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Resilient Foundations,Green FuturesA ROADMAP FOR LOW INCOME HOUSING IN INDONESIA2025FINAL REPORTPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedPublic Disclosure AuthorizedDISCLAIMERRights and PermissionsCitationThis work is a product of the staff of The World Bank with external contributions.The findings,interpretations,and conclusions expressed in this work do not necessarily reflect the views of The World Bank,its Board of Executive Directors,or the governments they represent.The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work.The boundaries,colors,denominations,and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.The World Bank does not necessarily own each component of the content contained within the work and does not warrant that the use of any third-party owned individual component or part contained in the work will not infringe on the rights of those third parties.The material in this work is subject to copyright.Because The World Bank encourages dissemination of its knowledge,this work may be reproduced,in whole or in part,for non-commercial purposes if full attribution to this work is given.Any queries on rights and licenses,including subsidiary rights,should be addressed to World Bank Publications,The World Bank Group,1818 H Street NW,Washington,DC 20433,USA;fax:202-522-2625;e-mail:PUBRIGHTSWORLDBANK.ORG.Please cite the report as follows:World Bank.2025.“Resilient Foundations,Green Futures:Green Roadmap for Low-Income Housing in Indonesia”.Washington,DC:World Bank.2ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis report reflects five years of World Bank engagement in Indonesias affordable housing sector,grounded in extensive field research and implementation experience under the National Affordable Housing Program.The report benefits from the close collaboration and partnership of the Ministry of Housing and Settlements(MoHS),previously Ministry of Public Works and Housing(MPWH),especially Mr.Haryo Bekti Martoyoedo,Director of Financing System Development for Housing and Settlement Areas and Ms.Fitri Ami Handayani,Head of Sub-directorate for Utilization of Funding Sources and Regional Financing System,Directorate General of Governance and Risk Management.This report was made possible through funding from The Korea Green Growth Trust Fund(KGGTF),which supports analytical work on carbon credit baseline,thermal resilience for low-income housing,and other green housing initiatives.Additional work referenced in this report was supported by various trust funds,as listed below:Australia-World Bank Indonesia Partnership(ABIP):Advancing rooftop solar photovoltaic(RSPV)integration strategies(2023-2024)Energy Sector Management Assistance Program(ESMAP):Piloting a climate-auction model and analyzing incremental green construction costs(2020-2021);supporting green certification systems(2023-2024)City Climate Finance Gap Fund(Gap):Conducting the Palembang study on green home improvement and retrofit approaches(2021-2022)The report was prepared by a team led by Dao H.Harrison(Sr.Housing Specialist,IEAU2)and was co-authored by Daniel Caesar Pratama,Alfana Ayu Zahrafa,and Nida An Khofiyya(Consultants,IEAU1)with inputs from Harish Surendra Khare(Consultant,IEAU1).The work was carried out under the overall guidance of Bjorn Philipp(Practice Manager,IEAU1).Chapter 2.1 on combatting extreme heat and passive cooling design solutions benefitted from the teams collaboration with Fathina Izmi Nugrahanti from ITB and Habitat for Humanity-Indonesia.Chapter 3.2 on exploring rooftop solar panel was largely based on research of Castalia Consulting,working closely with Bipul Singh(Sr.Energy Specialist,IEAI1).Chapter 4.2,especially on carbon credit assessment,was supported by Keisuke Iyadomi(Senior Climate Change Specialist,SCCSK)and Sandeep Kanda(Consultant,SCCFE).The report received editorial support from Olivia Nielsen from Miyamoto International.Administrative support was provided by Nola Safitri(Program Assistant,EAITL).The team was fortunate to receive inputs from the following peer reviewers:Ana Campos Garcia(Lead DRM Specialist,IDURM),Keiko Sakoda(Sr.DRM Specialist,IDURM),Catherine Lynch(Senior Urban Specialist,IAWU4),and Griya Rufianne(Urban Specialist,IEAU1).Additional comments were received from Nicholas Jones(Data Scientist,IDURM),Vasudevan Rajasekharan Kadalayil(Consultant,IDURM),Daniel Zepeda(Consultant,IDURM),and Ian Taylor(Consultant,IDURM).R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S3ACRONYMSAustralia-World Bank Indonesia PartnershipAir ConditionerAsian Infrastructure Investment BankApplication Programming InterfaceKementerian Agraria dan Tata Ruang/Badan Pertanahan Nasional Republik Indonesia(Ministry of Agrarian Affairs and Spatial Planning)Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah(Local Development Planning Agency)Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional(National Development Planning Agency)Bank Central AsiaBangunan Gedung Hijau(Green Building)Badan Meteorologi,Klimatologi,dan Geofisika(Meteorology,Climatology,and Geophysical Agency)Bank Negara IndonesiaBadan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana National(Agency for Disaster Countermeasure)Badan Pengembangan Infrastruktur Wilaya(Regional Infrastructure Development Agency)Badan Pusat Statistik(Central Bureau of Statistics)Badan Pengelola Tabungan Perumahan Rakyat(The Peoples Housing Savings Management Agency)Bantuan Pembiayaan Perumahan Berbasis Tabungan(Savings-based Housing Finance Assistance)Bank Rakyat IndonesiaBadan Standardisasi Nasional(National Standardization Agency)Bantuan Stimulan Perumahan Swadaya(Self-Help Housing Assistance Program)Bank Tabungan NegaraBank Tabungan Pensiunan Nasional SyariahBadan Usaha Milik Negara(State-Owned Enterprise)Community-Based OrganizationCoordinating Ministry of Infrastructure and Regional DevelopmentExcellence in Design for Greater EfficienciesABIPACAIIB APIATR/BPN BAPPEDA BAPPENAS BCABGH BMKG BNIBNPB BPIW BPSBP TAPERA BP2BT BRIBSN BSPS BTNBTPNSBUMN CBOCMIRDEDGE4Energy Sector Management Assistance ProgramFasilitas Liquiditas Pembiayaan Perumahan(Housing Finance Liquidity Facility)Financing-to-ValueCity Climate Finance Gap FundGlobal Buildings Performance NetworkGreenhouse GasGovernment of IndonesiaHeating,Ventilation,and Air ConditioningHousing MicrofinanceIndonesia Green and Affordable Housing ProgramIslamic Development BankIndonesia Stock ExchangeIndonesian RupiahJakarta,Bogor,Depok,Tangerang,and BekasiKebijakan Likuiditas Makroprudensial(Macroprudential Liquidity Incentive Policy)Kota Tanpa Kumuh(City Without Slums Program)Kredit Pemilikan Rumah Subsidi(Subsidized Mortgage Program)Kredit Usaha Rakyat(Peoples Business Credit)Loan-to-ValueMinistry of Energy and Mineral ResourcesMinistry of Environment and ForestryMinistry of FinanceMinistry of Home AffairsMinistry of Housing and SettlementsMinistry of Public WorksMinistry of Public Works and HousingNational Affordable Housing ProgramNationally Determined ContributionNilai Ekonomi Karbon(Carbon Economic Value)Non-Governmental OrganizationNational Slum Upgrading ProjectESMAPFLPP FTV Gap Fund GBPNGHG GoI HVAC HMF IGAHP IsDBIDX IDR Jabodetabek KLM KOTAKU KPR Subsidi KUR LTV MEMR MoEF MoFMoHA MoHS MPW MPWH NAHPNDCNEK NGO NSUP R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S5Persetujuan Bangunan Gedung(Building Approval Permit)Perusahaan Listrik Negara(State Electricity Company)Program Steering CommitteeProgram Sejuta Rumah(One Million Homes Program)Quality Assurance/Quality ControlRooftop Solar PhotovoltaicsRasio Pembiayaan Inklusif Makroprudensial(Macroprudential Inclusive Financing Ratio)Sistem Informasi Kumpulan Pengembang(Developer Housing Platform)Sistem Pemantauan Konstruksi Construction Monitoring System)Sarana Multigriya Finansial(State-owned Secondary Mortgage Finance Company)Standar Nasional Indonesia(Indonesian National Standard)Sertifikat Laik Fungsi(Certificate of Proper Function/Occupancy Certificate)Standard Operating ProcedureSurvei Ekonomi Nasional(National Economic Survey)Transit-Oriented DevelopmentTons of Carbon Dioxide EquivalentUpah Minimum Provinsi(Regional Minimum Wage)United States DollarWorld BankPBG PLN PSC PSR QAQC RSPV RPIM SiKumbang SiPetruk SMF SNISLF SOP SUSENASTOD tCO2e UMP USD WB 6CONTENTSFigures 08Tables 09Executive Summary 10Summary of Actions&Key Recommendations 131.Aligning Policy with Climate Realities 16 1.1 Introduction 17 1.2 Overview of the Affordable Housing Sector in Indonesia 192.Climate Adaptation&Disaster Resilience Action Framework 24 2.1 Action A:Combating Extreme Heat with Passive Cooling Design Solutions 25 2.2 Action B.Promote Resilient Housing Design and Construction to Withstand Floods and Earthquakes 32 2.3 Action C:Risk-Informed Site Planning and Urban Design Strategies in Integrated Housing and Settlement Upgrading Project 373.Climate Mitigation Action Framework 42 3.1 Action D:Cut Operational Energy and Material-Based Emissions 43 3.2 Action E:Explore Opportunities to Integrate Rooftop Solar Photo-Voltaic Panels into the Affordable Housing Sector 48 3.3 Action F:Beyond Individual Housing:Advancing Sustainability Through Neighborhood and City-Scale Systems 524.Cross-Cutting Action Framework 57 4.1 Action G:Building Resilient and Green Housing Construction Permitting,Monitoring and Certification Systems 58 4.2 Action H:Enable Green Financing and Carbon Credit 655.Conclusion 69 5.1 Summary of Actions and Key Recommendations 71Annexes 74 Annex 1:Thermal Comfort Study for Low-Income Housing 75 Annex 2:Commonly Used Construction Materials in Housing Development 76 Annex 3:Government Housing Prototypes 77 Annex 4:Construction Quality Issues During National Affordable Housing Program 80 Annex 5:Classification of City/Towns Characteristics 82 Annex 6:Green Retrofit and Densification Study in South Sumatra 83 Annex 7:Institutional Silos in the Housing Sector 84 Annex 8:Calculation of GHG Emissions Reduction 86References 87R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S7Figure 1.Examples Of Simple-Non-Engineered Homes in BSPS Housing Program 19Figure 2.Differences Between Climate Adaptation,Climate Mitigation,and Cross-Cutting Actions 23Figure 3.Indonesia Heat Index 26Figure 4.The Baseline Indoor Temperature Of Simple Non-Engineered House 27Figure 5.Illustration of Intervention Models 28Figure 6.Iboxplot Showing the Reduction in Indoor Temperature Compared to the Baseline Model A 29Figure 7.Graph Showing the Temperature of Houses With Aluminum Foil Roof Insulation 30Figure 8.Graph Showing the Temperature of Houses With Ceiling and Gable Ventilation 30Figure 9.Graph Showing the Composite Technical Performance Score And Incremental Construction Cost 31Figure 10.Proposed Roadmap for Adopting Green Passive Cooling Solutions Addressing Thermal Stress 31Figure 11.KPR Subsidi Housing Complex In Bekasi Submerged in Flood Waters 33Figure 12 Stilt House And Clamshell Waste as Porous Surface in Kampung Kerang Ijo 33Figure 13.Example Of Retrofit Guideline And Common Construction Mistakes Developed by Build Change,World Bank,and Mohs for the IGAHP Pilot 34Figure 14 Building Level Adaptation 36Figure 15.Risk-Prone Layout With Single-Entry Access,Resilient Layout With Multiple Entry Points Enabling Redundancy and Safer Evacuation Routes 38Figure 16.Traditional Bamboo Homes With Flexible Joints,Rigid Masonry Row Housing(Existing),Buffered Row Houses in Sumbawa 39Figure 17.Flood Retention Park In Jakarta,Vegetated Embankment,Clean Drainage Channel in Kotaku 40Figure 18.In Cieunteung,Participatory Design of a Retention Pond Created Recreational Benefits Alongside Improved Flood Management,Strengthening Maintenance and Community Pride 40Figure 19.Electricity Use Profile in KPR Subsidi Homes 44Figure 20.Energy Savings for Implementing Energy-Efficient Appliances(South Pole)46Figure 21.Example of Green Housing Prototypes Currently Being Developed by MOHS 47Figure 22.Installed Capacity&Resource Potential by Island in Indonesia 49Figure 23.Rooftop Rental Business Model 50Figure 24.Map of RSVP Costs Across Indonesia 51Figure 25.Average Residential Price Growth Comparison Between Subsidized Rate and Market Rate in Jabodetabek 52Figure 26.Estimated Commuting-Related Housing Carbon Emissions 53Figure 28.Missing Middle Housing in Indonesia 55Figure 29.Comparison of Green Certification Systems 