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EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORTEUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT2025EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025DisclaimerThe data presented is strictly for information purposes only.Unless otherwise specified,it has been generated specifically for this report.It is based on information from EASA,EEA,EUROCONTROL,ICAO,the aviation industry and other sources.Whilst every care has been taken in preparing the content of the report to avoid errors,the Authors make no warranty as to the accuracy,completeness or currency of the content.The Authors shall not be liable for any kind of damages or other claims or demands incurred as a result of incorrect,insufficient or invalid data,or arising out of or in connection with the use,copying or display of the content,to the extent permitted by European and national laws.The information contained in the report should not be construed as legal advice,and the maps used in this report does not represent the position of the EU or EASA towards territories in dispute.Copyright EASA.All rights reserved.ISO 9001 certified.Proprietary document.All logo,copyrights,trademarks and registered trademarks that may be contained within are the property of their respective owners.Photo ,Airbus SAS,Airbus Defense&Space 2022,Solar Impulse/Jean Revillard/Rezo.ch,Eurowings,H2FLY,ATRForeword Written by Paul Goodenough in collaboration with Bertrand Piccard.Illustration by Hector Trunnec.Lettering by Bernardo Brice.ReferencesInformation originating from work not performed as part of this report is referenced in square brackets and detailed in the List of Resources(Appendix A)along with other relevant sources.ISBN:978-92-9210-286-9(PDF)Doi:10.2822/1537033(PDF)Catalogue Number:TO-01-24-000-EN-N(PDF)EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORTEUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT20254EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025WELCOME MESSAGESThis report,like its predecessors,is indispensable for its assessment of progress made and identification of challenges ahead.Through its comprehensive data and analysis,it supports informed decision-making and helps stakeholders evaluate the impact of current policies.For aviation,achieving environmental targets while maintaining connectivity and economic growth will require continued collaboration between government,industry,and civil society.In recent years,Europes aviation sector has continued to navigate a challenging yet crucial path towards sustainability.We are on the verge of a major change,affecting the entire sector from technological,energy and operational perspectives.The recent milestone developments,both in Europe and globally,give aviation a clear path towards significantly lowering its climate footprint.With the European Green Deal legislation now fully adopted,EU aviation is set to help Europe become the first carbon-neutral continent.The ReFuelEU Aviation mandate,aiming for 70%Sustainable Aviation Fuels(SAF)usage by 2050,is pivotal,supported by the Flight Emissions Label,fuel quality improvements,a clearing house,and financial incentives to scale SAF adoption.Further measures include revised emissions reduction frameworks,such as the updated EU Emissions Trading System,and a plan to monitor non-CO2 emissions.The airport sector is also advancing,with 130 airports committed to net-zero CO2 emissions by 2030,bolstered by EU-supported renewable energy expansions.Globally,ICAOs 2050 net-zero carbon emissions goal for aviation has strengthened the sectors climate commitments,and a 5%CO2 reduction target for 2030 using SAF and cleaner energy has emerged as a short-term goal.Europe is also extending its environmental leadership,with over 20 million pledged to support aviation sustainability projects in Africa,Asia,Latin America,and the Caribbean.However,the path ahead is far from straightforward.Europe is warming faster than any other continent,and the need for resilience in the aviation sector is increasingly apparent.Airports,airlines,and regulators need to prioritise preparedness for the impacts of climate change,while ensuring that the sector continues to meet its sustainability obligations.As we move towards 2050,the European Commission is confident that the ongoing transformation of the sector,underpinned by robust policy frameworks and sustained innovation,will allow European aviation to not only meet its environmental obligations,but to lead the way in global efforts towards sustainability.Magda Kopczyska Director-General for Mobility and Transport European Commission5WELCOME MESSAGESThis report would not have been possible without the expertise,dedication and hard work of all contributors,who have worked tirelessly to bring it to fruition.Heartfelt thanks,and congratulations on this achievement!This is the fourth European Aviation Environmental Report(EAER)and,when I compare it with past editions,it is clear that the urgency to address the sustainability challenges facing the aviation sector has intensified.This has been acknowledged within Europe and there are significant new initiatives in place under the European Green Deal,with the aim of achieving the agreed environmental goals at both the European and ICAO level.To meet the 2050 goals of EU climate neutrality and ICAO net-zero carbon emissions,aviation will need to significantly reduce its current contribution every single year from 2025 onwards.European citizens expect the aviation industry to be proactive in this,as people judge climate change,and the associated impacts on nature and biodiversity,to be one of the most serious problems facing the world today.In addition,airports are facing operational challenges due to the impact of noise and air quality on local communities,and this has been recognised through new 2030 targets that have been set under the Zero Pollution Action Plan.The challenge for the aviation sector is to turn these sustainability goals into concrete action.Having made environmental protection a key strategic priority,we are now in a decisive period where we will be judged on how the industry comes together to solve a range of issues that cannot be resolved by any one organisation alone.Much has been achieved in recent years to set us on the right path.However,we need to move faster.A concerted effort is required now.By addressing the issues within this report,we will be able to manage an orderly transition to cleaner aviation while maintaining a high uniform level of safety and connectivity.Honest,transparent and effective communication is critical to securing the trust of European citizens that aviation is indeed acting to become more sustainable and will meet the future goals.Europe is positioning itself to make the most of this new green economy and to create an aviation sector fit for future generations.I invite you to engage with this EAER for an overview of the progress to date and the way forward.Florian GuillermetExecutive Director European Union Aviation Safety Agency(EASA)6EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 20257CONTENTS04ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 8FOREWORD 10EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 12RECOMMENDATIONS 22INTRODUCTION 261.OVERVIEW OF AVIATION SECTOR 311.1 AIR TRAFFIC 321.2 NOISE 401.3 EMISSIONS 431.4 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFICIENCY 512.AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS 532.1 CLIMATE CHANGE 542.2 AVIATION ADAPTATION AND RESILIENCE TO CLIMATE CHANGE 632.3 AIR QUALITY 662.4 NOISE 682.5 ADDITIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES 703.TECHNOLOGY AND DESIGN 733.1 AIRCRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS 743.2 AIRCRAFT ENGINE ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS 793.3 LOW CARBON EMISSIONS AIRCRAFT 833.4 SUPERSONIC AIRCRAFT 873.5 GENERAL AVIATION SUSTAINABILITY ROADMAP 883.6 RESEARCH AND INNOVATION PROGRAMMES 884.AIR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT AND OPERATIONS 954.1 SINGLE EUROPEAN SKY 964.2 SES ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE AND TARGETS 984.3 OPERATIONAL PERFORMANCE INDICATORS 1034.4 SESAR:TOWARDS THE DIGITAL EUROPEAN SKY 1065.AIRPORTS 1135.1 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION REGULATORY FRAMEWORK 1145.2 AIRCRAFT PERFORMANCE AT EUROPEAN AIRPORTS 1175.3 AIRPORT MEASURES 1185.4 NET ZERO CO2 EMISSIONS 1236.SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS 1316.1 SAF DEVELOPMENTS 1326.2 WHAT ARE SUSTAINABLE AVIATION FUELS?1326.3 HOW SUSTAINABLE ARE SAF?1376.4 SAF POLICY ACTIONS 1416.5 SAF MARKET 1437.MARKET-BASED MEASURES 1517.1 EU EMISSIONS TRADING SYSTEM 1527.2 CARBON OFFSETTING AND REDUCTION SCHEME FOR INTERNATIONAL AVIATION(CORSIA)1567.3 SUSTAINABLE FINANCE AND ENERGY TAXATION INITIATIVES 1628.INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION 1658.1 WHY INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION?1668.2 MAIN AREAS OF COLLABORATION 1668.3 GLOBAL GATEWAY 1748.4 AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL PROJECT COORDINATION GROUP(AEPCG)175APPENDIX A:LIST OF RESOURCES 177APPENDIX B:ACRONYMS AND UNITS 190APPENDIX C:DATA SOURCES,MODELS AND ASSUMPTIONS 1918EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe fourth European Aviation Environmental Report has been prepared by the European Union Aviation Safety Agency(EASA)with support from the European Environment Agency(EEA)and EUROCONTROL.Its development was coordinated by a Steering Group1 made up of representatives from the following organisations:1 Stefan Bickert(BMVI);Jean-Francois Brouckaert,Sebastien Dubois(CAJU);Iris Dupont de Dinechin,Nora Susbielle,Olivier Meynot(DGAC France);Roland Faludi,Dimitar Nikov,Laura Lonza(DG CLIMA);Panagiota Dilara,Marco Paviotti(DG ENV);Jana Rejtharova(DG JRC);Andrei Mungiu,Thomas Rousing-Schmidt,Cecile Gajate,Lendina Smaja,Alexis Chausteur,Frederik Rasmussen(DG MOVE),Michail Kyriakopoulos(DG RTD);Steve Arrowsmith,Ivan de Lepinay,Andreas Busa,Joonas Laukia,Mara Dame,Santiago Haya Leiva,Achilleas Achilleos,Anatolij Oniscenko,Bastian Rauch,Daniel Brousse-Rivas,Emanuela Innocente,Guillaume Aigoin,Guillaume Malaval,Illimar Bilas,John Franklin,Lisa Ernle,Victoria Esteban,Jozef De Moor,Julia Egerer,Ken Engelstad,Mario Mitschke,Martin Schaefer,Martina Di Palma,Vera Tavares,Werner Hoermann,Wim Eeckhout,Thomas Bock(EASA);Beatrice Adolehoume,Mark Rodmell(ECAC);Ian Marnane,Suzanne Dael,Tommaso Selleri(EEA);Frederic Riehl,Stefano Mancini,Claire Leleu,David Brain,Gerard Boydell,Robin Deransy,Laurent Box,Laurent Cavadini,Marylin Bastin,Nicolas De Brabanter,Pascal Hop,Rachel Burbidge(EUROCONTROL);Alice Suri,Urs Ziegler(FOCA);Joe Sultana(SES PRB);Ralph Schwarzendahl(SESAR DM)and Olivia Nunez,Stella Saldana(SESAR JU).European Aviation Environmental Report websiteFor further information linked to the environmental performance of the aviation sector and more extensive information on Stakeholder Actions,we invite you to visit the EASA website(www.easa.europa.eu/eaer).This contains the previous European Aviation Environmental Reports,and the latest updated news and information.Questions associated with this report should be sent to EASA(eaereasa.europa.eu).9ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe Steering Group gratefully acknowledges once again the support of the Advisory Group2,whose representatives provided valuable input and comments on the report.Some of the latest information on actions being undertaken by the aviation sector are provided within the Stakeholder Action boxes.The collaboration with this diverse set of organisations ensures that the report provides a balanced perspective and conveys what the sector is doing to turn sustainability goals into action.2 Alexandre de Joybert(ACI Europe);Donal Handley(AerCap);Kevin Goddard,Olivier Husse(Airbus);Artur Sousa(ANAC);Sergi Alegre Calero(ARC);Belarmino Paradela(ASD);Reynir Sigurdsson,Tanel Rautits(BOREALIS);Johnny Pring(CANSO Europe);Jan Fuglestvedt(CICERO);Alice Liberman,Laura Le Bihan(Dassault);Ulrike Burkhardt,Marc Gelhausen(DLR);Alberto Anglade(ENAC);Delphine Grandsart(EPF);Dave Tompkins(European Express Association);Laurent Donceel(A4E);Irene Boyer-Souchet(Air France);Antoine Toulemont(ERA);Alice Suri(FOCA);Marina Garcia Aedo(IAG);Lisanne van Wijngaarden(KLM);Adrienn Keszei,Sara Sandor(Wizz Air);Jayant Mukhopadhaya(ICCT);Tim Johnson(AEF);Gilles Dufrasne(Carbon Market Watch);John Stewart(HACAN);Jo Dardenne(T&E);Maryna Hritsyshyna(Ineratec);Dario Formenti,Norbert Schmitz(ISCC);David Lee,Bethan Owen(MMU);Patrizia Reisinger(Neste);Carlos Diazg(Repsol);Jen Houghton(Rolls-Royce);Blanca de Ulibarri(RSB);Giovanni Zucchetta(Ryanair);Eugene Kors,Valerie Guenon(SAFRAN);Inmaculada Gmez Jimnez,Ral Martn Fontana(SENASA);Tom