand the connection between online users and existing suspects or offenders involved in the illegal trade of live cheetahs.Further work to accurately quantify and identify individual animals is warranted,given the likelihood that different users may post the same cheetah.Identification of possible captive breeding facilities for live cheetahs within Kuwait,Saudi Arabia and YemenINVESTIGATE USER PROFILESEXPAND ONLINE SURVEYSongoing account monitoringconduct network analysisanimal identificationIDENTIFY CAPTIVE BREEDING The following recommendations are targeted towards relevant law enforcement agencies(or organisations working in collaboration with law enforcement)for an investigation into possible violations of national or international laws:10 ONLINE AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN LIVE CHEETAHSThe following recommendations are targeted towards organisations conducting research on wildlife trade dynamics and organisations with the resources to engage in behavioural change communications and awareness raising:Given the evidence that some users are posting fewer listings of live cheetahs but additional listings of other wildlife as pets,further research to understand the trends in the motivations and behaviour of users and their preferences for exotic pets is warranted.Investigation and analysis of reported births,exports and imports of live cheetahs in the International Cheetah StudbookBetter awareness and targeted behavioural change communications about the illegal trade of live cheetahs and relevant laws and regulations governing the trade and ownership of live cheetahs.ANALYSE EXOTIC PET OWNERSHIPANALYSE BIRTHS AND TRADE IN CHEETAHSEMPLOY TARGETED SOCIAL AND BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE COMMSRECOMMENDATIONSRESEARCH AND BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE ORGANISATIONSANNEX IANNEX IIList of social media platforms and web engines used to search for live cheetahs in this studyList of e-commerce and social media platforms,news media,websites,and online forums found to contain URLs involving live cheetahs in trade or as petsFacebookGoogleInstagramLinkedInSnapchatTikTokTwitterYouTubeAd to BusinessAds 4 aeAmazing Exotic PetsArab NewsBloombiz EuropeBusinessraysChitkuDarahemEbuyorsellExotic Pets for Sale OnlineFacebookFree AdsGulf ClassifiedsHarajInstagramKhaleeji AdsKuwait Business DirectoryKuwait LocalLoozapLuxury Pet SourceMa7roomMuamatOnsales.inPepsellPet Exotic Wild CatsPet SanctuaryPublic AdsQaidexQatar sharesSayidatySulekhaSwalifTikTokTradekeyTwitterUAE ClassifiedsWildlife 4 SaleWseetkYouTubeZidvi12 ONLINE AND INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN LIVE CHEETAHSANNEX IIIThe regions and countries/territories where URLs involving the intention to trade in live cheetahs were found.IMAGE CREDITSCoverWildFaces/Pixabay3DrZoltan/Pixabay8Cheetah Conservation FundA Cheetah Acinonyx jubatus in NamibiaRegion and Country/TerritoryNumber of URLs(Percentage of total)ASIA66(68%)Western Asia64(66%)Saudi Arabia27(28%)Kuwait24(25%)United Arab Emirates10(10%)Yemen2(2%)Bahrain1(1%)Southern Asia2(2%)Pakistan2(2%)Americas15(15%)Northern America15(15%)United States of America15(15%)AFRICA11(11%)Sub-Saharan Africa8(8%)Kenya5(5%)South Africa3(3%)Northern Africa3(3%)Egypt2(2%)Morocco1(1%)EUROPE1(1%)Eastern EuropeRussian Federation1(1%)Unknown4(4%)JANUARY 2024TRAFFIC 44(0)1223 331 997traffictraffic.orgtraffic.orgW O R K I N G T O E N S U R E T H AT T R A D E I N W I L D S P E C I E S I S L E G A L A N D S U S TA I N A B L E,F O R T H E B E N E F I T O F T H E P L A N E T A N D P E O P L EBRIEFING DOCUMENT
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