59FIGURES8TABLESFigure 30.Schematic of Data-Driven and Risk-Informed Location Choice for Housing and Settlement Development 62Figure 31.Proposed Schematic of Linking Location Analysis,Technical Proposal,PBG,SLF,and Green Certification Issuance for Government-Led Housing Developments 64Figure 32.Green Housing Loans Growth by Type 66Table 1.Summary of Climate and Disaster Adaptation Strategies by Scale and Hazard Type 41Table 2.Summary of Climate Mitigation Strategies by Scale 56Table 3.Embodied Energy of Common Walls Materials From the Highest to Lowest Embodied Energy 76Table 4.Embodied Energy of Common Roof Materials From the Highest to Lowest Embodied Energy 77Table 5.Prototypes initiated by MoHS still in development stage 79R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S9The country is highly vulnerable to rising heat,intense rainfall,sea-level rise,and seismic events.Located along the Pacific Ring of Fire,Indonesia faces some of the highest seismic risks in the world,with frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity threatening housing stability and safety.With nearly 20%of the population living in low-elevation coastal zones and projections indicating 116 million people could be flood-exposed by 2030,climate adaptation in the housing sector is not optionalit is urgent.Indonesia has committed to reducing emissions by 29%(41%with international support)by 2030 and achieving net-zero by 2060.The building sector,as one of the largest energy consumers,must therefore play a crucial role in this transition.Affordable housing,long a priority in Indonesias development agenda,is being positioned by the Government to advance the countrys green goals while protecting vulnerable populations.Housing needs on both quantitative and qualitative deficit are high,with 12 million households needing new housing(13.6%of total households)and 28.6 million households needing better housing(36.8%of total households).Government-led programs have collectively supported over a million new or improved homes.The Indonesia Green and Affordable Housing Program(IGAHP),initiated by the Ministry of Housing and Settlement or MoHS(formerly Ministry of Public Works and Housing or MPWH)in 20241 set a vision for achieving net-zero homes by 2050 as a part of 2060 net-zero NDC target.2Low-income housing units consume minimal energy and contribute little to direct greenhouse gas emissions;however,their design and construction leave them highly vulnerable to climate hazards.Strengthening the built environment to improve climate resilience in both existing and future homes presents a significant opportunity.Enhancing safety,thermal comfort,and structural durability not only safeguards vulnerable households but also establishes a scalable foundation for broader and sustained climate mitigation efforts across the housing sector.In the context of affordable housing,“green”must be reframed to put resilience at the corenot as an add-on,but as the starting point.Currently,the green agenda in the housing sector centers largely on climate adaptation,including emission reduction,renewable energy adoption,and the use of sustainable design and materials.Defining green housing for low-income communities in Indonesia solely in terms of climate-responsive,energy-efficient features is a stretch,given the widespread exposure to natural hazards and the structural limitations of most housing stock.Low-income households often live in areas highly vulnerable to extreme heat,flooding,and seismic activityrisks that are intensifying with climate change.3 As such,green housing in Indonesia must first prioritize resilient construction that can withstand these environmental shocks.Only after these foundational vulnerabilities are addressed should additional green featuressuch as low-carbon materials,energy-efficient appliances,rooftop solar,and water-saving systemsbe progressively introduced to support longer-term climate mitigation goals.EXECUTIVE SUMMARY1 .World Bank provided technical assistance to MoHS to inform the development of IGAHP.3 Asian Development Bank,“Building Resilience of the Urban Poor in Indonesia.”Indonesias housing sector stands at the front line of a changing climate.10Heat stress is now one of the most immediate and chronic threats to livability in low-income communities,requiring urgent adoption of passive cooling design solutions to protect household health and comfort.In densely built neighborhoods with limited tree cover,homes are often constructed using heat-trapping materials like corrugated steel roofs,leading to indoor temperatures that regularly exceed safe and comfortable levels.Traditional self-built designs have not evolved to mitigate rising heat risks.However,a pilot study show that low-cost passive cooling design solutions such as aluminum foil insulation and gable ventilation can lower indoor temperatures by up to 2.35C relative to outdoor temperatures while adding around 2-3 million IDR to overall construction costs,significantly improving household comfort and health.4 Floods and earthquakes pose serious threats to both lives and housing assets in Indonesias low-income communities.Although hazard maps and early warning systems exist,they are rarely integrated into spatial planning,permitting,or construction inspection processes.The National Affordable Housing Program (NAHP)5 introduced standardized quality assurance and quality control(QAQC)systems that improved housing quality in the Bantuan Stimulan Perumahan Swadaya(BSPS)or Home Improvement program by seven(7)times from the baseline,though enforcement remains weak for the FLPP home ownership credit-linked subsidy program.Indonesia has consistently worked to improve the seismic resilience of its built environment,beginning with its first seismic-resilient building regulations established in the 19656,concurrent with new innovation developments such as using ferrocement technology.Yet,flood-adaptive housing design remains under-researched and rarely implemented.Strengthening and mainstreaming existing institutional tools like SiKumbang7 and SiPetruk8,and aligning them with building permits and certification systems,is vital to scaling resilience across the building life cycle.Effective climate mitigation in affordable housing is achievable without high-cost interventions.Modest investments in passive design,green housing prototypes,and retrofit strategies can yield significant environmental and economic benefits.When combined with energy-efficient appliances,low-emission materials,and scalable technologies like LED lighting and biofilter septic systems,these approaches enhance performance while remaining cost-effective.For example,meeting Bangunan Gedung Hijau9(BGH)“Madya”certification standards adds just 2.5 percent to construction costs but results in substantial lifetime savings on utility bills and lower emissions.Among mitigation strategies for the affordable housing sector,rooftop solar photovoltaics(RSPV)present a potential opportunity worth exploring and piloting.Indonesias affordable housing stock has the technical potential to generate up to 1.3 GW/year of solar energy.A rooftop rental model,where utilities like PT PLN Icon Plus10 lease rooftops for solar panel installation,can unlock this potential,especially for public rental and in peri-urban areas outside of the Java-Bali where grid electricity is costlier.For widespread adoption,homes must be clustered,roofs strengthened,and designs adapted to optimize solar efficiency and minimize shading.4 World Bank study(2025)in collaboration with Habitat for Humanity to test passive cooling designs in simple landed housing.5 The National Affordable Housing Program,a World Bank USD 450 million program to support the GoI in improving access to affordable housing to lower income households.6 Nugroho,Sagara,and Imran,“The Evolution of Indonesian Seismic and Concrete Building Codes.”7 SiKumbang is an affordable housing developer database managed by BP Tapera.Developers participating in GoIs KPR Subsidi programs are required to include their housing project information into SiKumbang.https:/sikumbang.tapera.go.id/8 SiPetruk is a construction monitoring system for developer-built affordable housing managed by BP Tapera.The system requires developers to submit detailed project documentations to qualify for KPR Subsidi programs.The system was piloted in 2020 but has not been fully implemented to date.9 BGH is the green certification system established in 2021 by the Ministry of Public Works and Housing,Directorate General of Cipta Karya(Human Settlement)10 PT PLN Icon Plus is a subsidiary of PT PLN,Indonesias state-owned electricity company.It focuses on providing telecommunications,information technology,and solutions to support PLNs business operations and expand into related sectors.R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S11Enabling a green transformation in the housing sector requires strengthening the implementation of Indonesias BGH certification system.While still at an early stage,BGH is expected to be the Governments primary tool for greening public housing programs and holds significant potential for broader adoption.However,this potential can only be realized with stronger local government capacity,robust monitoring systems,and effective QAQC frameworks.BGH must be integrated with the occupancy certificate(Sertifikat Layak Fungsi,or SLF)process to ensure compliance with minimum construction standards,support the development of training and inspection systems,and enable context-appropriate site assessments.Impact of housing sustainability can be extended through neighborhood-and city-scale interventions.Shifting from low-density simple non-engineered homes toward more compact,multi-family housing can improve land use efficiency,reduce car dependence,and facilitate shared energy and water infrastructure.Integrated urban planning that leverage data-driven and risk-informed housing location tools such as multi-criteria spatial analysis and scenario planning,can guide housing development to safer,more connected areas and reduce emissions linked to commuting and land conversion.Water-sensitive urban design and heat mitigation must be planned across scales,from household rain gardens and roof insulation to city-level forests and cool corridors.Finally,achieving scale demands financial incentives that make green construction viable for both developers and households.Green finance instruments such as Bank Indonesias liquidity incentives and inclusive financing ratios can support demand and supply-side transformation.Pilot incentive schemes have shown positive responses but also revealed critical bottlenecks in delivery systems,especially for retrofits.Scaling up will require partnerships with mainstream commercial banks,stronger field facilitation,and streamlined guidelines for green and resilient compliance.While carbon credits are not yet financially viable for low-income housing,the increasing use of air conditioning among low-income households signals a growing opportunity for future carbon finance,especially if paired with climate-responsive passive design.Indonesias transition to climate-resilient,low-carbon housing is both urgent and within reach.With committed Government leadership,strategic interventions,and cross-sector collaboration,the housing sector can play a transformative role in advancing climate adaptation and mitigation.Integrating resilience into core housing programs,scaling affordable green solutions,reinforcing institutional capacity,and unlocking green finance are critical steps that will protect vulnerable communities and build a more sustainable,inclusive urban future.12Climate Adaptation Recommendations:Embed resilience to climate shocks such as fl ooding,earthquakes,and heat stress,into housing design,construction,and policy to safeguard lives,assets,and public investments.ACTIONSSTRATEGIC RECOMMENDATIONSACTION ACombat Thermal Stress with Passive Cooling DesignACTION BPromote Resilient Housing Design and Construction to Withstand Flood&EarthquakeACTION CRisk-Informed Integrated Housing and Slum Settlement UpgradingScale up passive cooling interventions in Government housing programs such as BSPS to protect vulnerable families against extreme heat.Accelerate the implementation of earthquake-resilient simple building prototypes and earthquake-informed PBG and SLF