Berg(SkyNRG);Ivan Iatsenko(Ukraine DfT)and Matteo Prussi(University of Torino).10EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025FOREWORDDr.Bertrand Piccard-Initiator,Chairman and Pilot of Solar Impulse and Climate ImpulseThis Foreword has been developed by Bertrand Piccard in cooperation with Rewriting Earth,who are a global collaborationof storytellers communicating on the environment.11FOREWORDDr.Bertrand Piccard-Initiator,Chairman and Pilot of Solar Impulse and Climate ImpulseThis Foreword has been developed by Bertrand Piccard in cooperation with Rewriting Earth,who are a global collaborationof storytellers communicating on the environment.12EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025EXECUTIVE SUMMARY3 Base traffic scenario4 All departures and arrivals in EU27 EFTA.5 All departures from EU27 EFTA.As expected,this decade is proving to be decisive in dealing with climate change.2023 and 2024 have seen temperature records broken around the world and subsequent climate change trends that are transforming the planet,with Europe warming faster than any other continent 1.Along with all other economic sectors,aviation finds itself at a crossroads in its decarbonisation transition,with increasing pressure to deliver against agreed environmental goals and challenges due to supply chain issues delaying fleet renewal as well as the premium price of Sustainable Aviation Fuel and limited production capacity.While aviation is strategically important for Europe and provides significant benefits through connectivity,employment and the wider economy,there is a greater scrutiny of its negative effects(noise,air quality and climate change)on the health and quality of life for European citizens and a desire for intensified action 2,3,4,5,6,7.These challenges have been acknowledged within Europe and the last few years have seen significant developments under the European Green Deal.The focus must now be on turning sustainability goals into action in order to manage an orderly transition to cleaner aviation while maintaining a high uniform level of safety and connectivity.This 4th European Aviation Environmental Report provides an overview of current progress and the way forward.EAER DASHBOARDTRAFFICIndicatorUnits20052019202320303Number of flights4million8.019.198.359.9Passenger kilometres5billion7771 4591 3751 683Number of city pairs served most weeks by scheduled flight5 3687 9917 695N/A8.019.198.3513.811.89.4024681012142005201020152020202520302035204020452050Arriving and Departing Flights at EU27 EFTA Airports(millions)High trafc scenarioBase trafc scenarioLow trafc scenario13EXECUTIVE SUMMARYNOISE6 Base traffic scenario with aircraft/engine technology improvements.7 All departures and arrivals at 98 major European airports.8 All departures and arrivals in EU27 EFTA.IndicatorUnits20052019202320306Number of people inside Lden 55 dB airport noise contours7million2.753.803.433.26Average noise energy per operation8109 Joules0.760.680.630.55Assumptions:-Airport infrastructure is unchanged(no new runway)-Population density around airports is unchanged after 2020-Local landing and take-of noise abatement procedures are not considered 2.753.803.433.872.723.102.202.231.590.00.51.01.52.02.53.03.54.04.52005201020152020202520302035204020452050Total number of people in the Lden 55 dB noise contoursat 98 major airports(millions)High trafc scenarioBase trafc scenarioLow trafc scenarioFor each trafc scenario,the upper bound of the range refects the feet renewal scenario with frozen technology;the lower bound refects the scenario with aircraft/engine technology improvements(see Appendix C for detailed assumptions).14EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025EMISSIONS228171183139128981091471331560501001502002501990200020102020203020402050Full-fight CO2 emissionsof all departures from EU27 EFTA(million tonnes)IMPACT high trafc scenarioIMPACT base trafc scenarioIMPACT low trafc scenarioIMPACT,2005-2023EEA/UNFCCC70For each trafc scenario,the upper bound of the range refects the feet renewal scenario with frozen technology;the lower bound refects the scenario with aircraft/engine technology and ATM improvements(see Appendix C for detailed assumptions).18315413973109147133108640204060801001201401601802002005201020152020202520302035204020452050Net CO2 emissions of all departures from EU27 EFTAunder the base trafc scenario(million tonnes)Fleet renewal with frozen technologyConventional aircraft technologyAir trafc managementSustainable aviation fuelsIMPACT,2005-2023Net CO2 with efect of EU ETS,CH ETS and CORSIAElectric and hydrogen aircraftThe blue wedges include the efect of in-sector measures under the base trafc forecast:CO2 emissions reductions from conventional aircraft technology and ATM-Operations,as well as CO2eq reductions from SAF(in line with ReFuelEU Aviation supply mandate and minimum emissions reduction thresholds)and electric/hydrogen propulsion.The grey wedge shows the efect of market-based measures:EU ETS(2013-2026),CH ETS(2020-2026)and ICAO CORSIA(2021-2026).See Appendix C for detailed assumptions.15EXECUTIVE SUMMARYIndicator9Units2005201920232030Full-flight CO2 emissions10million tonnes109147133144Full-flight net CO2 emissions11million tonnes109114 108139Full flight NOX emissions10thousand tonnes478697644726Average fuel consumption10 litres fuel per 100 passenger kilometre4.83.53.32.99 All departures from EU27 EFTA10 2030 value is for the base traffic scenario with technology and operational improvements.11 2030 value is for the base traffic scenario with technology and operational improvements and sustainable aviation fuels.2019 and 2023 values include emissions reductions from market-based measures.1 2451 04197982066055547869764427472002004006008001 0001 2001 4001990200020102020203020402050Full-fight NOx emissionsof all departures from EU27 EFTA(thousand tonnes)IMPACT high trafc scenarioIMPACT base trafc scenarioIMPACT low trafc scenarioIMPACT,2005-2023EEA/CLRTAPFor each trafc scenario,the upper bound of the range refects the feet renewal scenario with frozen technology;the lower bound refects the scenario with engine technology and ATM improvements(see Appendix C for assumptions).16EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025KEY MESSAGES Overview of Aviation Sector The number of flights arriving at and departing from EU27 EFTA airports reached 8.35 million in 2023,which is still 10low the pre-COVID 2019 level.Low-cost operators have recovered faster from the COVID crisis than mainline operators.Since February 2022,flight operations have been affected by the war in Ukraine and the subsequent airspace and operator restrictions.From October 2023,some re-routings have also been caused by the conflict in the Middle East.The average number of passengers(135)and distance(1 730 km)per flight continues to grow,as does the average fleet age(11.8 years).Future traffic growth was revised downwards compared to previous outlook,with 9.4,11.8 and 13.8 million flights now foreseen in 2050 under the low,base and high traffic scenario respectively.At 98 major European airports during 2023,3.4 million people were exposed to Lden 55 dB aircraft noise levels and 1.6 million people were exposed to more than 50 daily aircraft noise events above 70 dB.While the total European airport noise exposure is still slightly below 2019 levels,there are different trends at the individual airport level with an increase in noise exposure at about one third of these major airports between 2019 and 2023.Single-aisle jets generated 71%of the total landing and take-off noise energy in EU27 EFTA during 2023.Fleet renewal could lead to a reduction in total noise exposure at European airports as measured by the Lden and Lnight indicators over the next twenty years.However,the evolution of these indicators may differ significantly between airports.In 2023,flights departing from EU27 EFTA airports emitted 133 million tonnes CO2,which is 10%less than in 2019.Single and twin-aisle jets accounted for 77%of these flights and 96%of the CO2 emissions.6%of the flights were long-haul(4 000 km)and accounted for 46%of the CO2.The average mass of CO2 emitted per passenger kilometre further reduced to 83 grams in 2023,equivalent to 3.3 litres of fuel per 100 passenger kilometres.Market-based measures should help stabilise European aviations net CO2 emissions in the short term.Meeting the ReFuelEU Aviation supply mandate for sustainable aviation fuels could cut the net CO2 emissions by at least 65 million tonnes(47%)in 2050.NOX emissions have grown faster than CO2 emissions since 2005 and are expected to continue to do so without further improvement in engine technology.In 2021,the sector accounted for 10%of the population exposed to transport noise above Lden 45 dB in EU27 EFTA.In 2022,flights departing from EU27 EFTA represented 12%of total transport greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions and 4%of total GHG emissions in EU27 EFTA.Aviation Environmental Impacts Latest IPCC,WMO and Copernicus Climate Change Service all highlight widespread,rapid and record-breaking changes in the climate and extreme weather events,with Europe warming twice as fast as the global average making it the fastest warming continent in the world.The overall climate impact from aviation is a combination of both its CO2 and non-CO2 emissions(e.g.NOX,PM,SOX,water vapour and subsequent formation of contrail-cirrus clouds).17EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The estimated Effective Radiative Forcing(ERF)from historic non-CO2 emissions between 1940 and 2018 accounted for more than half of the aviation net warming effect,but the level of uncertainty from the non-CO2 effects is 8 times higher than that of CO2.Further research on the climate impact of non-CO2 emissions from aviation,especially on induced changes in cloudiness and methodologies to estimate aircraft GHG inventories,is required to reduce uncertainties and support robust decision-making.Emissions with a short-term climate impact(e.g.NOX)can be expressed as equivalent to emissions with long-term climate impacts(e.g.CO2)in order to assess trade-offs of mitigation measures,but this is influenced by the metric and time horizon used.A non-CO2 MRV framework began on 1 January 2025 aiming at monitoring,reporting and verifying the non-CO2 emissions produced by aircraft operators.This framework is designed to provide valuable data for scientific research that will enhance our understanding of non-CO2 effects and help address aviation climate impacts more effectively.A European Parliament pilot project was launched in 2024 to explore the feasibility of optimizing fuel composition in order to reduce the environmental and climate impacts from non-CO2 emissions without negatively impacting safety(e.g.lower aromatics,sulphur).The Aviation Non-CO2 Expert Network(ANCEN)has been established to facilitate coordination across stakeholders and to provide objective and credible technical support that can inform discussions on potential measures to reduce the climate impact from non-CO2 emissions.Aviation adaptation and resilience to climate change will be critical to address projected future trends in hazardous weather events(e.g.severe convective storms and clear air turbulence)and changes to climatic 12 Registration,Evaluation,Authorisation and restriction of CHemicals(REACH)and environmental conditions(e.g.sea level rise,changes to prevailing surface winds,upper atmosphere turbulence).Aircraft engine emissions(mainly NOX and particulate matter)impact air quality around airports.Exposure to NO2 and ultrafine particles levels from aviation could be significant in residential areas in the vicinity of airports.The Environmental Noise Directive 2022 data estimates 649 000 people experience high levels of annoyance due to aircraft noise,while 127 000 suffer from significant sleep disturbances.The REACH12 Regulation restrictions on Substances of Very High Concern(e.g.chromium trioxide,PFAS)are impacting the aviation sector due to the absence of immediate alternatives.Technology and Design There have been a limited number of new certified large transport aircraft and engine types over the last few years with marginal environmental improvements,while deliveries of the latest generation of aircraft continue to penetrate the European fleet.The average margin to the latest noise standard of new regional,single-aisle and twin-aisle jet deliveries is levelling off,and the rate of deliveries is still recovering from the COVID crisis.Certification of all in-production aircraft types against the ICAO CO2 standard is required by 1 January 2028,which is leading to an increase in activities within this area.All new aircraft joining the European fleet since 2020 have engines that meet the latest CAEP/8 NOX standard,thereby suggesting a need to review