issuance,especially for Government-led housing program.Embed disaster risk-responsive site planning into housing and settlement design.Gradually integrate passive cooling design into all Government programs to reduce energy demand and build the foundation for energy-effi cient housing.Socialize passive cooling interventions through local government,NGOs and communities to keep low-income communities safe.Establish,integrate and monitor earthquake-resilient housing retrofi t guidelines in Government housing programs.Prepare guidelines to accommodate household incremental design and construction modifi cation by occupants.Implement neighborhood-scale design interventions to reduce vulnerability to earthquakes,fl ooding,and thermal stress.Integrate physical interventions with community engagement and public awareness campaign.Invest in fl ood-resilient housing research and fl ood-resilient building standard.SUMMARY OF ACTIONS&KEY RECOMMENDATIONSR E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S13ACTIONSSTRATEGIC RECOMMENDATIONSACTION DCut Operational Energy and Material-Based EmissionsACTION EExplore opportunities to integrate Rooftop Solar Photo-Voltaic PanelACTION FAdvance Sustainability Through Neighborhood and City-Scale SystemsPrioritize low-embodied energy materials and implement passive design principles at the design and construction stage.Explore roof rental business models for RSPV utilization on public buildings,including large public housing.Redesign Government-subsidized housing typologies to prioritize mid-to high-density formats that reduce land consumption and urban sprawl.Revise the SNI11 standards for household electrical appliances to incorporate energy effi ciency requirements and formalize the mandatory use of SNI-certifi ed home appliances in the green building certifi cation regulation.Formalize green housing prototypes and guidelines for simple non-engineered housing and government housing programs under the authority of the Government body overseeing construction.Assess modifi cation of low-income housing design in Government housing program to meet RSPV adoption technical criteria.Pilot RSPV for Government low-income housing design,especially for areas beyond Java-Bali grid.Promote compact urban forms and integrated sustainable mobility through TOD.Invest in communal and district-level infrastructure and renewable energy systems to achieve scale-effi cient emissions reduction.Climate Mitigation Recommendations:Build low-carbon,durable,and energy effi cient housing to reduce emissions while strengthening resilience to long term energy and environmental shocks.11 SNI is the official standardization system regulated by BSN(Badan Standardisasi Nasional),the National Standardization Agency of Indonesia.SNI covers a wide range of sectors,including construction,materials,safety,and environmental standards,and is often mandatory for public infrastructure and building compliance.14Cross-Cutting Recommendations:Establish enabling systems through regulation,quality assurance,certifi cation,and fi nancing to support the verifi able and sustained delivery of green and resilient housingACTION GBuild resilient and green housing construction permitting,monitoring and certifi cation systemsACTION HEnable green fi nancingImplement risk-informed planning and permitting through integrated spatial data to ensure location suitability and reduce household disaster exposure.Integrated design:seismic,fl ood,thermal resilient,and green sustainable prototypes and retrofi t guidelines,including universal accessibility requirementsTackle structural barriers to expand demand for green housing fi nance by enabling developers and homeowners through simplifi ed processes,awareness campaigns,and incentives.Enforce housing construction quality through a robust QAQC system with the use of digital technologies and cross-agency coordination.Strengthen BGH certifi cation system into a scalable and comprehensive assessment framework that aligns with international best practices.Unlock the housing sectors carbon credit potential through dedicated regulations and large-scale,high-impact energy effi ciency interventions.ACTIONSSTRATEGIC RECOMMENDATIONSR E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S1501Aligning Policy with Climate Realities161.1 INTRODUCTION1.1.1 Climate Change&Disaster Context in Indonesia Climate change presents acute and escalating risks for Indonesia.Even if global warming is limited to 1.5C by mid-century,the country is expected to experience more extreme heat,erratic rainfall,frequent droughts,sea-level rise,and ocean acidifi cation.12 These climate shifts pose serious risks to ecosystems,infrastructure,and the well-being of communities throughout the archipelago.Indonesia is among the countries with the most exposure to extreme heatwaves.With average monthly maximum temperatures around 30.6C,extreme heat is already a reality.Climate projections suggest that by the end of the century,Indonesia may experience extreme heatwaves as frequently as once every two years,with serious implications for public health and economic productivity.13Seismic and tsunami hazards amplify Indonesias exposure.Located on the Pacifi c Ring of Fire,the country frequently experiences earthquakes exceeding magnitude 6.0.As of mid-2023,Indonesias tsunami risk index was 9.7 out of 10.14 This reinforces the urgency of making resilient housing a national priority.Flooding and sea-level rise compound Indonesias climate vulnerability.Indonesias rising fl ood risks are being intensifi ed by rapid,unplanned urban expansion,which is projected to account for 87%of the increased coastal fl ood exposure.15 With approximately 18%of its population living in low-elevation coastal zones,the fi fth-largest share globally,Indonesia faces heightened exposure to climate-related hazards.16 As of 2022,this vulnerability translates to around 76 million people,or a quarter of the population,living in high-risk fl ood zones.17 Annual fl ood damages,already impacting 1.5 million people and costing$1.4 billion as of 2010,are projected to increase by$6.1 billion and aff ect 400,000 more people annually due to climate change.Indonesia has committed to ambitious climate targets through its Nationally Determined Contributions(NDC).As one of the worlds leading coal producers and largest greenhouse gas emitters,Indonesia faces an urgent need to accelerate its decarbonization eff orts.18 By 2030,the country aims to reduce emissions by 29%unconditionally,or by 41%with international support.19 The buildings sector,its third-largest energy consumer,has a target to reduce 27,780 metric tons of CO2 equivalent and achieve net-zero emissions by 2060 or sooner.20Low-income families are at the forefront of climate impacts.In Indonesia,76 million people live in high-risk fl ood zones,with the majority(42.6 million)living in poverty.21 The wealthiest 1%of Indonesias population are responsible for an average of 42.2 tons of CO2 equivalent(tCO2e)GHG emissions per capita,over thirty times higher than the 1.4 tCO2e per capita emitted by its bottom 50%.22 While the wealthiest 10%of the global population are responsible for approximately two-thirds of global greenhouse gas 12 Coalition for Urban Transitions,“Seizing Indonesias Urban Opportunity:Compact,Connected,Clean,and Resilient Cities as Drivers of Sustainable Development.”13 Russo et al.,“Magnitude of Extreme Heat Waves in Present Climate and Their Projection in a Warming World.”14 Statista,“Indonesia.”15 Kuzma(WRI)and Luo(WRI),“The Number of People Affected by Floods Will Double Between 2010 and 2030.”16 World Bank Group and Asian Development Bank,Climate Risk Country Profile.17 World Bank,“World Bank Approves Support to Improve Flood Resilience and Risk Management in Indonesia.”18 ,“Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Indonesia(2010-2021).”19 UNFCCC,“Enhanced Nationally Determined Contribution-Republic of Indonesia.”20 IKI_ALCBT_GGGI,“Low Carbon Buildings to Achieve Indonesias Climate Ambitions.”21 World Bank,“Floods in the Neighborhood.”22 Chancel et al.,“World Inequality Report 2022.”R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S1723 Fujii,“Climate Change and Vulnerability to Poverty:An Empirical Investigation.”24 Calvin et al.,“IPCC,2023.”emissions,the impacts of climate change disproportionately affect low-income communities worldwide.However,the impacts of climate change disproportionately affect low-income communities.23 These vulnerable populations often lack the resources to adapt to climate-related hazards such as extreme heat,flooding,and air pollution,leading to higher rates of illness and mortality.To tackle this imbalance,the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)highlights that the most effective urban climate action involves improving access to finance for low-income and marginalized communities,particularly those living in informal settlements,to reduce their climate risk.24181.2 OVERVIEW OF THE AFFORDABLE HOUSING SECTOR IN INDONESIA Indonesia contends with a persistent quantitative housing defi cit.The current quantitative housing backlog stands at 12 million units,including an occupancy gap of 8 million and an additional annual demand of 1 million new units.25Aff ordability remains the leading barrier to homeownership in Indonesia,with over 63%of non-homeowners reporting fi nancial constraints as the primary reason for not purchasing or building a home.26 In urban areas,only the top 30%of earners can aff ord homes priced at IDR 300 million(US$19,300)or above without assistance.27 Middle-income households(3rd6th income deciles)require subsidies to access formal housing,while the bottom 20pend on signifi cant Government support even for basic housing.28Indonesias qualitative housing defi cit is even more acute.As of 2022,approximately 28.6 million households,equivalent to nearly half of all households in Indonesia,were living in substandard housing.29 Housing insecurity,however,extends beyond low-income groups.Indonesias growing middle class,estimated at over 115 million people,is also increasingly challenged by rising housing costs and inadequate living conditions.With over 58%of the population living in urban areas,the defi cit is most pronounced in cities like Jabodetabek,Bandung,Surabaya,and Medan.The majority of Indonesian households live in simple non-engineered houses,often self-built residential structure constructed without formal architectural or engineering oversight30.These homes typically use locally available materials and traditional building techniques,lack structural calculations or compliance with minimum construction standards,and are especially common in low-income or informal settlements.While aff ordable and rapidly built,they are often highly vulnerable to disasters like earthquakes and fl oods due to poor structural integrity.Government eff orts through the One Million Homes Program(PSR)have made progress but remain insuffi cient.Launched in 2015,PSR aims to expand housing supply through public and private fi nancing.It has consistently met its target of one million homes annually,delivering over 800,000 new units and renovating 200,000 each year through direct government support and private-sector mechanisms.Still,this falls short of meeting the full scale of annual demand and bridging the existing backlog.25 Susenas.(2019,2022).Modul Kesehatan dan Perumahan(MKP).26 Perdamaian and Zhai,“Status of Livability in Indonesian Affordable Housing.”27 World Bank,“Implementation Completion and Results Report-National Affordable Housing Program.”28 World Bank Housing Task Team.