this standard during the CAEP/14 work programme(2025-2028).18EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025 Environmental technology standards will be important in influencing new aircraft and engine designs and contributing to future sustainability goals.In February 2025 the ICAO CAEP is aiming to agree on new aircraft noise and CO2 limits that would become applicable in the next five years.Discussions have been initiated within ICAO CAEP to review the noise limits for light propeller-driven aircraft and helicopters,which have been unchanged since 1999 and 2002 respectively.ICAO independent experts medium-term(2027)and long-term(2037)technology goals were agreed in 2019 and are becoming outdated.Emissions data measured during the engine certification process acts as an important source of information to support modelling of operational emissions in cruise.There have been further developments within the low carbon emissions aircraft market(e.g.electric,hydrogen),with support from the Alliance for Zero-Emissions Aircraft to address barriers to entry into service and facilitate a potential reduction in short/medium-haul CO2 emissions of 12%by 2050.EASA has published noise measurement Guidelines and Environmental Protection Technical Specifications in order to respond to the emerging markets of Drones and Urban Air Mobility.EASA has launched a General Aviation Flightpath 2030 program to accelerate the transition of propulsion technology,infrastructure and fuels to support sustainable operations.Horizon Europe,with a budget of 95 billion,is funding collaborative and fundamental aviation research,as well as partnerships(e.g.Clean Aviation,Clean Hydrogen)who are developing and demonstrating new technologies to support the European Green Deal.Air Traffic Management and Operations The Single European Sky(SES2 )proposal of the Commission was formally adopted by the Council and the European Parliament in 2024,although only modest progress was made and various issues were left unresolved.Implementation of SES2 ,and a focus on continuous improvement to address unresolved issues,is critical to enhance capacity,efficiency and sustainability.RP4(2025-2029)SES performance targets reflect the ambition to enhance environmental performance,as does the desire to develop improved environmental monitoring indicators while building up resilience and strengthening capacity.It is recognized that the SES performance scheme needs to be improved in terms of the ATM-related performance indicators for environment.Work is ongoing to identify a more robust KPI which,after a period of monitoring and analysis during RP4,will be ready for performance target setting in RP5(2030-2034).Updated SES ATM Master Plan has been aligned with the RP4 ambitions such that ANSPs invest in technologies to provide greener,smarter and more effective air traffic.Ambitious environmental performance targets cannot be achieved unless the ATM system supports and incentivises all stakeholders to optimize the efficiency of their operations.400 million tonnes of CO2 emissions(9.3%less CO2 per flight)could be saved with the completion of the SES ATM Master Plan vision by 2050.The war in Ukraine and the Middle East conflict,and the subsequent impact on EU airspace,has made it more difficult to assess whether ATM actions towards improving environmental performance indicators have resulted in tangible benefits.During busy periods,Air Traffic Controllers may need to use alternative procedures to maintain required 19EXECUTIVE SUMMARYaircraft separation,thereby limiting the capacity to accommodate fuel efficient Continuous Descent Operations.Total gate to gate CO2 emissions broken down by flight phase indicates that most emissions originate from the cruise phase(62.9%)and climb phase(23.2%).The implementation of cross-border,free route airspace(FRA)significantly improves en-route environmental performance.Up to 94 000 tonnes of annual CO2 emissions are estimated to be saved by 2026 through the Borealis Alliance FRA implementation among 9 States.Air traffic control strikes in 2023 had a significant environmental impact with an additional 96 000 km flown and 1 200 tonnes of CO2 emissions due to knock-on effects across neighbouring States and the wider SES Network.A SESAR study estimated that 1 invested in Common Project 1(CP1)ATM functionalities during 2023 resulted in 1.5 in monetizable benefits and 0.6 kg of CO2 savings,and these benefits are expected to increase overtime as CP1 is fully implemented.Airports During 2023,EASA took over the management and hosting of the Aircraft Noise and Performance(ANP)legacy data,approved prior to EASAs legal mandate under the Balanced Approach Noise Regulation,in order to establish a single source of ANP data within Europe.An assessment of the Environmental Noise Directive implementation in 2023 concluded that the Commission should assess possible improvements,including noise reduction targets at the EU level as per the Zero Pollution Action Plan.This same assessment noted that Member States needed to accelerate compliance efforts and ensure that mitigation measures are in line with the Balanced Approach.There is growing pressure to address environmental impacts at the airport system level or else face more stringent operational restrictions.Revisions to the EU Ambient Air Quality Directives agreed in 2024 included development of air quality action plans where limits are exceeded,enhanced monitoring of compliance,greater transparency for citizens as well as penalties and compensation for infringements.In 2022,the 1st Zero Pollution Action Plan Monitoring Assessment concluded that the 2030 noise target is unlikely to be met,while good progress had been made on air pollution targets.51%of operations in Europe were made by aircraft compliant with the latest Chapter 14 noise standard in 2023.Significant airport initiatives are being taken forward to invest in onsite production of renewable energy to electrify ground support equipment,thereby mitigating noise and emissions.Airport infrastructure will need to be adapted to accommodate Sustainable Aviation Fuel(SAF)and zero emissions aircraft(electric,hydrogen)to meet ReFuelEU Aviation requirements.Various research projects and funding mechanisms are leading the way.Some airports are supporting the uptake of SAF through investment in production,supply chain involvement,raising awareness,financial incentives and policy engagement.118 airports in Europe have announced a net zero CO2 emissions target by 2030 or earlier,of which 16 airports have already achieved it.In 2023,a new Level 5 was added to the Airport Carbon Accreditation programme requiring 90%CO2 emissions reductions in Scopes 1 and 2,a verified carbon footprint 20EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025and a Stakeholder Partnership Plan underpinning the commitment of net zero CO2 emissions in Scope 3.13Sustainable Aviation Fuels The ReFuelEU Aviation Regulation has set a minimum supply mandate for Sustainable Aviation Fuels(SAF)in Europe,starting with 2%in 2025 and increasing to 70%in 2050.A sub-mandate for synthetic e-fuels,starting at 0.7%in 2030 and increasing to 35%in 2050,underlines their significant potential for emissions reductions.All SAF supplied under the ReFuelEU Aviation mandate must comply with the sustainability and greenhouse gas emissions saving criteria as set out in the Renewable Energy Directive(RED).In 2023,the ICAO CAAF/3 conference agreed on a global aspirational vision to reduce CO2 emissions from international aviation by 5%in 2030 through the use of SAF,low-carbon aviation fuels and other aviation cleaner energies.As of 2024,SAF production represented only 0.53%of global jet fuel use.Significant expansion of production capacity is required to meet future mandates and goals.SAF must meet international standards to ensure the safety and performance of aviation fuel.Various types of SAF have been approved,with ongoing efforts to increase blending limits and support the use of 100%drop-in SAF by 2030.SAF have the potential to offer significant CO2 and non-CO2 emissions reductions on a lifecycle basis compared to conventional jet fuels,primarily achieved during the production process using sustainable feedstock.However,various factors such as land use changes can negatively impact the overall lifecycle emissions.13 Scope 1:direct airport emissions.Scope 2:indirect emissions under airport control from consumption of purchased electricity,heat or steam.Scope 3:emissions by others operating at the airport such as aircraft,surface access,staff travel.The upscaling of SAF has generated concerns about potential fraudulent behaviour whereby products labeled as meeting sustainability requirements are not compliant.Various measures have been put it place to support the achievement of European and ICAO goals on SAF,including a European Clearing House,financial incentives,research programmes and international cooperation.SAF production capacity currently under construction could supply the 3.2 Mt of SAF required under ReFuelEU Aviation in 2030 but would be required to ramp up quickly thereafter.SAF prices are currently 3 to 10 times more expensive than conventional fuel,although they are expected to reduce substantially as production technologies scale up.Market-Based Measures Market-based measures incentivise in-sector emissions reductions from technology,operational measures and sustainable aviation fuels,while also addressing residual emissions through out-of-sector measures.Emissions trading systems(e.g.ETS)have a greenhouse gas emissions cap covering various economic sectors,while offsetting schemes(e.g.CORSIA)compensate for emissions via reductions in other sectors but without an associated cap.During 2013 to 2023,the EU ETS led to a net CO2 emissions reduction in aviation of 206 Mt through funding of emissions reductions in other sectors,of which 47 Mt was in 2021-2023.EU ETS allowance prices have increased in the recent years,reaching an average annual price of more than 80 per tonne of CO2 in 2022 and 2023.21EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Revisions were agreed to the EU ETS in 2023,including a gradual phase-out of free allowances to airlines and a reduction to the aviation emissions cap from 2024 onwards.Monitoring,reporting and verification of CO2 emissions under CORSIA began in 2019.As of 2025,129 out of 193 ICAO States have volunteered to participate in the CORSIA offsetting scheme.Offsetting under the CORSIA scheme is expected to start for the year 2024 based on data to be reported in 2025.A total of 19 Mt of CO2 emissions are forecast to be offset for flights departing from Europe during CORSIAs first phase in 2024-2026.The first emissions units have now been authorized for use in CORSIA,complying with the UNFCCC rules on avoidance of double-counting of emissions reductions.Technology to capture carbon from the air and store it underground is being developed to support the broader decarbonisation efforts of the aviation sector.The EU Taxonomy System sustainable finance initiative has been amended to include aviation activities.No agreement has been reached on proposals to revise the Energy Taxation Directive to introduce minimum rates of taxation on fuel for intra-EU passenger flights.International Cooperation Global environmental challenges require global cooperation to achieve agreed future goals.International Cooperation is a key element to reach the global aspirational goal for international aviation of net-zero carbon emissions by 2050,including the aim to achieve a 5%reduction of CO2 emissions from the use of Sustainable Aviation Fuels(SAF),Low Carbon Aviation Fuels and other aviation cleaner energies by 2030.Since 2022,European entities(e.g.States,Institutions and Stakeholders)have committed more than 20M to support environmental protection initiatives in civil aviation across Africa,Asia,Latin America and the Caribbean.Collaboration with Partner States has contributed to the sound implementation of CORSIA-Monitoring Reporting and Verification in more than 100 States and facilitated new States joining its voluntary pilot and first phases.Technical support contributed to the development of a first or updated State Action Plan for CO2 emissions reduction within 18 States,and to an enhanced understanding of SAF and the associated opportunities worldwide.Future efforts with Partner States in Africa,Asia,Latin America and the Caribbean are expected to focus on the implementation of CORSIA offsetting and building capacity to increase SAF production.SAF,which has the biggest potential to significantly reduce the carbon footprint of air transport in the short-and long-term,are also an opportunity for States to develop their green economy and to boost job creation.Hence,initiatives like the EU Global Gateway are providing financial support(initially on feasibility studies)to help realise viable SAF production projects in Partner States.Awareness,coordination,and collaboration in International Cooperation initiatives among supporting partners are essential factors to maximise the value of the resources provided to Partner States.The Aviation Environmental Protection Coordination Group(AEPCG)provides a forum to facilitate this coordination of European action with Partner States.22EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025RECOMMENDATIONSPROGRESS ON EAER 2022 RECOMMENDATIONS The following highlights key areas of progress on the previous Recommendations from EASA and EEA since the European Aviation Environmental Report(EAER)2022 was published:Establishment of collective aspirational goals at ICAO level:Net zero carbon emissions from international aviation by 2050.Reduction in CO2 emissions from international aviation by 5%in 2030 with the increased production of Sustainable Aviation Fuel and other clean energy initiatives.Adoption of ReFuelEU Aviation Regulation with a long-term Sustainable Aviation Fuel(SAF)supply mandate increasing to 70%in 2050 and the creation of a Flight Emissions Label.Establishment of supporting measures to deliver ReFuelEU Aviation mandate(e.g.Renewable and Low-Carbon Fuels alliance,EU Clearing House,Taxonomy,Green Deal Industrial Plan).Initiation of European Fuel Standard project to consider optimization of fuel composition to mitigate non-CO2 emissions.Completion of an assessment on new dual ICAO aircraft noise and CO2 standards that are technically feasible,economically reasonable and environmentally beneficial to inform a decision in 2025.Development of environmental requirements to support the design and operational integration of new markets into the aviation sector(e.g.drones,urban air mobility,supersonic transport)at EU and ICAO level.Launch of significant research initiatives to increase knowledge and insight on how to address the overall climate change effect from aviation emissions(CO2 and non-CO2).23RECOMMENDATIONS Adoption of modest Single European Sky reforms and update to European Air Traffic Management Master Plan with a target of 9.3%reduction in CO2 emissions per flight by 2050 compared to 2023.Increase from 90 to 118 European airports that have a net zero CO2 emissions target by 2030.Revision of EU Emissions Trading System to include a gradual phase-out of free allowances to airlines,a reduction to the aviation emissions cap from 2024 onwards,establishment of a non-CO2 MRV framework and a price-bridging mechanism of 20 million ETS allowances to support SAF uptake.Amendment of EU Taxonomy System to define aviation products and services that are considered environmentally sustainable.European entities(e.g.States,Institutions and Stakeholders)committed more than 20M to support civil aviation environmental protection initiatives across Africa,Asia,Latin America and the Caribbean.Coordination between EAER and the European Common Section of the ECAC State Action Plan processes to harmonise information at an EU and ICAO level.Creation of European Networks to facilitate coordination across stakeholder groups on the impacts of climate change on the aviation sector,sharing of climate adaptation best practices and technical support on measures to reduce the climate impact from aviation non-CO2 emissions.24EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025EAER 2025 RECOMMENDATIONSThis section identifies further recommendations from EASA and EEA building on the information and analysis within EAER 2025.They aim to improve the level of environmental protection in the area of civil aviation,without compromising safety,and assist the European Union in ensuring that the aviation sector contributes to the objectives of the European Green Deal14 through effective collaboration,commitment and verification.14 The European Green Deal encompasses in particular the European Climate Law,the Sustainable and Smart Mobility Strategy and the Zero Pollution Action Plan.15 In 2023,single-aisle jets generated 71%of the total landing and take-off noise energy at all EU27 EFTA airports.Single and twin-aisle jets accounted for 77%of flights departing from EU27 EFTA airports and 96%of CO2 emissions,while 6%of the flights were long-haul(4 000 km)accounting for 46%of CO2.In 2050,the aviation sector in the EU27 EFTA should reduce its CO2 emissions from departing flights by at least 65%through in-sector measures(technology,operations,fuels).This would leave almost 60 million tonnes of CO2 that would need to be addressed through out-of-sector measures(e.g.market-based measures).16 e.g.EAER,Certified aircraft-engine environmental data,SES Performance Scheme KPIs,Flight Emissions Label,annual ReFuelEU SAF Reports,ETS/CORSIA emissions data,Zero Pollution Monitoring Reports.1.Ensure effective oversight and progress towards policy objectives Continue to enhance the EAER such that it delivers a comprehensive monitoring system on the environmental performance of the European aviation sector and allows prioritising actions15 and use of resources to achieve agreed objectives.Provision of aviation sector data and analysis to demonstrate the effectiveness of European Green Deal policies.Supply information for robust decision-making and harmonise reporting at the European and ICAO level.Closer cooperation between European organisations(e.g.EU,EUROCONTROL,ECAC),and their Member States,is critical in achieving this objective.Respond to concerns of European citizens by promoting accurate,transparent and effective communication16 on the environmental performance of aviation.2.Technology standards to incentivise innovation Agree on ambitious CO2 and noise standards for new aircraft types at CAEP/13 in 2025 in order to influence future designs and contribute to achieving agreed sustainability goals(e.g.EU Climate Law and Zero Pollution Action Plan;ICAO goal of net zero carbon emissions by 2050).Review the current NOX emissions standard for aircraft engines,and enhance non-volatile Particulate Matter emissions measurement procedures,during the CAEP/14 work programme(2025-2028).Update the current ICAO independent experts 10-year medium(2027)and 20-year long-term(2037)technology goals so they remain relevant and fit for purpose.Enhance the understanding of aircraft engine emissions characteristics,including during the certification process,so as to improve the modelling accuracy of non-CO2 emissions in cruise.Ensure technological,industrial and certification readiness of new concept aircraft and engines to meet the planned in-service schedule and use of 100%SAF.3.Step-up efforts to implement Single European Sky sustainability objectives Build on the recent Single European Sky(SES2 )reform to modernise Air Traffic Management(ATM)and to incentivise environmental performance.Accelerate development of new SESAR solutions,and their deployment,with environmental benefits(e.g.Common Project 1 ATM functionalities and Master Plan Strategic Deployment Objectives).Drive forward improvements in ATM infrastructure and aircraft operations through closer cooperation,and the development of suitable key performance indicators to achieve better climate and environmental performance in the European aviation network.25RECOMMENDATIONS4.Implement effective airport action plans Foster onsite production of renewable energy at airports,with the support of the Connecting Europe Facility,to electrify ground operations and mitigate noise,air quality and climate impacts.In line with ReFuelEU Aviation,take all necessary measures to facilitate the access to and uptake of SAF through infrastructure investment,cooperation with supply chain stakeholders,financial incentives and supportive policy/governance frameworks.Consider improvements to the Balanced Approach Noise Regulation for managing noise impacts around airports that facilitate consistent implementation by Member States,accelerated compliance and ensures operational restrictions are used only after consideration of all other elements.5.Scale up Sustainable Aviation Fuels to achieve emission reduction targets Reduce the price gap between SAF and fossil-based fuels by building on the Green Deal Industrial Plan,the allocated ETS allowances and ReFuelEU Aviation supporting measures to deliver the supply mandate.Promote SAF with the greatest emissions reductions to maximise their contribution to the European Green Deal as well as the ICAO LTAG and CAAF/3 objectives.Explore the potential of accounting mechanisms for SAF to facilitate the traceability and claiming of SAF benefits,while preserving the environmental integrity of decarbonisation schemes.Progress towards alignment of SAF sustainability certification across regulatory compliance regimes.Identify how aviation fuel composition,both fossil and SAF fractions,can be optimised to mitigate overall climate and air quality impacts(e.g.fuel standards).6.Market-based incentives to promote innovation in sustainability Incentivise sustainable finance within the sector,including via the implementation of the EU Taxonomy System for aviation activities.Support the 2025 CORSIA Periodic Review to ensure the effectiveness of the scheme in contributing to the sustainable development of the global aviation sector and encourage participation of ICAO States during the voluntary Phase 1 period(2024-2026).Progress proposed revisions to the Energy Taxation Directive to encourage the use of low or zero carbon energy sources.Ensure the quality and credibility of voluntary and compliance-based carbon credits,including carbon removals,used to offset or reduce emissions within the aviation sector.7.Facilitate research and implementation of solutions Increase research resources and coordination at the EU(e.g.Horizon Europe,EU Innovation Fund)and National level on strategic priorities across all areas(technology,operations,fuels)to meet the 2030 climate target and ensure the aviation sector is on the right path for the 2040 target.Bring greater cohesion to the research on the climate effect of aviation non-CO2 emissions.This would aim to advance scientific understanding and to develop robust decision-making capabilities that take into account uncertainties as part of a risk-based assessment to ensure mitigation measures lead to an overall reduction in climate impact(CO2 and non-CO2).As Europes climate is warming twice as fast as the global average,place a greater priority on ensuring the aviation sectors resilience and preparedness for these future changes.8.Global cooperation to address global challenges Step up green diplomacy and technical collaboration with Partner States to address global aviation sustainability challenges.Facilitate the transition to sustainable economic models,including through the realisation of viable SAF businesses.Maximise the use of international cooperation resources through the effective coordination of European actions with Partner States.26EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025INTRODUCTIONWelcome to the 4th European Aviation Environmental Report(EAER)!The main aim of this report is to provide an objective,clear and accurate source of information on the past and forecasted environmental performance of the aviation sector at the European level.This reference document is published every 3 years to inform strategic discussions and support the prioritisation of future work and resources to drive forward the issue of sustainability and coordinate a comprehensive approach across different initiatives.There has been a loss of trust that the sector is addressing these issues and telling the truth 8,9,and this needs to be regained.Honest,transparent and effective communication is critical to addressing these challenges,as is attracting the next generation of skilled personnel and reigniting aviations pioneering and innovative spirit to secure a sustainable aviation future and a license to continue to operate in a carbon constrained world.Europe is positioning itself to make the most of this new green economy and this latest EAER provides an overview of this transition.What is the enviromental performance of the European aviation sector?How might the sectors performance evolve in the future?What measures are reducing climate change,noise and air quality impacts?How can the sector further improve its level of environmental protection?27INTRODUCTIONAviation Warming StripesThe aviation warming stripes on the pages that separate the Chapters in this report were developed in collaboration with the University of Oxford,Manchester Metropolitan University,and the NERC National Centre for Earth Observation.Based on a recent study that quantified aviations contribution to global warming 10,the below aviation warming stripes have been developed with the aim of communicating