(2023).Calculation of Housing Affordability Based on Income Levels in Indonesia.28Susenas(2019,2022).29Susenas(2019,2022).30UNESCO,“Towards Resilient Non-Engineered Construction:Guide for Risk-Informed Policy-Making;2016.”FIGURE 1.EXAMPLES OF SIMPLE-NON-ENGINEERED HOMES IN BSPS HOUSING PROGRAM(Source:pu.go.id)R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S19To address the housing deficit,the Government of Indonesia implements three core initiatives under the One Million Homes Program.Credit-linked subsidy programs(KPR Subsidi:FLPP,SSB,and BP2BT):Since 2010,the FLPP(Housing Finance Liquidity Facility)has provided affordable mortgage financing for low-income households for homeownership.From 2015 to 2020,the SSB(Interest Rate Subsidy)was introduced to further scale KPR Subsidi volume.From 2018 to 2023,the BP2BT(Savings-based Housing Finance Assistance)program offered down payment assistance through the NAHP,expanding access for informal workers.The KPR Subsidi program delivers approximately 200,000 units annually,all constructed by private developers following the same approach,regardless of the type of government credit-linked subsidy provided.While formally required to adhere to minimum construction standards and obtain necessary building permits(PBG),in practice,many KPR Subsidi houses fail to meet minimum construction standards.31 BSPS(Home Improvement Grant Program):Running since 2006,BSPS targets the qualitative housing backlog by upgrading substandard homes.The program renovates approximately 200,000 housing units annually,improving safety,durability,and living conditions for low-income households.The houses built under the BSPS program are simple,non-engineered homes.Rusunawa(Public Rental Housing):This vertical rental housing program supports low-income groups and resettled populations,particularly those earning below the provincial minimum wage(UMP).Rent is capped at 30%of UMP or less.The program delivers about 8,000 units per year,with 28,722 units completed to date.IGAHP aims to align housing development with climate goals.Led by the Ministry of Housing and Settlement(MoHS)with World Bank technical support32,IGAHP seeks to scale green,resilient,and affordable housing by mobilizing private capital and reducing fiscal subsidy burdens.It envisions achieving 100%net-zero carbon for new housing construction by 2050 as a part of Indonesias 2060 net-zero NDC target.President Prabowos Three Million Homes significantly scaled up the national housing target and presents a vital opportunity to embed climate resilience and sustainability into large-scale housing delivery.In February 2025,President Prabowo announced the program,which aims to construct two million homes in rural areas and one million in urban areas.In support of this bold initiative,this report provides a roadmap for integrating green and resilient design into the programensuring that as housing needs are addressed at scale,vulnerable populations are also safeguarded from disasters and the growing impacts of climate change.1.2.1 Integrating Climate Concerns into the Affordable Housing Sector Despite strong ambitions,the sectors near-term GHG mitigation potential is modest.As low-income homes already consume minimal energy,primarily for lighting and basic appliances,this limits the overall impact of emissions reduction.A 2022 simulation in support of the World Banks Indonesia Country Climate and Development Report(CCDR)revealed that retrofitting 486,400 low-income homes would reduce emissions by approximately 4 million metric tons of CO2 over 30 years.In contrast,upgrading 144,400 air-conditioned commercial homes could achieve a reduction of 10 million metric tons of CO2 in the same period more than double the impact with 31 World Bank,“Implementation Completion and Results Report-National Affordable Housing Program.”32 World Bank provides support on the IGAHP conceptual technical development.Asia Development Bank has indicated its intention to support the financing of Phase I of the IGAHP.33 World Bank,Indonesia:Country Climate and Development Report.20less than a third of the units.33 This finding underscores the importance of targeting high-energy-use buildings in climate mitigation strategies.Current green building regulations exclude most affordable housing.The Governments green building certification system introduced in 2021,BGH,only mandated to buildings over four stories or 50,000 m.This threshold effectively excludes most low-income housing projects.As a result,and without targeted incentives,the uptake of green standards in the affordable housing sector remains low.The green dimension is intended for implementation through the IGAHP framework.This IGAHP framework plans to prepare Government-led housing developments to adopt BGH certification,laying the foundation for broader green compliance in the low-income housing sector.A unified,context-specific definition of“green”for affordable housing is urgently needed.The three primary certification systems BGH,IFCs EDGE,and GBCIs Greenship each address a broad range of sustainability criteria but differ in their distinctive elements:EDGE focuses on embodied carbon and its calculation,BGH includes resilience standards,and Greenship considers location efficiency.While all emphasize resource efficiency,none were specifically designed to address the unique needs and constraints of low-income housing.Harmonizing existing green certification systems and developing tailored guidance for the affordable housing segment are critical to scaling green solutions for the populations most vulnerable to climate change risks.1.2.2 A Dual Focus on Climate Adaptation and MitigationDistinguishing between climate adaptation and mitigation is essential for effective green housing policy,particularly in the affordable segment.Low-income households contribute little to emissions due to limited access to energy-intensive appliances and a greater reliance on public transit,using electricity mainly for lighting(10%),basic appliances(61%),and cooling(29%).34 While this limits their mitigation potential,their exposure to climate risks is high,as homes are often located in floodplains,polluted zones,or urban heat islands.Therefore,green housing strategies must prioritize adaptation through resilient design,passive cooling,and safer site planning,while recognizing the limited emissions these households generate.Climate adaptation emphasizes designing for resilience against extreme events.Resilient buildings are constructed to withstand heatwaves,flooding,earthquakes,and rising sea levels.Techniques include elevated foundations for flood protection,reinforced materials for seismic resistance,and insulated roofs or natural ventilation for passive cooling.Evidence from the U.S.shows that every$1 invested in resilient construction saves at least$4 in future recovery costs,demonstrating the dual economic and environmental benefits of integrating resilience into the built environment.35While earthquakes are not climate-induced hazards,their inclusion in adaptation strategies is essential in the Indonesian context.Although climate adaptation typically refers to resilience against hydrometeorological hazards like floods,heatwaves,and sea-level rise,in Indonesia,earthquakes represent one of the most deadly and recurrent threatsparticularly for low-income households.These communities often reside in self-built homes constructed without adherence to seismic standards or structural oversight,making them highly vulnerable to collapse during even moderate earthquakes.Therefore,any discussion of adaptation in affordable housing must adopt a broader interpretation that encompasses both climate and seismic risks.In this context,resilient housing means not only withstanding the impacts of a changing climate,but also surviving disaster-related events through improved construction quality,safer materials,and standardized structural design.34 GBPN Study,202435 National Institute of Building Science,“Natural Hazard Mitigation Saves 2019 Report.”R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S21Climate mitigation focuses on reducing emissions and environmental impact through design.Green building mitigation strategies aim to lower energy,water,and embodied carbon use.Passive design approaches harness natural ventilation,shading,and daylight to reduce dependence on mechanical systems.Active strategies include efficient Heating,Ventilation,and Air Conditioning(HVAC),smart lighting,and renewable energy technologies such as rooftop solar panels.Together,these reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainability.Resilient construction that meets minimum structural integrity standards must be prioritized as a prerequisite to integrating green features.Chronic heat exposure and acute hazards like floods and earthquakes pose immediate threats to health and housing stability.Resilience-focused solutions,such as thermal comfort improvements and structural reinforcement,should be prioritized,especially in areas where risks are rising due to climate change.At the same time,these solutions should progressively incorporate climate mitigation features to reduce long-term emissions and promote sustainability.Resilient construction that meets minimum structural integrity standards must be prioritized as a prerequisite to integrating green features.Chronic heat exposure and acute hazards like floods and earthquakes pose immediate threats to health and housing stability.Resilience-focused solutions,such as thermal comfort improvements and structural reinforcement,should be prioritized,especially in areas where risks are rising due to climate change.At the same time,these solutions should progressively incorporate climate mitigation features to reduce long-term emissions and promote sustainability.This roadmap prioritizes resilient construction while paving the way for low-carbon housing transformation.Green solutions for low-income housing should begin with disaster risk reduction and gradually integrate emission-reducing technologies and climate financing.The following sections present practical strategies for both adaptation and mitigation,including passive design,disaster-resistant construction,risk-informed and sustainable site neighborhood planning,renewable energy integration,and resource-efficient prototypes.Supporting systems for certification,financing,and institutional reform are also explored to enable large-scale implementation.22CLIMATE ADAPTATIONCLIMATE MITIGATIONCROSS-CUTTING ACTIONSObjective:Objective:Objective:Embed resilience to climate shocks,including fl ooding,earthquakes,and heat stress,into housing design,construction,and policy to safeguard lives,assets,and public investments.Passive Cooling for Thermal StressResilient Housing for Floods&EarthquakesRisk-Informed Settlement PlanningBuild low-carbon,durable,and energy-effi cient housing to reduce emissions while gradually shifting toward renewable energy sources.Reduce Operational&Material EmissionsRooftop Solar PV IntegrationNeighborhood-Scale SustainabilityEstablish enabling systems through regulation,quality assurance,certifi cation,and fi nancing to support the scalable,verifi able,and sustained delivery of green and resilient housing.Quality Assurance and Quality Control,Permitting,and Certifi cation ProcessGreen FinancingFIGURE 2.DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLIMATE ADAPTATION,CLIMATE MITIGATION,AND CROSS-CUTTING ACTIONSAction A:Action D:Action G:Action B:Action E:Action H:Action C:Action F:R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S2302Climate Adaptation&Disaster Resilience Action FrameworkClimate adaptation and disaster resilience prepare communities to withstand and recover from unavoidable climate-related hazards such as fl oods,heatwaves,and earthquakes to safeguard lives,livelihoods,and assets.242.1.1 Intervention Rationale Indonesia faces rising risk from the compounding impact of heat and climate pressures.With maximum daily temperatures that hover around 3033C and an average humidity level of 70%to 90%,Indonesia is in the extreme caution to extreme danger zone of heat index36(Figure 3).The precipitation level in Indonesia often exceeding 300 mm in many regions further contributing to persistently high humidity37.The World Health Organization notes that high temperature and humidity together create environmental heat stress,which can rapidly lead to acute health risks and exacerbate chronic conditions.This index also aligns with ASHRAE Standard 5538,showing that dry bulb temperatures consistently fall outside the adaptive thermal comfort range throughout the year39.2.1 ACTION A:COMBATING EXTREME HEAT WITH PASSIVE COOLING DESIGN SOLUTIONSAs extreme heat becomes a growing threat,integrating passive cooling design measures into low-income housing is essential to protect health,improve livability,and reduce reliance on energy-intensive air conditioning.KEY RECOMMENDATIONS:1.Scale up passive cooling design in low-income homes to safeguard families from extreme heat.2.Integrate passive cooling design across Government housing programs to protect families and reduce energy