a complex message in a visually simple and memorable way that people can relate to.Warming stripes typically communicate on the impact of global warming in terms of changes in average surface temperature over time at the global or national level 11.In comparison,the colours of the aviation warming stripes below represent the modelled%contribution of aviation emissions to overall global warming(temp.increase against a pre-industrial baseline)for a given year between 1980(1.9%on left)and 2021(3.7%on right).Note that there remain uncertainties with regard to the climate effects of aviation non-CO2 emissions(see Chapter 2 on Environmental Impacts).European policy on noise and air qualityIn 2021,the European Union(EU)adopted the Zero Pollution Action Plan 12 that set out a vision to reduce air,water and soil pollution to levels no longer considered harmful to health and natural ecosystems by 2050.Key intermediate 2030 targets,compared to 2017 levels,have also been identified to:(1)reduce pollution at source,including the reduction of the share of people chronically disturbed by transport noise by 30%and(2)improve air quality to reduce the number of premature deaths caused by air pollution by 55%.Subsequent Zero Pollution Monitoring Assessments have been published in 2022 and 2025 13 to monitor progress towards these targets.The Environmental Noise Directive 14 and the Balanced Approach Regulation 15 are the EU legislation under which environmental noise is monitored,communicated to the public and actions subsequently taken by Member States to reduce noise exposure in cities and near major transport infrastructure.EU air pollution legislation is implemented through air quality standards that were updated in 2024 16,17 and source-based mitigation controls(e.g.engine emissions and fuel quality standards).Binding national limits for emissions of the most important pollutants have also been established in the EU,but not all aviation activities are included 18.28EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025European policy on climate changeIn 2019,the European Commission presented the European Green Deal 19,which aims at improving the well-being of people and making Europe climate-neutral by 2050.The 2021 European Climate Law 20 incorporated this goal into legislation,such that EU institutions and Member States are bound to take the necessary measures at EU and national level to meet the target,taking into account the importance of promoting fairness and solidarity among Member States.The 2021 Climate Law includes:a legal objective for the Union to reach climate neutrality by 2050;and an ambitious 2030 climate target of at least 55%reduction of net emissions of greenhouse gases as compared to 1990.In 2024,the European Commission presented its assessment for a 2040 climate target and recommended reducing the EUs net greenhouse gas emissions by 90%by 2040 relative to 1990 21 in order to:put Europe on course towards climate neutrality by 2050,thereby building a healthier and safer future;ensure predictability for citizens,businesses and investors,by making sure that resources invested now and in the upcoming decades are compatible with the EUs pathway to climate neutrality,thereby avoiding wasted investments in the fossil fuel economy;boost the competitiveness of Europes businesses,create stable and future-proof jobs,and enable the EU to lead in developing the clean technology markets of the future;and make Europe more resilient and strengthen its strategic autonomy.The European Green Deal includes a goal to reduce emissions from the transport sector by 90%in 2050 compared to 1990 levels.Specific objectives on mobility and transport were subsequently presented in 2020 within the Sustainable and Smart Mobility Strategy 22 together with an Action Plan of 82 initiatives.This strategy laid the foundation for how a smart,competitive,safe,accessible and affordable EU transport system can achieve its green and digital transformation and become more resilient to future crises.All transport modes need to become more sustainable,with concrete milestones to keep the green transition on track.In 2021,the Fit for 55 legislative proposals 23 were published setting out the ways in which the Commission will reach its updated 2030 target in real terms.It covers a wide range of policy areas,some of which effected the aviation industry(revision of the EU Emission Trading System Directive concerning aviation,ReFuelEU Aviation Initiative,revision to the Renewable Energy Directive and revision to the Energy Taxation Directive).Final agreements in these policy areas were adopted in 2023,apart from the revision to the Energy Taxation Directive,and are summarized in the relevant Chapters of this report.FIT FOR55 PROPOSALSRevision of the Energy Tax DirectiveRenewable Energy Directiveof EU ETSRevision ReFuelEU AviationEnergyEfciencyDirective ClimateSocial Found EU ForestStrategy Carbon BorderAdjustmentMechanism FuelEUMaritime Efort SharingRegulation29INTRODUCTIONIn February 2024,the European Parliament and the Council reached a political agreement on the Net-Zero Industry Act 24.This initiative from the Green Deal Industrial Plan aims to scale up the manufacturing of technologies in the EU that support the clean energy transition by simplifying the regulatory framework and increasing the competitiveness of European industry.The aim is that the Unions overall strategic net-zero technologies manufacturing capacity is about 40%of annual deployment needs by 2030.The Act addresses key strategic technologies that will make a significant contribution to decarbonisation,including Sustainable Aviation Fuels.A report on the future of European competitiveness 25,published in September 2024,has estimated that the investment needs to decarbonize the aviation sector lies in the region of 61 billion a year from 2031 to 2050.ICAO State Action Plans on CO2 Emissions Reductions ICAO encourages all States to submit a voluntary State Action Plan(SAP)for CO2 emissions reduction from international aviation every 3 years,in order that ICAO can continue to compile the quantified information in relation to achieving the agreed global aspirational goals 26.For the SAP due in 2024,it was agreed that input for the European Civil Aviation Conference(ECAC)/European Union(EU)SAP Common Section be developed in cooperation with the EASA European Aviation and Environment Report(EAER)process.This has facilitated an efficient cooperation of European States and organisations and helped to promote a consistent message at both European and ICAO level.CO2H2Key Decarbonisation TechnologiesSolar photovoltaic and solar thermalBatteriesand storageCarbon captureand storageHeat pumpsand geothermal energyGrid technologiesElectrolysersand fuel cellsOnshore windand ofshore renewablesSustainable biogas/biomethane30131OVERVIEW OF AVIATION SECTOROVERVIEW OF AVIATION SECTOR The number of flights arriving at and departing from EU27 EFTA airports reached 8.35 million in 2023,which is still 10low the pre-COVID 2019 level.Low-cost operators have recovered faster from the COVID crisis than mainline operators.Since February 2022,flight operations have been affected by the war in Ukraine and the subsequent airspace and operator restrictions.From October 2023,some re-routings have also been caused by the conflict in the Middle East.The average number of passengers(135)and distance(1 730 km)per flight continues to grow,as does the average fleet age(11.8 years).Future traffic growth was revised downwards compared to previous outlook,with 9.4,11.8 and 13.8 million flights now foreseen in 2050 under the low,base and high traffic scenario respectively.At 98 major European airports during 2023,3.4 million people were exposed to Lden 55 dB aircraft noise levels and 1.6 million people were exposed to more than 50 daily aircraft noise events above 70 dB.While the total European airport noise exposure is still slightly below 2019 levels,there are different trends at the individual airport level with an increase in noise exposure at about one third of these major airports between 2019 and 2023.Single-aisle jets generated 71%of the total landing and take-off noise energy in EU27 EFTA during 2023.Fleet renewal could lead to a reduction in total noise exposure at European airports as measured by the Lden and Lnight indicators over the next twenty years.However,the evolution of these indicators may differ significantly between airports.In 2023,flights departing from EU27 EFTA airports emitted 133 million tonnes CO2,which is 10%less than in 2019.Single and twin-aisle jets accounted for 77%of these flights and 96%of the CO2 emissions.6%of the flights were long-haul(4 000 km)and accounted for 46%of the CO2.The average mass of CO2 emitted per passenger kilometre further reduced to 83 grams in 2023,equivalent to 3.3 litres of fuel per 100 passenger kilometres.Market-based measures should help stabilise European aviations net CO2 emissions in the short term.Meeting the ReFuelEU Aviation supply mandate for sustainable aviation fuels could cut the net CO2 emissions by at least 65 million tonnes(47%)in 2050.NOX emissions have grown faster than CO2 emissions since 2005 and are expected to continue to do so without further improvement in engine technology.In 2021,the sector accounted for 10%of the population exposed to transport noise above Lden 45 dB in EU27 EFTA.In 2022,flights departing from EU27 EFTA represented 12%of total transport greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions and 4%of total GHG emissions in EU27 EFTA.32EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025 EU27 EFTAAnalysis scope and assumptionsHistorical air traffic data in this section comes from Eurostat and EUROCONTROL.The coverage is all flights from or to airports in the European Union(EU27)1 and European Free Trade Association(EFTA).The forecast of European flights comes from the EUROCONTROL Aviation Long-term Outlook 2050.For more details on models,analysis methods,forecasts,supporting data sources and assumptions used in this section,please refer to Appendix C.1 The geographical scope is constant through the entire time period covered in this Chapter.Consequently,the data does not include UK for those years preceding Brexit.1.1 AIR TRAFFICFlights recovered to 91%of pre-COVID levels in 2023Traffic recovery after the COVID outbreak has followed the trend forecasted in the previous report,namely a rebound in 2022 followed by a more moderate increase to reach 8.35 million flights at EU27 EFTA airports in 2023(Figure 1.1),which is still 9low the 2019 level.While low-cost and mainline carriers had an identical share of total flights in 2019(one third each),the low-cost market post-COVID recovery was faster and had the largest share in 2023.The number of passengers recovered faster from COVID than flights,with 774 million passengers flying from EU27 EFTA airports in 2023,which is just 4low the 2019 level.This is in part due to the high average passenger load factor of 84.5%,which exceeded the previous 2019 record of 83.4%.The average distance per flight also reached a peak in 2023(1 730 km),such that total passenger-kilometres were close to their pre-COVID level during that year.After a peak in 2021,the number of cargo flights was back to pre-COVID levels in 2023,although the total tonnes of cargo transported was 5%lower than in 2019.In 2023,business jet operations exceeded the 2019 level by 10ter almost reaching their 2007 record of 700 000 annual flights during 2022.Several bankruptcies and the shift to low-cost airlines or high-speed rail on certain city pairs has driven the reduction in number of flights by regional airlines between 2019 and 2023.While the COVID outbreak had the greatest impact on aviation over the period 2020-2023,the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 and the subsequent airspace closures and operator restrictions have also affected air traffic,with neighbouring airspace absorbing more traffic and diverted flights overloading the busy South-East axis.In addition,the EU sanctions have hindered the recovery of traffic between Europe and Asia.Since October 2023,the conflict in the Middle East has also had an impact on air traffic flows,especially overflights,and there has been a significant increase in military operations within European airspace.33OVERVIEW OF AVIATION SECTORUpdated 2050 traffic outlook foresees slower growthAs in previous reports,the traffic forecast out to 2050 includes three scenarios on how European aviation may develop in the future(Figure 1.2).These scenarios take economic growth,price of travel(including conventional and sustainable aviation fuel prices),sustainability goals and regulation into account,as well as airport capacity,high-speed rail and the arrival of new aircraft,fuel and propulsion.More details are provided in Appendix C.In the most-likely base scenario the traffic at EU27 EFTA airports is expected to return to its 2019 level of 9.2 million flights in 2026,and then grow to 9.9 million flights in 2030 and 11.8 million flights in 2050,representing an average annual growth of 1.1tween 2025 and 2050.Over the same period and under the base scenario,passenger-kilometres are expected to grow slightly faster at an average 1.3%per annum as the average aircraft size and flight distance both continue to increase.Under the high scenario,flights and passenger-kilometres are assumed to grow by 1.6%and 1.8%per annum respectively between 2025 and 2050,while the low scenario foresees almost no growth out to 2045.These growth rates are slightly lower than those in the previous traffic outlook.This is mostly driven by higher fuel price predictions and a revision of the maximum flight capacity at airports.The number of very short-haul flights(less than 500 km)decreased steeply between 2005 and 2013 and then stabilised until 2019,while the number of flights in other haul categories increased(Figure 1.3).Very short-haul flights still represented 25%of all flights in 2023 but their post COVID recovery has been slower than other categories.Competition with high-speed rail is strongest for the short-haul category,with rail emerging as a favoured option in the context of growing environmental awareness and changing consumer preferences.BusinessCargoCharterLow-costOtherTraditional ScheduledMainlineRegionaltotal13.23.25.63.10.9.3.9d.9%7.2%6.4%7.8%6.7%2.8%3.0%3.5%3.4%3.7%4.5%4.7%5.2%0 0Pp0 0520192023Share of total flights by airline category(%)8.019.198.350123456789102005200720092011201320152017201920212023Arriving&Departing Flightsat EU27 EFTA Airports(millions)Figure 1.1 Low-cost recovered faster from COVID than mainline carriersNote:From 2019 onwards the traditional scheduled carrier category has been split into two categories,mainline and regional.See Appendix C for more information about market segments.34EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 20258.019.198.3513.811.89.4024681012142005201020152020202520302035204020452050Arriving and Departing Flights at EU27 EFTA Airports(millions)High trafc scenarioBase trafc scenarioLow trafc scenarioFigure 1.2 Annual flights could exceed 10 million shortly after 2030Figure 1.3 Very short-haul flights show the slowest recovery after COVID crisis2.13.61.90.80112233442005200720092011201320152017201920212023Arriving and Departing Flights at EU27 EFTA Airports(millions)0-500 km500-1 500 km1 500-4 000 km4 000 km35High-speed rail and air trafficHigh-speed rail(HSR)often offers a competitive alternative to air travel on shorter routes,providing similar or even superior door-to-door(D2D)time efficiency.This capability has led to a shift in passenger preference from planes to trains on routes where HSR has been implemented.A 2024 study 10 shows that the market share of HSR on a given route is highly correlated to the D2D travel time reduction it offers compared to air travel.Even when travelling by train takes longer than by air,train can still take a significant share of passengers due to other factors such as price,frequency,punctuality,and comfort.The study also highlights that improving the attractiveness of train,via faster connections or reduced fares,can lead to induced demand(i.e.increase the total number of passengers on a route)which may partly limit the environmental benefits of the modal shift.For example,the completion of the Madrid-Barcelona HSR link saw a 28%increase in the number of people travelling between these two cities.A multimodal approach that better integrates HSR with air travel can reduce the need for short-haul flights while maintaining high levels of connectivity and convenience for passengers.This could be achieved by improving the connectivity between the HSR network and hub airports(new infrastructure)and fostering partnerships between air and train operators to facilitate tickets purchase,baggage handling and management of delays.Madrid-Barcelona Madrid-ValenciaMadrid-SevillaMadrid-MlagaMadrid-AlicanteParis-MarseilleParis-RennesParis-LyonParis-BordeauxParis-London Barcelona-ParisLondon-AmsterdamFrankfurt-Munich Copenhagen-StockholmLondon-Edinburgh Milan-Rome0 0%-1.5-1.0-0.50.00.51.01.52.02.53.03.5HSR market share(%passengers)High-Speed Rail D2D travel time excess over air(hours)OVERVIEW OF AVIATION SECTOR36EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025Connectivity is almost back to pre-COVID levelAs in previous reports,aviation connectivity is measured using the number of city pairs with more than 24 direct flights per year each way(Figure 1.4).Total connectivity in 2023 was just 4low 2019 levels at about 7 700 city pairs.Intra-European connectivity has already exceeded its 2019 level mostly thanks to low-cost operators,but this does not compensate for the lower extra-European connectivity which still falls short of its 2019 level for all operator categories.Low-cost operators continue to offer more direct connections than mainline operators both inside and outside Europe.European fleet keeps on slowly aging The majority of aircraft which were parked during the COVID crisis have returned into service,leading to a rapid increase in average aircraft age for mainline,low-cost and charter carriers between 2021 and 2023(Figure 1.5).Overall,the average age of the European fleet continues to increase and reached 11.8 years in 2023 compared to 11.6 years in 2021.The two notable exceptions are business jet aircraft which average age has stabilised around 12.5 years,and cargo aircraft which went down below 22 years again in 2023.The high average age of cargo aircraft is mainly driven by their low daily utilisation leading to longer amortisation periods for those aircraft,and the absence of purpose-built short-haul freighters leading to the use of converted single-aisle passenger aircraft for this market segment.The average retirement age of aircraft registered in Europe went down from 27.7 to 24.5 years between 2012 and 2022.Figure 1.4 Extra-European connectivity recovering slower than intra-European after COVID1 0013 1273 2793 0254 2204 3246432 1942 0912 3433 7713 3711 6445 3215 3705 3687 9917 69501 0002 0003 0004 0005 0006 0007 0008 000Low-cost TraditionalScheduledTotal PaxScheduledLow-costTraditionalScheduledTotal PaxScheduledLow-costTraditionalScheduledRegionalMainlineRegionalMainlineRegionalMainlineTotal PaxScheduledNumber of city pairs served most weeks(24 fights/year each way)Routes inside EU27 EFTARoutes to or fromoutside EU27 EFTA All routesTraditional category separated into Regional and Mainline from 20192 4561 0051 2611 1011 3164 3922 8681 2863 2021 4951 9361 6071 886394281200520192023Regional 2023Regional 2019Mainline 2023Mainline 201937OVERVIEW OF AVIATION SECTORNight traffic at airports recovered faster than total traffic The night traffic at airports is driven by the economic models of the passenger and freighter markets,as well as the need for connectivity to other parts of the world.The proportion of flights that take-off or land during the nighttime period(23:00 to 07:00)at EU27 EFTA airports has increased since 2019 to reach about 5.5%of total traffic in 2023,even though the absolute number of night flights was still lower than in 2019(Figure 1.6a).This indicates that night traffic has recovered faster than total traffic after the COVID crisis.In 2023,the top 10 busiest airports during the nighttime period represented 27%of all night movements,which is similar to the share of the top 10 busiest airports during the daytime period(25%).The hourly distribution of the total 2023 traffic(Figure 1.6b)confirms that the number of arrival flights towards the beginning of the night period(22:00 to midnight)far exceeds departures,while departures exceed arrivals towards the end(06:00 to 08:00).All passenger-related indicators are for commercial flight departures only(other indicators include arrivals).Passenger kilometres are based on the shortest(great circle)distance between origin and destination.Cargo is for both all-cargo and passenger aircraft.12.621.816.09.611.713.011.80246810121416182022242005200720092011201320152017201920212023Average aircraft age per fight(Years)BusinessCargoCharterLow-costTraditional ScheduledMainlineRegionalAllFigure 1.5 Fleet continues to age slowly for most carrier categories38EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025Figure 1.6(b)Airport traffic peaks just before and after the night period0100 000200 000300 000400 000500 0007:008:009:00 10:00 11:00 12:00 13:00 14:00 15:00 16:00 17:00 18:00 19:00 20:00 21:00 22:00 23:000:001:002:003:004:005:006:00Total number of movementsat EU27 EFTA airports in 2023 by hourArrivalsDeparturesFigure 1.6(a)The number of night flights is still below 2019 level but their share of total flights is higher4.6%0.96 0.940.795.0%0.97 5.3%0.930.00.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.91.0200520192023Number of night movements at EU27 EFTA airports(%of total movements,millions)Night ArrivalsNight DeparturesNight=23:00-06:59 local time0.735.2%5.6%5.59OVERVIEW OF AVIATION SECTORFigure 1.7 Summary of air traffic indicators(%change to 2005)15.3; 38.5; 30.1; 45.8; 52!.5; 94%.6; 130 19202320302050Actual fown distance(billion km; 05)1459; 8875; 7701; 9383; 116!18; 172$79; 219 19202320302050Passenger kilometres(billion; 05)128; 505; 58 19202320302050Average passengers per fight(#; 05)n/an/an/an/an/an/a1670; 2030; 2419; 2408; 2319; 3151; 33 19202320302050Average distance per fight(km; 05)83.4%; 13.5%; 14 19202320302050Passenger load factor(%; 05)8.4; 60%8.0; 52 19202320302050Cargo(million tonnes; 05)9.2; 15%8.4; 4%9.4; 17%9.9; 23.8; 48.8; 73 19202320302050Number of fights(millions; 05)805; 73w4; 66x6; 696; 9656; 12723; 162 19202320302050Passengers(millions; 05)11.1; 16.8; 23.0; 36.0; 36 19202320302050Average aircraft age per fight(years; 05)Base trafc scenarioLow trafc scenarioHigh trafc scenario8.8; 10.9; 36.0; 35.6; 6801; 2218; 241; 7401; 11589; 9139; 137.0; 25.0; 46%Note:All passenger-related indicators are for commercial flight departures only(other indicators include arrivals).Passenger kilometres are based on the shortest(great circle)distance between origin and destination.Cargo is for both all-cargo and passenger aircraft.401.2 NOISETotal airport noise exposure is still below pre-COVID level but local situations may differFollowing the trend in traffic,the total noise exposure at 98 major EU27 EFTA airports,as measured by the Lden and Lnight indicators,2 was still below but close to pre-COVID levels in 2023.The total population inside the Lden 55 dB and Lnight 50 dB airport noise contours were 10%and 4%lower than in 2019 respectively(Figures 1.8 and 1.9).These thresholds of 55 and 50 dB were chosen based on the reporting thresholds specified in the Environmental Noise Directive(2002/49/EC).However,the World Health Organization(WHO)has identified that negative health effects start to occur at noise levels below these thresholds 6,suggesting that the above exposure estimates could underestimate the actual number of people at risk of health impacts due to aircraft noise exposure.See Chapter 2 on Environmental Impacts for further information on the impacts of noise based on the data reported under the Environmental Noise Directive.The census database used to assess population inside noise contours has been improved compared to the 2 Lden is the sound pressure level averaged over the year for the day,evening and nighttime periods,with a 5 dB penalty for the evening and 10 dB for the night.Lnight is the sound pressure level averaged over the year for the nighttime period only.previous report(see Appendix C for more details on data sources),leading to an overall increase in all population-based indicators.However,the trend of the indicators over time is similar with that shown in the previous report.Under the three traffic scenarios,fleet renewal with the latest generation of quieter aircraft is still expected to stabilise or even reduce average noise exposure until 2040 in terms of the Lden and Lnight indicators.This is primarily due to the renewal of the single-aisle and twin-aisle jets in the fleet which account for the bulk of landing and take-off noise energy(respectively 71%and 21%in 2023,see Figure 1.13).However,noise impacts may increase again in the longer term if manufacturers do not develop new quieter aircraft that can offset the effect of traffic growth.The total indicators hide the diversity of trends between the 98 major EU27 EFTA airports included in the assessment.Between 2019 and 2023,the area of the Lden 55 dB and Lden 50 dB contours has actually increased at 32 and 43 of those airports respectively.The top 10 airports in terms of Lden 55 dB population exposure still accounted for half of the