demand.3.Promote passive cooling design through local governments,NGOs,and communitiesto keep low-income households safe from extreme heat.Families living in simple non-engineered housing experience only six hours per day within the comfortable temperature threshold of 27C.Poor design and low-quality materialsboth in the homes and surrounding neighborhoodsmake the buildings thermally ineffi cient and leave them exposed to high solar heat without enough protection.Women and children,who are more likely to remain at home during the day,face an even greater risk,as temperatures begin to rise as early as 8:30 a.m.Alarmingly,indoor temperatures are higher than outdoor temperatures between 3 p.m.and 6 a.m.,when most occupants are at home.This prolonged exposure to heat underscores the urgent need for eff ective cooling solutions for low-income families living in simple non-engineered houses.36 Thermal Resilience by Design:Passive Cooling Solutions for Low-Income Housing in Indonesia,202537 Badan Meteorologi Klimatologi Geofisika,“I-TMY|Informasi Iklim BMKG.”38 ASHRAE Standard 55,formally known as Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy,is a standard that provides guidelines for acceptable indoor thermal conditions to ensure thermal comfort for building occupants.https:/www.ashrae.org/technical-resources/bookstore/standard-55-thermal-environmental-conditions-for-human-occupancy R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S25TEMP.RELATIVEHUMIDITY27C28C29C30C31C32C33C34C36C37C38C39C40C41C42C43C40C27C28C29C31C33C34C36C38C41C43C46C48C51C54C58C45C28C29C31C32C34C36C38C40C43C46C48C51C54C58C50C28C29C31C33C35C37C39C42C45C48C51C55C58C55C29C30C32C34C36C38C41C44C47C51C54C58C60(C29C31C33C35C38C41C43C47C51C54C58C65(C29C32C34C37C39C42C46C49C53C58C70(C30C32C35C38C41C44C48C52C57C75)C31C33C36C39C43C47C51C56C80)C32C34C38C41C45C49C54C85)C32C36C39C43C47C52C57C900C33C37C41C45C50C55C950C34C38C42C47C53C1001C35C39C44C49C56CNOAA national weather service:heat indexCautionDangerExtreme CautionExtreme DangerWith limited access to cooling appliances,low-income households need more aff ordable solutions to keep their families safe.In Indonesia,the cost of air conditioning(AC)can approach the total monthly income of households in the lowest 20%income bracket,rendering it largely unaff ordable for the most vulnerable.42 As a result,many households opt for secondhand AC units as a cheaper alternative,but their poor performance often leads to high energy use,elevated utility costs,and greater greenhouse gas emissions.43 This underscores the urgent need for simple,energy-effi cient,and aff ordable cooling solutions tailored to low-income households.Low-income families are especially vulnerable to heat stress,particularly in urban areas where poor neighborhood design and lack of shading worsen exposure.40Prolonged heat exposure can lead to serious health issues such as dehydration,heat stroke,respiratory and cardiovascular complications,and an increased risk of waterborne diseases.Evidence from other countries indicates that heat exposure also aff ects learning outcomes and has been linked to rising rates of domestic violence,especially against women.41Limited income and lack of social protection restrict access to healthcare,making it harder for vulnerable groups to cope.39 Specifically in Gresik Area(Juanda Meteorological Station),where the thermal survey was conducted40 UN Habitat,“World Cities Report 2024.”41 Simister and Cooper,“Thermal Stress in the U.S.A:Effects on Violence and on Employee Behaviour.”42 World Bank Task Team analysis based on Household Income Level and Market Price of AC units in Indonesia.43 Never,“Green and Social Regulation of Second Hand Appliance Markets:The Case of Air Conditioners in the Philippines.”FIGURE 3.INDONESIA HEAT INDEX(ORIGINAL CHART DEVELOPED BY STEADMAN,1979)Range of Relative Humidity in IndonesiaRange of Temperature in Indonesia262.1.2 Intervention ApproachPassive cooling design is essential for protecting low-income households from rising heat.As heat exposure intensifi es,integrating passive cooling design is increasingly vital to protect family health and sustain economic and educational productivity.Unlike energy-intensive active cooling systems,passive cooling uses building design and materials to regulate temperature naturally,off ering a more sustainable and cost-eff ective solution over time.Although upfront costs may be slightly higher,passive cooling strategies typically off er lower maintenance requirements,longer lifespans,and greater aff ordability over their lifecycle.To ensure widespread adoption in self-built,low-income housing,however,these solutions must remain simple and cost-eff ective.Field-tested simple passive cooling measures show a reduction range of 0.82 to 1.63 C on average compared to homes without interventions.A study conducted by the World Bank,in collaboration with Habitat for Humanity tested four passive cooling designs in simple non-engineered housing,consisting of:(B)Refl ective roof paint,(C)Cross-ventilation,(D)Aluminum foil roof insulation,and(E)Ceiling with gable ventilation44.Please refer to the study methodology under Annex 1.The improvement in thermal performance across all models tested in this study demonstrates a signifi cant potential to reduce heat stress in the context of Indonesias climate.Kjellstrom et al.(2016)found that reducing indoor temperatures by just 1-2C in tropical climates can decrease the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature(WBGT)enough to reduce heat stress risk classifi cation from high to moderate for many workers45.Among the tested designs,aluminum foil roof insulation proved to be the most eff ective in reducing peak temperatures,stabilizing indoor temperature,and improving comfort.This intervention reduces heat transfer through multiple mechanisms.Its technical benefi ts,such as high refl ectivity47,extremely low emissivity48 and eff ective moisture control,combined with its moderate cost(6%of total construction expenses),make it a strong candidate for large-scale adoption.Homeowners also report strong satisfaction with the results,mentioning that their house feels cooler on scorching hot days and warmer on rainy days.0.001.002.003.004.005.006.007.008.009.0010.0011.0012.0013.0014.0015.0016.0017.0018.0019.0020.0021.0022.0023.000.00Solar Radiation(W/m)HourT Indoor&T Outdoor(C)24252627282930313233340100200300400500600Average of T Indoor(C)Average of T out(C)Solar RadiationComfortTi max-Ti min=10.6C To max-To min=12.4C T at 11:30-14:30=0.86C Highest ToutHighest TininHighest THighest T min=12.4C max-TT TiiHighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest THighest TFIGURE 4.THE BASELINE INDOOR TEMPERATURE OF SIMPLE NON-ENGINEERED HOUSER E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S2744 Selection of interventions was based on their added design value to the baseline model(which already includes shading elements such as roof overhang),as well as considerations of cultural relevance,applicability,and cost-efficiency.45 Kjellstrom and and Lemke,“Workplace Heat Stress,Health and Productivity an Increasing Challenge for Low and Middle-Income Countries during Climate Change.”46(T)is a normalized metric developed for comparison purpose,further explanation in Annex 147 Aluminum foil reflects most of the solar waves(reflectivity:0.95)48 Extremely low emissivity,meaning it does not release much of the absorbed heat back into the indoor space(0.030.05)Roof tiles are painted with refl ective roof paintsModel B Refl ective Roof PaintStrategically placing windows for cross-ventilation eff ectModel C Cross VentilationAluminum foil installed between wooden truss and roof tilesHot air is trapped in the attic and released through gable ventilationA narrow slit in the ceiling allows hot air to rise in to the atticceiling allows hot air to Model D Aluminum Foil Roof InsulationModel C Cross VentilationFIGURE 5.ILLUSTRATION OF INTERVENTION MODELS(MODEL A IS A TYPICAL HOUSE WITHOUT INTERVENTIONS AS BASELINE CONTROL)28FIGURE 6.IBOXPLOT SHOWING THE REDUCTION IN INDOOR TEMPERATURE COMPARED TO THE BASELINE MODEL A46Ceilings with gable ventilation also demonstrated signifi cant thermal improvements.This solution creates a thermal buff er by separating the living space from hot air accumulating in the roof and allows warm air to escape.The combined features of a thermal buff er zone and ventilation explain why this model performs well across multiple comfort measures,including temperature stability,humidity control,and delayed heat buildup indoors.While its performance is slightly less stable than foil insulation due to varying external conditions,it remains eff ective and culturally aligned with common building practices.However,it potentially requires greater upfront investment depending on the ceiling material.49Cross ventilation and refl ective roof paint,while technically less impactful,remain valuable and contextually appropriate solutions for Indonesias tropical climate.Cross ventilation improves airfl ow and helps expel humid,stagnant indoor air,enhancing comfort in high-moisture environments.Refl ective roof paint increases a surfaces albedo its ability to refl ect sunlight rather than absorb it which can help reduce heat gain.However,compared to foil insulation,refl ective paint is generally less eff ective at limiting heat transfer into the home.Its performance also varies depending on roof materials and local climate conditions.50 Still,both are easy to apply and should be part of the passive cooling design toolkit,particularly in areas with consistent wind or for house built with low emissivity roofi ng materials,such as metal roof.Optimal results are achieved through interventions that address multiple heat-transfer mechanisms51,as demonstrated by aluminum-foil insulation and gable-ventilated ceilings.Aluminum foil blocks solar radiation and delays heat fl ow,while gable-ventilated ceilings add thermal buff ering and improve airfl ow.These material-based solutions consistently outperform space-modifi cation strategies,such as ventilation,that relies on occupant behavior.This benefi t is refl ected in Figure 9,which presents a weighted composite score evaluating each solutions eff ectiveness across four equally weighted performance indicators:peak heat control,temperature stability,peak humidity control,and humidity stability.49 Thermal Resilience by Design:Passive Cooling Solutions for Low-Income Housing in Indonesia,202550 Thermal Resilience by Design:Passive Cooling Solutions for Low-Income Housing in Indonesia,202551 Thermal Resilience by Design:Passive Cooling Solutions for Low-Income Housing in Indonesia,2025Box PlotMean-2-10123(T)Intervention-Baseline Model(C)(T)Model B0,86(T)Model E0,82(T)Model D1,63(T)Model C-0,55R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S29T Indoor&T Outdoor(%)242526272829303132333400.0001.0002.0003.0004.0005.0006.0007.0008.0009.0010.0011.0012.0013.0014.0015.0016.0017.0018.0019.0020.0021.0022.0023.00HourT IndoorT OutdoorComfortFIGURE 7.GRAPH SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE OF HOUSES WITH ALUMINUM FOIL ROOF INSULATION.FIGURE 8.GRAPH SHOWING THE TEMPERATURE OF HOUSES WITH CEILING AND GABLE VENTILATION.THIS MEASURE REDUCES THE PEAK INDOOR TEMPERATURE.Ti max-Ti min=6,3CTi max-Ti min=10,7CT at 11:30-14:30=2,35CTi max-Ti min=7,9CTi max-Ti min=12CT at 11:30-14:30=1,15CPassive cooling yields modest climate mitigation but high adaptation value.While emissions savings are low,equivalent to about 0.1 tCO2 per unit annually,passive design is a cost-eff ective way to enhance comfort and safety overall.Embedding these features within the BSPS home improvement program can drive large-scale adoption of climate-resilient housing solutions.The programs existing facilitation and monitoring mechanisms can help guide the eff ective implementation of these strategies.Passive cooling off ers lasting benefi ts,even in homes with mechanical cooling like fans or air conditioners,by reducing energy use and lowering electricity costs.Integrating passive design is vital for promoting energy-effi cient and sustainable housing.As the most cost-eff ective and climate-resilient solution,passive cooling eases pressure on the power grid,curbs excessive energy demand,and ensures safer living conditions during extreme events when electricity may be disrupted.Scaling