total population exposure across all 98 airports during 2023.EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 202541OVERVIEW OF AVIATION SECTORHow many airports are covered by the Environmental Noise Directive?70 airports had more than 50 000 movements(departures and arrivals)during 2023 in the EU27 EFTA region.This is still below the 2018 peak(77 airports)but the number is expected to increase further and could reach 85 by 2050 under the base traffic forecast.All airports with more than 50 000 annual movements are included in the EAER assessment,as well as additional airports below the movement threshold in order to obtain a more comprehensive overview of aircraft noise within Europe(see Appendix C for the list of 98 airports).3 This is the number of people exposed to more than 50 aircraft noise events exceeding 70 dB every day.The N50A70 population indicator3 continues to show the largest increase compared to 2005(Figure 1.9).In 2023,1.6 million people were exposed to more than 50 aircraft noise events above 70 dB per day at the 98 major airports,which is 59%more than in 2005.While under the base traffic forecast the total Lden 55 dB and Lnight 50 dB area and population could reduce below their 2005 level by 2050,the total N50A70 ones may remain above.In 2023,using the dose-response curves developed by the World Health Organization Europe 6 and the population exposed to Lden above 45 dB and Lnight above 40 dB,the number of people highly annoyed by aircraft noise was estimated to be 4.0 million,and the number of people suffering from aircraft-induced high sleep disturbance was estimated to be 1.8 million.This is 7%and 5%less than in 2019 respectively.Figure 1.8 Total Lden 55 dB population around major airports may stay below pre-COVID levelAssumptions:-Airport infrastructure is unchanged(no new runway)-Population density around airports is unchanged after 2020-Local landing and take-of noise abatement procedures are not considered 2.753.803.433.872.723.102.202.231.590.00.51.01.52.02.53.03.54.04.52005201020152020202520302035204020452050Total number of people in the Lden 55 dB noise contoursat 98 major airports(millions)High trafc scenarioBase trafc scenarioLow trafc scenarioFor each trafc scenario,the upper bound of the range refects the feet renewal scenario with frozen technology;the lower bound refects the scenario with aircraft/engine technology improvements(see Appendix C for detailed assumptions).Aviation noise in contextBased on data reported by Member States every five years under the Environmental Noise Direc-tive 2002/49/EC,it is estimated that in 2021 avi-ation represented around 11%of people who are highly annoyed by noise,based on exposure exceeding the WHO guideline values 11.In terms of the number of people exposed above safe(WHO)guideline values,aviation repre-sented about 10%of the EU27 EFTA population exposed to Lden levels above 45 dB and 4%of the population exposed to Lnight levels above 40 dB in 2021.While this is a smaller share than road and railway,aircraft noise is generally perceived as more annoying than road or railway noise and health effects exist at noise levels around 10 dB lower than other sources 6.Figure 1.9 Summary of noise indicators(%change to 2005)Note:2030 and 2050 values are for the base traffic scenario.Blue and orange lines represent the range of aircraft/engine technology improvements.Lden,Lnight and N50A70 indicators are for the 98 major European airports;noise energy is for all EU27 EFTA airports.An operation is either a departure or an arrival.Population concentration around airports is assumed constant after 2020.4691; 28B74; 17062;-16A65; 14981; 9 19202320302050Lden 55 dB area(km;%change to 2005)0.68;-11%0.63;-17%0.57;-26%0.42;-44%0.31;-59 19202320302050Average noise energy per operation(109 Joules;%change to 2005)9.90; 20%8.46; 3%8.23;-0%7.44;-10%5.46;-34 19202320302050Noise energy(1015 Joules;%change to 2005)1.73; 75%1.57; 59%1.18; 20%1.58; 61%1.61; 63 19202320302050N50A70 population(millions;%change to 2005)1.52; 56%1.45; 49%0.81;-17%1.32; 35%1.21; 24 19202320302050Lnight 50 dB population(millions;%change to 2005)3.80; 38%3.43; 25%2.20;-20%3.33; 21%3.10; 13 19202320302050Lden 55 dB population(millions;%change to 2005)2368; 3437; 2603;-15 72; 1777; 12 19202320302050Lnight 50 dB area(km;%change to 2005)2349; 43!57; 3139; 1246; 37#10; 40 19202320302050N50A70 area(km;%change to 2005)Frozen technology(base trafc scenario)Aircraft/engine technology improvements(base trafc scenario)4094; 12 35; 1506; 34%3.26; 19%1.29; 32%1.55; 57%8.07;-2%0.55;-27BEUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025100%Share of people exposed to harmful noise levelsby transport mode(2021,EU27 EFTA)90pP0 %0wy%4%LdenLnightRoadRailAir431.3 EMISSIONSSolutions exist to curb CO2 emissions,but NOX remains a challengeThe full-flight carbon dioxide(CO2)emissions of all flights departing from EU27 EFTA airports have followed a similar pattern to noise and were estimated to be 133 million tonnes in 2023,which is 10low the 2019 peak(Figure 1.10a).Mainline and low-cost operators accounted for 52%and 28%of CO2 emissions respectively in 2023(Figure 1.11).Single-aisle and twin-aisle jets emitted 96%of total CO2 emissions(almost equally split between the two categories),while long-distance flights(above 4 000 km)represented 46%(Figure 1.13).Flights with a destination outside EU27-EFTA accounted for 61%of CO2 emissions(Figure 1.14).In the short term,market-based measures are expected to stabilise European aviations net(i.e.lifecycle)CO2 emissions,while sustainable aviation fuels still show the greatest potential for reduction in the 2050 timeframe(Figure 1.10b).During 2023 the EU Emissions Trading System(ETS)achieved net CO2 reductions of about 25 million tonnes(Mt)through the purchase of allowances by operators.In combination,the EU ETS,the CH ETS and the ICAO Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation(CORSIA)could yield an average 39 Mt net CO2 reduction per year over the period 2024-2026(see Market Based Measures chapter for details).Meeting the ReFuelEU Aviation 4 supply mandate for Sustainable Aviation Fuels(SAF)would cut net CO2 emissions by at least 65 Mt(47%)in 2050 under the base traffic scenario.This is lower than the estimated 60.8%emissions reduction in the European Commission Impact Assessment for ReFuelEU Aviation due to more conservative assumptions 12.The emission reductions in Figure 1.10b are based on the final ReFuelEU Aviation minimum level of SAF supply and emissions reductions in line with the mandate and sustainability criteria(see Appendix C for more details on the SAF scenario).Under ReFuelEU Aviation,EASA will collect data from aircraft operators and aviation fuel suppliers on SAF,including their sustainability characteristics.The actual reported values of SAF uptake and the CO2eq emissions reductions for each SAF category will be used to inform the net CO2 estimates in future versions of this report.Electric and hydrogen aircraft were assumed to deliver an additional 5%net CO2 reduction by 2050 and may have a larger emission reduction potential beyond this date.OVERVIEW OF AVIATION SECTOR44EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025Figure 1.10(a)Aircraft technology and ATM improvements could prevent further growth in European aviations CO2 emissions over the next decades 228171183139128981091471331560501001502002501990200020102020203020402050Full-fight CO2 emissionsof all departures from EU27 EFTA(million tonnes)IMPACT high trafc scenarioIMPACT base trafc scenarioIMPACT low trafc scenarioIMPACT,2005-2023EEA/UNFCCC70For each trafc scenario,the upper bound of the range refects the feet renewal scenario with frozen technology;the lower bound refects the scenario with aircraft/engine technology and ATM improvements(see Appendix C for detailed assumptions).Figure 1.10(b)Meeting the SAF supply mandate would cut net CO2 emissions by at least 47%in 2050 18315413973109147133108640204060801001201401601802002005201020152020202520302035204020452050Net CO2 emissions of all departures from EU27 EFTAunder the base trafc scenario(million tonnes)Fleet renewal with frozen technologyConventional aircraft technologyAir trafc managementSustainable aviation fuelsIMPACT,2005-2023Net CO2 with efect of EU ETS,CH ETS and CORSIAElectric and hydrogen aircraftThe blue wedges include the efect of in-sector measures under the base trafc forecast:CO2 emissions reductions from conventional aircraft technology and ATM-Operations,as well as CO2eq reductions from SAF(in line with ReFuelEU Aviation supply mandate and minimum emissions reduction thresholds)and electric/hydrogen propulsion.The grey wedge shows the efect of market-based measures:EU ETS(2013-2026),CH ETS(2020-2026)and ICAO CORSIA(2021-2026).See Appendix C for detailed assumptions.45OVERVIEW OF AVIATION SECTORICAO Long Term Global Aspirational GoalThe 41st ICAO Assembly in October 2022 adopted a global Long-Term Aspirational Goal(LTAG)for international aviation of net-zero carbon emissions by 2050 in support of the Paris Agreements temperature goal 13.The LTAG does not attribute specific obligations or commitments in the form of emissions reduction goals to individual States.Instead,it recognizes that each States special circumstances and respective capabilities will inform the ability of each State to contribute to the LTAG within its own national timeframe.Each State will contribute to achieving the goal in a socially,economically and environmentally sustainable manner and in accordance with its national circumstances,and ICAO will regularly monitor progress on the implementation of all elements of the basket of measures towards the achievement of the LTAG 14.Figure 1.11 Mainline and low-cost operators account for 80%of total CO2 emissions2.213.137.53.969.55.0020406080100BusinessCargoCharterLow-costTraditional ScheduledMainlineRegionalOther2005200720092011201320152017201920212023Full fight CO2 emissions of all departuresfrom EU27 EFTA(million tonnes)EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025Compared to the previous report,a slightly more conservative future engine technology scenario was used to predict emissions of nitrogen oxides(NOX)out to 2050.The updated emissions trends chart(Figure 1.12)confirms that mitigating the growth in NOX emissions over the next decades remains a challenge.The same conclusion applies to a lesser extent to volatile particulate matter(PM)emissions(Figure 1.15).Emissions of carbon monoxide(CO),unburnt hydrocarbons(HC)and non-volatile PM are expected to stabilise or even reduce by 2050 through the effect of fleet renewal and ATM improvements.See Chapter 2 on Environmental Impacts for further information on the impacts of air pollutants,including ultrafine particles from aircraft,which is an emerging pollutant of concern that will be monitored under the revised EU Ambient Air Quality Directive.Figure 1.12 NOX emissions may continue to grow with traffic1 2451 04197982066055547869764427472002004006008001 0001 2001 4001990200020102020203020402050Full-fight NOx emissionsof all departures from EU27 EFTA(thousand tonnes)IMPACT high trafc scenarioIMPACT base trafc scenarioIMPACT low trafc scenarioIMPACT,2005-2023EEA/CLRTAPFor each trafc scenario,the upper bound of the range refects the feet renewal scenario with frozen technology;the lower bound refects the scenario with engine technology and ATM improvements(see Appendix C for assumptions).46OVERVIEW OF AVIATION SECTOREuropean aviation emissions in contextIn 2022,flights departing from EU27 EFTA represented 12%of total transport greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions and 4%of total GHG emissions in EU27 EFTA.Aviation GHG emissions of 2022 have already almost reached the pre COVID pandemic levels and increased by 84%compared to 1990.Overall,aviation was the third largest source of GHG emissions in the transport sector after road and waterborne transport 7.This increase is mostly due to traffic growth outpacing energy efficiency improvements and reductions of emissions from other sectors 8.NOX emissions from aviation have more than doubled since 1990 in EU27 EFTA,reaching a share of 14%in overall NOX transport emissions of EU27 EFTA in 2022,which is similar to the pre-COVID share and represents an increase of 11%compared to 1990.This increase is mostly due to the growth in air traffic not being offset by the incremental improvements in engine technology to mitigate NOX emissions,which is more technically complex compared to other modes of transport.In 2022,aviation was responsible for 4%of all PM2.5 emissions from transport in EU27 EFTA,with absolute emissions increasing by 35%since 1990.Similar to NOX emissions,the overall share of PM2.5 is essentially back to pre-COVID levels.Black carbon,sulphur oxides and ammonia are among the other pollutants