passive cooling solutions require strong community engagement and capacity building.In self-built housing,construction practices are shaped by cultural norms and daily habits,which can unintentionally block ventilation or compromise cooling performance.Outreach is essential to help homeowners understand the benefi ts of passive cooling and how to preserve it over time.For instance,many BSPS homes lack built-in kitchens,prompting households to build extensions that reduce airfl ow.Awareness and design guidance must accompany construction.T IndoorT OutdoorComfortT Indoor&T Outdoor(%)242526272829303132333400.0001.0002.0003.0004.0005.0006.0007.0008.0009.0010.0011.0012.0013.0014.0015.0016.0017.0018.0019.0020.0021.0022.0023.00Hour30FIGURE 9.GRAPH SHOWING THE COMPOSITE TECHNICAL PERFORMANCE SCORE AND INCREMENTAL CONSTRUCTION COST0,00,51,01,52,02,53,03,51 million1.5 million2 million2.5 million3 million3.5 millionB:RefectiveRoof PaintE:Ceiling withGable VentilationD:Aluminum FoilRoof InsulationC:Cross-ventilationHumidity StabilityHumidity PerformanceTemperature StabilityHeat Performance Total CostIncremental CostTechnicalPerformance ScoreLocal governments,NGOs,and community centers play a vital role in advancing and scaling context-appropriate housing solutions.The Government can pilot passive cooling designs through existing programs,engaging Self-Construction Centers(Klinik Rumah Swadaya),local governments,and NGOs.Workshops and community feedback should be embedded into CSR-based housing projects and public housing programs to ensure solutions are context-appropriate and locally accepted.The fi gure below outlines a four-step roadmap for scaling passive thermal comfort strategies,culminating in their integration into the minimum construction standards for subsidized housing.FIGURE 10.PROPOSED ROADMAP FOR ADOPTING GREEN PASSIVE COOLING SOLUTIONS ADDRESSING THERMAL STRESSAdopt passive low-cost design strategies in pilot projectsAdopt thermal comfort metrics in green certifi cation criteriaImplement Thermal comfort passive strategies in government-led programsAdoption in the minimum construction standard for subsidized housingFinally,further research is needed to develop integrated and scalable cooling prototypes.The combined application of multiple passive design strategies,particularly in alternative housing typologies such as row-houses,which are common in KPR Subsidi developments,should be evaluated across Indonesias diverse climatic zones to assess their overall impact on thermal comfort and livability.These insights can inform the development of standardized,climate-resilient housing prototypes suitable for low-income communities across Indonesia.R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S312.2 ACTION B:PROMOTE RESILIENT HOUSING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION TO WITHSTAND FLOODS AND EARTHQUAKESStrengthening housing structures against seismic and fl ood risks is critical to saving lives and minimizing damage to housing assets,especially in Indonesias most hazard-prone regions.KEY RECOMMENDATIONS:1.Scale up use of earthquake-resilient housing prototypes in Government programs.2.Develop and integrate retrofi t guidelines for seismic safety in existing homes.3.Plan for occupant-led modifi cations to ensure structural and climate resilience.4.Invest in fl ood-resilient housing research and standards to guide safer construction.2.2.1 Intervention Rationale Indonesia faces diverse and severe disaster risks,with fl oods and earthquakes leading in frequency and impact.Between 2020 and 2024,Indonesia experienced a high number of natural disasters.Floods were the most frequent,with 6,913 events causing 967 deaths52,while earthquakes,though less common with 113 occurrences,resulted in 755 fatalities due to their higher severity.53 This contrast underscores the need for hazard-specifi c strategies:while fl oods cause widespread but lower-intensity impacts,earthquakes are acutely deadly and devastating per event.Earthquakes pose a signifi cant threat due to poor housing quality.Although Indonesia has adopted earthquake-resistant standards(SNI 1726:2019),the majority of homes are self-built and often lack critical structural elements such as properly designed columns,beams,and trusses,leaving them highly vulnerable to seismic damage.Quality issues continue to aff ect even government-led housing projects,with problems such as substandard rebar,improperly mixed concrete,and nonstandard bricks persisting despite the presence of regulatory frameworks.54 Simple non-engineered housing is especially vulnerable,with collapse risks heightened by untrained construction labor and weak quality control.Prototype designs for earthquake-resilient housing exist but lack implementation monitoring.Ministerial Decree 2947/2024 off ers standard structural designs(22 m36 m)based on national building codes.These designs are integrated into the Sistem Informasi Manajemen Bangunan Gedung55(SIMBG)construction permitting system,but data on actual uptake and construction quality remains limited,making it diffi cult to assess their real-world impact.Floods,while less deadly per event,cause widespread and chronic damage.In the last fi ve years,over four million homes have been inundated and 25,000 severely damaged by fl ooding.Unlike earthquake resilience,fl ood-resilient housing in Indonesia lacks dedicated standards,and available retrofi tting techniques remain limited.Urban fl ood management eff orts tend to prioritize infrastructure solutions over housing-level adaptations,an approach that 52 Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana,“Data Informasi Bencana Indonesia.”53 Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana,“Data Informasi Bencana Indonesia.”54 Pribadi and Kusumastuti,“Learning from Recent Indonesian Earthquakes:An Overview to Improve Structural Performance.”55 SIMBG is Indonesias online platform for managing the issuance of building permits(PBG Persetujuan Bangunan Gedung)and certificates of proper function(SLF Sertifikat Laik Fungsi),streamlining the previously manual and often fragmented permitting process.32is increasingly insuffi cient as low-income and informal communities expand in fl ood-prone areas.As an example,a government subsidized home-ownership program in Bekasi was submerged in fl ood water,see Figure 11.Relocation is rarely feasible for low-income households,making in-situ adaptation essential.In cities like Jakarta,20 to 25%of residents live in kampungs,and 4 to 5%squat on riverbanks or fl oodplains.57 Studies show that severely aff ected households are 75%less likely to relocate58.Consequently,many communities responded to fl ooding risks by adopting locally driven adaptation measures such as:In Muara Angke,residents raise ground levels using clamshell waste,creating porous surfaces that dissipate water59,as per Figure 12 below.Stilt houses allow water to pass underneath,with the space used for duck farming.In Muara Baru,residents wet-proof homes by elevating valuables and organizing furniture to reduce fl ood damage60.Families with multi-story homes often shelter neighbors on upper fl oors during fl ooding events.Indonesian traditional and vernacular architecture was well adapted to fl ood events as buildings were elevated on stilts in rural and coastal areas.This practice is gradually faded as market preferences shift towards brick masonry houses.These grassroots adaptation measures refl ect both resilience and resource constraints.They demonstrate the ingenuity of low-income communities while highlighting the urgent need for formal,scalable solutions.Investing in fl ood-resilient housing standards,research,and support for local adaptations is critical to safeguard lives and livelihoods in increasingly climate-vulnerable areas.2.2.2 Intervention Approach 1.Scale Up the Use of Earthquake-Resilient Building Prototypes in Government Housing Program To enhance structural safety in low-income housing,the Government must accelerate the adoption of standardized earthquake-resilientx prototypes within the permitting process(PBG and SLF).Prototype designs for 22 m,30 m2,32 m,and 36 m units,developed under Kepmen 2947/2024 and integrated into SIMBG,off er SNI-compliant,cost-eff ective solutions for households without access to licensed engineers.Yet uptake remains limited due to weak monitoring and lack of awareness.Public outreach,training for local authorities,and integration into FIGURE 11.KPR SUBSIDI HOUSING COMPLEX IN BEKASI SUBMERGED IN FLOOD WATERS(MARCH 2025)56FIGURE 12 STILT HOUSE AND CLAMSHELL WASTE AS POROUS SURFACE IN KAMPUNG KERANG IJO(PRANA ET AL.,2024)56 inewsid,“Pengembang Buka Suara Soal Banjir Setinggi Atap di Perumahan The Arthera Hill 2 Bekasi.”57 UN-Habitat,The Challenge of Slums.58 Langlois et al.,“Household Flood Severity and Migration Extent in Central Java.”59 Prana et al.,“Informal Adaptation to Flooding in North Jakarta,Indonesia.”60 Simarmata,Phenomenology in Adaptation Planning.R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S33community facilitation mechanisms(e.g.,BSPS)are needed to boost implementation.Material quality and construction skills are critical enablers of structural safety and resilience.Confi ned masonry structures depend on the proper use of steel reinforcement and quality bricks to ensure seismic resilience.While regulations still permit plain rebars(besi polos),SNI 2847:2019 recommends using deformed rebars(besi ulir)for enhanced earthquake performance,particularly in high-risk zones,where their use should be mandatory.Brick quality remains uneven due to informal production methods,yet alternatives like Autoclave Aerated Concrete(AAC)or Cellular Lightweight Concrete(CLC)(locally known as hebel)off er more consistent performance.Strengthening enforcement of material standards and removing substandard products from the market are critical steps.At the same time,widespread gaps in construction skills persist61,with most masons lacking formal training,highlighting the urgent need for a national certifi cation program focused on earthquake-resistant construction.2.Institutionalize Earthquake Retrofi t Guidelines for Existing HousingGiven the widespread vulnerability of self-built and developer-led homes,retrofi tting must become a national strategy.High fatality rates are directly linked to poorly constructed housing that lacks structural elements like columns,beams,or trusses.While BSPS and NAHP have highlighted these risks,no retrofi t standard currently exists for improving the seismic safety of the existing housing stock.The Ministry of Public Works(MPW)and Ministry of Housing and Settlement(MoHS)should develop national retrofi t guidelines based on SNI codes and integrate them into BSPS and other housing upgrade programs.Pilot retrofi ts should be launched in high-risk areas for confi ned masonry and timber-frame homes,supported by local governments and CBOs by leveraging simple diagnostic tools.Under the IGAHP project led by MoHS and supported by the World Bank,a resilient retrofi t model has been developed and is being piloted,whose lessons should inform future national scale-up eff orts.Ferrocement off ers a low-cost retrofi t option for substandard homes.Ferrocement strengthens masonry walls by adding reinforced mesh to both sides without requiring demolition,off ering an aff ordable,easy-to-apply,and non-invasive solution well-suited to low-income households.Even partial application in bedrooms,the most vulnerable spaces during nighttime earthquakes,can signifi cantly reduce fatalities63.This solution is especially promising to scale community-based retrofi tting eff orts.3.Anticipate and Guide Incremental ConstructionOver 90%of benefi ciaries in the Government KPR Subsidi programs make structural changes,often adding rooms or extra fl oors,within two years63.These unplanned modifi cations introduce unaccounted loads and jeopardize structural integrity,especially in seismic zones.61 Pribadi et al.,“Promoting Humanitarian Engineering Approaches for Earthquake-Resilient Housing in Indonesia.”62 The IGAHP Pilot is a collaborative effort between the World Bank,MoHS,Build Change,and SMF to test credit-linked subsidy/incentive scheme for green and resilient self-construction,retrofit,and developer-built houses.The pilot incorporates green and resilient construction and retrofit guidelines,as well as a comprehensive QAQC mechanism to ensure quality.63 Ismail,Boen,and Thamrin,“Gradual Strengthening Of Existing Masonry Houses With Ferrocement Bandaging In Indonesia For Educating The Common People To Be Self-Reliant And Self-Supporting.”FIGURE 13.EXAMPLE OF RETROFIT GUIDELINE AND COMMON CONSTRUCTION MISTAKES DEVELOPED BY BUILD CHANGE,WORLD BANK,AND MOHS FOR THE IGAHP PILOT6234BOX 1.Cambodia social housing design for incremental growth65Habitat for Humanity Cambodia,with local partners,developed an incremental housing model that allows families to expand vertically over time.The initial construction includes only the ground fl oor and core structure,costing around USD 3,500,and is designed to support a future second story.Families can upgrade their homes gradually as fi nances allow,spending an incremental USD 2,100 to complete interiors and add a second fl oor.64 Source:Survey by GBPN,202465 Source:Habitat for Humanity CambodiaTo mitigate risks,programs must provide guidance for safe incremental expansion.Modular housing designs that allow phased horizontal or vertical expansion can help prevent unsafe additions due to households lacking technical knowledge.Construction permits or Persetujuan Bangunan Gedung(PBG)and certifi cates of proper function Sertifi kat Laik Fungsi(SLF)issuance should include clear visual or written guidance on structural dos and donts.Local housing offi cials and facilitators must be trained to advise residents on how to expand safely within design limits.4.Establish a National Standard for Flood-Resilient HousingDespite being Indonesias most frequent disaster,fl oods lack a formal housing design standard.Over 4 million homes have been fl ooded and 25,000 seriously damaged in the past fi ve years.Current adaptation practices in informal settlements,such as raising fl oors with clamshell waste or building stilt homes,are practical solutions but largely informal,undocumented,and inconsistent in their application.A national fl ood-resilient housing standard is urgently needed.The Government should invest in applied research to document,test,and formalize housing adaptation techniques.Pilot demonstrations in frequently fl ooded areas(e.g.,coastal and riverine settlements)can support the development of modular,low-cost design options.These standards should eventually be embedded in building codes,urban planning frameworks,and housing subsidy programs.Leverage community-led innovations through participatory planning.Rather than replace grassroots solutions,the Government should leverage them through co-production,engaging communities,local builders,and NGOs in the design process.Technical agencies can off er risk assessments and structural support,while communities contribute local knowledge and maintenance strategies.This ensures designs are both eff ective and socially accepted.R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S35Bioswales/raingardenSafe haven(core living function on second fl oor)Raised electrical socketsWet-proofed basementVegetated embankmentDrainage pipeElevated stilts constructionDikes&walkwayBOX 2.Building-Level Flood Adaptation StrategiesFIGURE 14 BUILDING LEVEL ADAPTATION6666 Adapted from Baca Architecture,“World Flood Handbook|BACA Architects.”67 Jha,Bloch,and Lamond,Cities and Flooding.Flood adaptation at the building level involves three main strategies:wet-proofi ng,dry-proofi ng,and fl ood avoidance67.Each strategy uses architectural,structural,and MEP(mechanical,electrical,plumbing)techniques to reduce damage and boost resilience.Wet-proofi ng allows water to enter but minimizes damage and speeds recovery through water-resistant materials,elevated systems,and easy-to-replace components.Dry-proofi ng aims to keep water out using sealed openings,waterproof coatings,reinforced structures,and fl ood-resistant MEP installations.Flood avoidance raises buildings above fl ood levels using stilts or elevated plinths,relocating key infrastructure to upper fl oors,and ensuring structures can withstand both vertical and lateral forces.362.3 ACTION C:RISK-INFORMED SITE PLANNING AND URBAN DESIGN STRATEGIES IN INTEGRATED HOUSING AND SETTLEMENT UPGRADING PROJECT Planning and upgrading housing settlements with embedded disaster risk data ensures safer communities and more eff ective emergency responses.KEY RECOMMENDATIONS:1.Incorporate disaster risk-responsive site planning into housing and settlement design.2.Apply neighborhood-scale design solutions to reduce earthquake,fl ood,and heat risks.3.Combine physical interventions with community engagement and public awareness eff orts.2.3.1 Intervention Rationale Climate adaptation must move beyond the scale of individual buildings and be integrated into broader neighborhood-and city-level disaster risk reduction frameworks.Individual housing units do not exist in isolation,rather,they are embedded within wider urban ecosystems.Therefore,resilience must be addressed collectively through coordinated,multi-level planning that spans households,neighborhoods,and cities.This integrated approach is particularly relevant for Indonesias long-standing housing improvement and slum upgrading programs for low-income neighborhoods,namely BSPS and National Slum Upgrading Program(or KOTAKU).These programs have laid a foundation for improving physical infrastructure and housing resilience,and they must now evolve to incorporate climate adaptation.The BSPS program,backed by$312 million in World Bank fi nancing through the NAHP,provides in-kind subsidiessuch as construction materials and labor supportto households in the bottom 40%income group,with particular attention to female-headed households,the elderly,and people with disabilities.It has enhanced construction quality through the implementation of QAQC systems and the use of wire-mesh technology to strengthen earthquake resilience.By 2023,BSPS had delivered home improvement assistance to over 980,000 benefi ciaries68.Meanwhile,the KOTAKU program,implemented by the Ministry of Public Works and Housing(MPWH)and co-fi nanced by the World Bank,Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank(AIIB),and Islamic Development Bank(IsDB)under the National Slum Upgrading Project(NSUP),focuses on slum upgrading through infrastructure investments and community empowerment.To date,KOTAKU has improved living conditions for 8.7 million people,including 4.4 million women69.Although both programs have previously contributed to disaster management,their potential role in climate disaster adaptation can be vital.NAHPs support to BSPS was instrumental in enhancing the structural integrity and earthquake resilience of housing through QAQC systems and new construction technologies.Similarly,NSUP extended its mandate to support post-disaster recovery in Palu,Donggala,and Sigi following the 2018 earthquake and tsunami,which caused over 4,000 deaths,displaced 170,000 people,and led to$1.3 billion in economic losses.66 Adapted from Baca Architecture,“World Flood Handbook|BACA Architects.”67 Jha,Bloch,and Lamond,Cities and Flooding.68 World Bank,“Implementation Completion and Results Report-National Affordable Housing Program.”69 World Bank,“Implementation Completion Report(ICR)Review-Indonesia National Slum Upgrading Project.”R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S37The program helped reconstruct resilient housing,water supply and sanitation systems,solid waste infrastructure,and public service buildings.Neighborhood-level adaptation strategies must be mainstreamed into settlement upgrading programs to address the growing risks of fl ooding,earthquakes,and thermal stress.Beyond strengthening housing structures,tailored neighborhood-scale interventions such as improved drainage,heat-mitigating urban design,and community-based disaster preparedness are essential to enhance climate resilience in low-income urban areas.2.3.2 Intervention Approaches1.Embed Disaster-Responsive Site Planning into Housing and Settlement DesignBuilding resilience to disasters begins with site layout.Even when homes are built in relatively safe areas,poorly FIGURE 15.LEFT RISK-PRONE LAYOUT WITH SINGLE-ENTRY ACCESS.RIGHT RESILIENT LAYOUT WITH MULTIPLE ENTRY POINTS ENABLING REDUNDANCY AND SAFER EVACUATION ROUTES.planned road networks,open space,and infrastructure can increase vulnerability.Risk-informed site planning ensures that emergency access,evacuation routes,and critical services remain functional during disasters.Redundant road networks enhance emergency response.Housing developments must avoid reliance on a single access road,which becomes a failure point during disaster events.Multiple access points and routes that accommodate emergency vehicles are essential to ensure uninterrupted mobility.Roads should be free from choke points that could block evacuation or delay aid delivery.Accessible open spaces must be integrated as evacuation areas.All homes should be within walking distance of clearly marked,unobstructed open spaces that serve as emergency assembly points.Critical infrastructure like schools,clinics,and fi re stations should be located outside high-risk zones and spatially distributed to ensure uninterrupted access.38FIGURE 16.LEFT TRADITIONAL BAMBOO HOMES WITH FLEXIBLE JOINTS.MIDDLE RIGID MASONRY ROW HOUSING(EXISTING).RIGHT BUFFERED ROW HOUSES IN SUMBAWA.70 Pribadi et al.,“Promoting Humanitarian Engineering Approaches for Earthquake-Resilient Housing in Indonesia.”71 Hamel and Tan,“BlueGreen Infrastructure for Flood and Water Quality Management in Southeast Asia.”72 Permanasari et al.,“Enhancing Urban Resilience through Integrated Flood Policy and Planning.”73 Irawan,Syafrudin,and Budihardjo,“Evaluation of Drainage System and Flood Management in Semarang City.”74 Santamouris et al.,“Passive and Active Cooling for the Outdoor Built Environment Analysis and Assessment of the Cooling Potential of Mitigation Technologies Using Performance Data from 220 Large Scale Projects.”75 Ibrahim et al.,“The Impact of Road Pavement on Urban Heat Island(UHI)Phenomenon.”A layered service delivery model can improve emergency response and continuity of operations.2.Deploy Physical Design Measures to Mitigate Earthquake,Flood,and Heat RisksBuilding typologies and neighborhood design play a central role in reducing disaster vulnerability.Tailored physical interventions can significantly enhance the resilience of housing and urban infrastructure.To enhance seismic resilience,alternative housing typologies,such as light-weight flexible construction and higher-density detached housing can be considered.Indonesias traditional lightweight wooden houses,built with flexible,detachable components,perform well in earthquakes due to their shock absorption.70 By contrast,modern masonry row houses rely on structural rigidity,which can lead to cascading collapse if one unit fails or if unsupervised structural modifications are made.Introducing small buffers between units,as often observed in Japanese design principles,reduces force transmission.Vertical townhouses(e.g.,20 m x 2 floors)can offer compact yet detached alternatives from typical row houses for high-density areas.Flood Resilience can be improved by adopting multi-layered flood protection strategies.Retention systems like rain gardens,biopores,swales,and ponds absorb rainfall and slow runoff.In Citarum,retention ponds reduced flood frequency from 61%to 1.5%(20202023).71 Structural defenses(e.g.,embankments,river revitalization)cut flood duration and area in Semarang.Mangrove restoration provides natural coastal flood protection.72 Regular dredging and expansion of channels are crucial.In Semarang,improved drainage reduced flood-prone areas from 522 to 466 locations.73 Pumps,dykes,and retention infrastructure increase system capacity and resilience during peak rainfall.Improving thermal comfort in urban areas can leverage nature-based cooling solutions and urban design strategies.Urban greening,such as planting trees,constructing parks,and expanding green corridors,can reduce local temperatures by up to 1.5C and create“cool islands”up to 2 km wide.74 Additionally,urban greeneries also enhance water absorption,slow water runoff,and boost natural soil retention.High-albedo surfaces(e.g.,reflective roofs,cool pavements)significantly reduce surface temperatures and absorb less heat.For example,permeable concrete can be up to 9C cooler than asphalt.75 R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S39FIGURE 18.IN CIEUNTEUNG,PARTICIPATORY DESIGN OF A RETENTION POND CREATED RECREATIONAL BENEFITS ALONGSIDE IMPROVED FLOOD MANAGEMENT,STRENGTHENING MAINTENANCE AND COMMUNITY PRIDE7876 ASEAN Centre for Energy et al.,“Passive Cooling Strategies-Current Status and Drivers of Integration into Policy and Practice within ASEANs Building Sector.”77 Pribadi et al.,“Promoting Humanitarian Engineering Approaches for Earthquake-Resilient Housing in Indonesia.”78 Permanasari et al.,“Enhancing Urban Resilience through Integrated Flood Policy and Planning.”FIGURE 17.LEFT FLOOD RETENTION PARK IN JAKARTA.MIDDLE VEGETATED EMBANKMENT.RIGHT CLEAN DRAINAGE CHANNEL IN KOTAKU.Buildings and streets can be oriented to optimize wind fl ow and shading.Buildings oriented with shorter east and west facades minimizes solar gain.Well-placed windows,streets,and openings facilitate cross-ventilation,enhancing thermal comfort without energy use.76Engage communities throughout design and implementation processes.Meaningful participation not only fosters a sense of ownership but also ensures that solutions are culturally appropriate and aligned with local needs.Without community engagement,even well-intentioned innovations risk being rejected due to misunderstandings or cultural disconnects.77 Training-programs for homeowners and local builders are equally important,particularly in earthquake-prone areas,where enhancing knowledge of safe construction practices can signifi cantly improve compliance with building standards and reduce disaster risk.Promote disaster preparedness through public awareness.Preparedness campaigns should include accessible guidance on evacuation,emergency supplies,and household safety.Disaster drills and early warning systems must be inclusive,reaching even the most vulnerable groups.In conclusion,to address climate and disaster adaptation strategies,a range of interventions are outlined across housing-level and neighborhood-level scales,tailored to specifi c hazards including thermal stress,earthquakes,and fl oods.The interventions are summarized in Table 1 below that include household measures such as thermal insulation,seismic retrofi tting,and wet-proofi ng,as well as settlement-scale strategies like urban greening,clustered housing with setbacks,and drainage enhancement.40TABLE 1.SUMMARY OF CLIMATE AND DISASTER ADAPTATION STRATEGIES BY SCALE AND HAZARD TYPEThermal insulation(e.g.,aluminum foil,roof air gaps)Refl ective surfaces(e.g.,cool roofs,white paint)Passive ventilation(e.g.,cross ventilation,operable windows,fans)Urban greening(e.g.,street trees,green corridors)for microclimate regulationHeat-resilient surfacing(e.g.,cool pavements,shaded pathways)Orientation-sensitive layoutto optimize wind fl owStructural compliance with building codes(e.g.,SNI)and QA/QC enforcementSeismic retrofi tting(e.g.,wire-mesh reinforcement)Lightweight,fl exible structural systems(e.g.,light steel frames,gable roofs)Clustered housing with safe setbacks to reduce domino collapse riskCommunity assembly points and evacuation spacesSeismic reinforcement of critical infrastructure(e.g.,water tanks,power substations)Wet-proofi ng(e.g.,elevated electrical systems,secondary refuge fl oors)Dry-proofi ng(e.g.,backfl ow valves,fl ood guards)Elevated fl oor construction(e.g.,stilted homes)Local water retention(e.g.,retention ponds,permeable paving,fl ood parks)Flood defenses(e.g.,bioswales,embankments,wetlands,fl oodgates)Drainage enhancement(e.g.,enlarged culverts,river widening,dredging)Neighborhood&Settlement-LevelADAPTATION SCALEHEAT STRESSEARTHQUAKEFLOODHousing-levelR E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S4103Climate Mitigation Action FrameworkClimate mitigation reduces the long-term impacts of climate change by lowering greenhouse gas emissions through energy-effi cient design,sustainable materials,and renewable energy in the housing sector.423.1 ACTION D:CUT OPERATIONAL ENERGY AND MATERIAL-BASED EMISSIONSReducing emissions from housing construction and operation through passive design and low-carbon materials is a cost-eff ective path to long-term sustainability.KEY RECOMMENDATIONS:1.Use low-carbon materials and passive design.Incorporate energy-saving materials and passive cooling strategies from the outset of housing design and construction.2.Strengthen appliance standards.Revise SNI to require energy-effi cient appliances and align with green building certifi cation.3.Standardize green housing prototypes and retrofi t guidelines.Mandate and disseminate simple,ready-to-build green housing designs.3.1.1 Intervention Rationale Indonesias aff ordable housing sector off ers signifi cant potential for climate mitigation.In a typical KPR Subsidi house,it is estimated that 21 percent of emissions come from embodied sources,while 79 percent result from operational energy use.While each housing unit emits a relatively modest 2 to 3 tons of CO2 per year,the impact becomes substantial when considering the scale,as approximately 200,000 units are delivered annually through developer-led housing programs.79 Given the governments 3 million housing target by 2029,introducing targeted low-carbon interventions in this sector are pivotal to meeting national climate targets.Low-income housing can reduce embodied emissions by shifting to more sustainable construction materials.Indonesias vernacular architecture is low-carbon,locally sourced,and provides good thermal performance,but communities often prefer brick houses as a refl ection of modern trends.While traditional red bricks remain common in Indonesia due to their availability and aff ordability,they have the highest embodied energy as they are produced through fossil-fueled high-temperature fi ring.Alternatives like hollow concrete blocks and Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Blocks,now used in over 65%of surveyed homes(all developer-built),off er signifi cantly lower emissions,are lighter in weight,and reduce structural loads and transportation energy.80 Scaling up the use of these materials can reduce emissions while supporting local innovation and strengthening domestic building material industries.Roofi ng materials also contribute signifi cantly to a homes carbon footprint.Metal sheets,commonly used for aff ordability and ease of installation,have higher embodied energy compared to clay or concrete tiles.While lightweight and manipulable,metal roofi ng also amplifi es heat,increasing indoor temperatures and cooling demand.Transitioning to more sustainable and thermally effi cient roofi ng options would further lower emissions while improving occupant comfort.79 GBPN Study,2024,confirmed with EDGE 3.0 simulation80 IFC-International Finance Corporation,“EDGE Materials Reference Guide.”R E S I L I E N T F O U N D A T I O N S,G R E E N F U T U R E S43HomeEquipments6129%Lights10%FIGURE 19.ELECTRICITY USE PROFILE IN KPR SUBSIDI HOMES Source:GBPN Study,2024Despite subsidized homes having a relatively low energy consumption,future electricity demands keep growing.The building sector accounts for about 29 percent of Indonesias energy-related emissions,a fi gure poised to grow with population increases and rising demand for air conditioning in a warming climate.81 In homes with 1300 VA electricity connections,appliances such as TVs,refrigerators,and washing machines account for 61 percent of electricity consumption.Cooling is the next largest use,with air conditioning typically representing around 25 to 30 percent of total household energy use,while lighting makes up about 10 percent.By 2024,air conditioner penetration in KPR Subsidi homes has reached an average of 30 percent,underscoring the need for energy-effi cient building strategies that also ensure thermal comfort82.Energy-effi cient building design is critical to managing rising cooling demand.Electricity use is shaped by the air conditioners coeffi cient of performance(COP),capacity,frequency of use,and room size.Designing homes to reduce the cooling load through insulation,ventilation,shading,and orientation can reduce reliance on mechanical cooling and enhance thermal comfort aff ordably.Current housing designs prioritize costs over performance,compromising livability.Developers often meet price caps by minimizing construction standards,sidelining energy effi ciency.Yet many energy-saving strategies such as improved insulation,passive ventilation,and better layout can be implemented at low cost,boosting household comfort and reducing utility bills.Addressing the incentive gap between developers and residents is crucial to scaling the adoption of energy-effi cient and climate-resilient housing.While homeowners benefi t from lower energy costs,developers lack a direct return on investment in energy-effi cient features,especially in non-rental housing markets.Incentive structures and regulatory nudges are needed to make effi ciency a shared value proposition.Material use trends show growing interest in sustainable alternatives.Over 35%of homes surveyed use concrete blocks and nearly 30%use AACB,both with lower embodied energy than red bricks.Roofi ng choices are also shifting,but over 40%of homes still use metal sheets,despite clay and concrete tiles off ering lower emissions and better insulation83.Sustainability must be embedded across the entire housing lifecycle.Green,resilient housing requires attention from design and construction to occupancy.Nearly 90%of homeowners modify their homesoften adding kitchens or porcheswithin two years,potentially undermining original energy performance.Future designs must anticipate and integrate such needs from the start84.Government leadership is essential to drive the energy-effi cient housing transition.To meet the IGAHP net-zero housing emissions goal by 2050,Indonesia must establish energy-effi cient aff ordable housing as the default off ering.Clear policy direction,fi nancial incentives,and developer engagement are key to transforming market norms and accelerating the shift to sustainable,resilient housing.81 Climate Transparency,“Climate Transparency Report 2022:Comparing G20 Climate Action.Indonesia.”82 GBPN Study,202483 GBPN Study,20244484 GBPN Study,202485 Carbon finance opportunities in the affordable housing sector in Indonesia analyzed by South Pole(2025).Refer to Annex 886 Cost of roof coating and shading as a simple passive design measure,as per EDGE 3.03.1.2 Intervention Rationale 1.Prioritize Low-Carbon Building Materials in Affordable HousingIncentives need to be established to catalyze the use of low-embodied carbon materials within the SNI framework and to encourage developers to adopt green certification systems.Contrary to common belief,materials such as AAC blocks and concrete bricks are competitively priced with traditional red bricks and are increasingly being adopted in the market.Developer cost sensitivity makes these low-carbon options viable for mainstream adoption.To accelerate this shift,the Government could formalize the use of low-embodied carbon materials in national building codes(SNI)and green certification systems,while offering recognition or incentives to“green developers.”Material choice can drive significant emission reductions.Replacing red bricks with gypsum concrete panels could cut GHG annual emissions by approximately 89,000 tCO2,while switching to AAC blocks could achieve even greater emission savings of up to 120,000 tCO2 per year85.Additional emissions reductions can be realized by sourcing materials locally(within a 1,000 km radius per BGH requirements)and incorporating recycled content,particularly in programs like BSPS,where construction methods allow for greater flexibility.See Annex 2 for list of embodied energy of different construction materials.2.Standardize Passive Design for Energy Efficiency and ComfortPromote passive design as a low-cost,scalable energy solution.Passive strategies,such as reflective roofs,cross-ventilation,shading devices,and low U-value wall materials,cut indoor temperatures and reduce energy demand without relying on mechanical systems.These measures are especially suitable for Indonesias hot climate and low-income housing.Small design changes yield measurable impact.Simple passive interventions can reduce annual operational emissions by 0.1 tCO2 per unit.With only a 3.7%increase in construction cost,these 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