for which emissions from aviation have also increased since 1990 9.Despite the ongoing decarbonisation efforts,and the development of low carbon emissions aircraft(e.g.electric or hydrogen),air pollution from the sector will remain a challenge in the future.Figure 1.13 Single-aisle and twin-aisle jets generated over 90%of noise and emissions in 2023 Share of fights Share of CO2Share of NOx4 000 KmFlight Distance1 500-4 000 Km500-1 500 Km0-500 Km28.7%5.7%5.4.6D.9$.7.8C.9 .8#.9!.3.5%5.6E.7P.5.0%6.7%8.2%2.8%4.3%1.2%0.8%2.6p.3I.2E.0p.5%6.7G.1R.5!.3%Share of fightsShare of CO2Share of NOxShare of noiseenergyTwin-aisle jetsSingle-aisle jetsRegional jetsTurbopropsBusiness jetsLight propsShare of noiseenergyAircraft Category4748EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025Figure 1.14 Extra-EU27 EFTA flights represented 23%of departures and 61%of CO2 emissions in 2023EU27 EFTA77.0%flights39.5%CO2?North Atlantic2.2%flights16.3%CO2?Mid-Atlantic0.4%flights3.2%CO2?Asia/Pacific1.1%flights12.9%CO2?North Africa2.4%flights2.5%CO2?Southern Africa0.6%flights3.5%CO2?Middle East2.0%flights7.1%CO2?South Atlantic0.4%flights4.2%CO2?Other Europe13.9%flights10.9%CO2?49OVERVIEW OF AVIATION SECTORFlight Emissions LabelPassengers need to be able to trust the information from aircraft operators regarding the environmental performance of their flights to make informed choices when comparing different options.The current lack of a common methodology,criteria and indicators with adequately reported,certified and monitored results does not facilitate this.As such,in order for consumers to be able to make an informed choice,more robust,reliable,independent and harmonised information is needed on the environmental impact of flights.Pursuant to Article 14(11)of the ReFuelEU Aviation Regulation 4,the European Commission prepared an Implementing Act to be adopted by the end of 2024 setting out a standardised and science-based methodology to be applied for the estimation of flight emissions.The rules and conditions laid down in the proposal will incentivise competition between aircraft operators to reduce their emissions by improving the legal certainty of their environmental claims in relation to aviation fuels they purchase and use in their flights.Airlines who volunteer to participate in the Flight Emissions Label will have to report operational data to EASA who will estimate emissions of future flights.In return airlines will receive an approved label based on two metrics(kgCO2eq per passenger and kgCO2eq per passenger-kilometre).EASA is also tasked with setting up a website to provide passengers with detailed information on the flight emissions label,such as the methodology,assumptions and emissions estimations.In April 2024,the European Commission and the EU Consumer Protection Cooperation Network initiated an investigation against 20 airlines with respect to potentially misleading green claims 1.This followed a similar finding in a Dutch court that environmental claims made by an airline were misleading and were in breach of consumer protection laws 2.These types of claims are not confined to the aviation sector,and the European Commission is proposing a new Directive on Green Claims to increase confidence in the environmental information provided by companies on their product and services 3.This type of policy measure to increase transparency recorded the highest levels of public support in a recent survey 5.EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 2025Figure 1.15 Summary of full-flight emission indicators(%change to 2005)Note:2030 and 2050 values are for the base traffic scenario.Blue and orange lines represent the range of aircraft/engine technology and ATM improvements.The net CO2 indicator includes emission reductions from the EU ETS up to 2023,sustainable aviation fuels(SAF)and electric/hydrogen propulsion out to 2050.No assumptions on potential improvements to HC,CO and PM have been made out to 2050 from technology and SAF.Average fuel consumption is for commercial passenger aircraft only and does not take into account belly freight.Kilometres used in this indicator represent the shortest(or great circle)distance between origin and destination,while fuel consumption is based on the actual flown distance(i.e.this indicator includes the effect of ATM horizontal inefficiency).4.1; 30.0;-19r6; 529; 27F.4; 34B.2; 22C.8; 27G.3; 37X.0; 68 19202320302050Fuel burn(Mt;%change to 2005)2.1; 10%1.7;-11%1.8;-8%1.6;-19%1.4;-27 1920232030Non-volatile PM(Kt;%change to 2005)4.2; 35%3.8; 22%4.4; 41%4.1; 33%4.9; 57 19202320302050Volatile PM(Kt;%change to 2005)140; 134; 16; 20; 149; 13 19202320302050CO(Kt;%change to 2005)14.5; 6.7;-14.2;-17%8.6;-36%7.8;-43 19202320302050HC(Kt;%change to 2005)697; 46d4; 350; 72t6; 569; 105 19202320302050NOx(Kt;%change to 2005)3.5;-27%3.3;-32%3.0;-37%2.9;-41%2.2;-54 19202320302050Average fuel consumption(litres fuel per 100 passenger-kilometres;%change to 2005)114; 48;-1d;-420; 373; 68 19202320302050Net CO2(Mt;%change to 2005)2050Frozen technology(base trafc scenario)Aircraft/engine technology and ATM improvements(base trafc scenario)45.7; 32%2.9;-398; 11%1.7;-10P51OVERVIEW OF AVIATION SECTOR0.40.60.81.01.21.41.61.82.02005200720092011201320152017201920212023Index(2005=1.0)passenger kilometrespassengersnumber of fightsNOx emissionsCO2 emissionsnoise energyFigure 1.16 CO2 emissions continue to grow faster than noise energy,but slower than NOX1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL EFFICIENCYAfter the COVID pandemic,noise and emissions of European aviation have resumed their growth,although at a slower rate than passenger kilometres(Figure 1.16).The average grams CO2 per passenger kilometre(gCO2/pkm)was 83 in 2023,against 89 in 2019,equivalent to an average 2.1%per annum fuel efficiency improvement since 2005.It could continue decreasing down to 56 gCO2/pkm(or 2.2 litres fuel per 100 passenger kilometres)in 2050 under the considered fuel efficiency improvement scenario for future aircraft deliveries and ATM improvements scenario.NOX emissions have grown faster than CO2 since 2009 and are expected to continue to do so without further improvement in engine technology.52253AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTSAVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS Latest IPCC,WMO and Copernicus Climate Change Service all highlight widespread,rapid and record-breaking changes in the climate and extreme weather events,with Europe warming twice as fast as the global average making it the fastest warming continent in the world.In 2022,all departing flights accounted for 4%of EU27 EFTA total greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions.The overall climate impact from aviation is a combination of both its CO2 and non-CO2 emissions(e.g.NOX,PM,SOX,water vapour and subsequent formation of contrail-cirrus clouds).The estimated Effective Radiative Forcing(ERF)from historic non-CO2 emissions between 1940 and 2018 accounted for more than half of the aviation net warming effect,but the level of uncertainty from the non-CO2 effects is 8 times higher than that of CO2.Further research on the climate impact of non-CO2 emissions from aviation,especially on induced changes in cloudiness and methodologies to estimate aircraft GHG inventories,is required to reduce uncertainties and support robust decision-making.Emissions with a short-term climate impact(e.g.NOX)can be expressed as equivalent to emissions with long-term climate impacts(e.g.CO2)in order to assess trade-offs of mitigation measures,but this is influenced by the metric and time horizon used.A non-CO2 MRV framework began on 1 January 2025 aiming at monitoring,reporting and verifying the non-CO2 emissions produced by aircraft operators.This framework is designed to provide valuable data for scientific research that will enhance our understanding of non-CO2 effects and help address aviation climate impacts more effectively.A European Parliament pilot project was launched in 2024 to explore the feasibility of optimizing fuel composition in order to reduce the environmental and climate impacts from non-CO2 emissions without negatively impacting safety(e.g.lower aromatics,sulphur).The Aviation Non-CO2 Expert Network(ANCEN)has been established to facilitate coordination across stakeholders and to provide objective and credible technical support that can inform discussions on potential measures to reduce the climate impact from non-CO2 emissions.Aviation adaptation and resilience to climate change will be critical to address projected future trends in hazardous weather events(e.g.severe convective storms and clear air turbulence)and changes to climatic and environmental conditions(e.g.sea level rise,changes to prevailing surface winds,upper atmosphere turbulence).Aircraft engine emissions(mainly NOX and particulate matter)impact air quality around airports.Exposure to NO2 and ultrafine particles levels from aviation could be significant in residential areas in the vicinity of airports.The Environmental Noise Directive 2022 data estimates 649 000 people experience high levels of annoyance due to aircraft noise,while 127 000 suffer from significant sleep disturbances.The REACH1 Regulation restrictions on Substances of Very High Concern(e.g.chromium trioxide,PFAS)are impacting the aviation sector due to the absence of immediate alternatives.1 Registration,Evaluation,Authorisation and restriction of CHemicals(REACH)54EUROPEAN AVIATION ENVIRONMENTAL REPORT 20252.1 CLIMATE CHANGE The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC)is responsible for providing policymakers with regular scientific assessments.In 2023 the IPCC published the Synthesis Report which integrates the findings from Working Group reports and the Special Reports during the 6th Assessment cycle 1.It concluded that human activities,principally through emissions of greenhouse gases(GHG),have unequivocally caused global warming,with global surface temperature reaching 1.1C above a baseline 2 Observed(19002020)and projected(20212100)changes in global surface temperature(relative to 1850-1900),which are linked to changes in climate conditions and impacts,illustrate how the climate has already changed and will change along the lifespan of three representative generations(born in 1950,1980 and 2020).Future projections(20212100)of changes in global surface temperature are shown for very low(SSP1-1.9),low(SSP1-2.6),intermediate(SSP2-4.5),high(SSP3-7.0)and very
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9600 Great Hills Trail,Suite 300E,Austin,TX 78759|Tel.1.512.425.3500|WHITE PAPER Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility S9600 Great Hills Trail,Suite 300E,Austin,TX 78759|Tel.1.512.425.3500|Table of Contents Introduction 3Visibility Pain Points and Benefits 4 Logistics Team Labor Costs 5 Customer Churn Costs 6Disputes on Carrier Accessorials 7Penalties and Dispute Costs 8Labor Time Wasted at Delivery Sites 9Fresh Inventory Turnover 10Maritime Demurrage Costs 10Customer Service Costs 11Summary of Benefits 12Industry-Specific Benefits 13Requesting a Customer Value Assessment 15Kickstarting a Visibility Project 173Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Solutions IntroductionModern supply chains consist of a holistic and connected process with numerous interdependent components.Without real-time visibility into shipments on the move,leaders cant make quality decisions when they need to pivot.“Visibility and transparency in transportation has moved to the top of many organizations priority lists due to customer demand,along with supply chain disruptions and the necessity in decision making for inventory management,”according to Gartner,Inc.1 The research and advisory firm also states,“Commercial customers and consumers continue to have increased demands around real-time visibility to their orders and shipments.This remains valid for any organization,regardless of size,geography or industry.It is applicable across all regions,with North America and Europe leading the adoption.”2 However,for forward-thinking leaders driving real-time transportation visibility(RTTV)projects within their organizations,the many benefits can be difficult to quantify.This guide outlines the major pain points related to a lack of supply chain visibility,describes the corresponding benefits of RTTV solutions,and quantifies the average gains in efficiency and cost savings an organization can expect from implementing real-time visibility capabilities.The estimates are based on data from over 80 customers representing a number of common verticals and operating across multiple continents in a range of sizes.Compiled and organized by Shippeo,a global leader in transportation visibility solutions,this information is designed to help supply chain leaders estimate the return on investment (ROI)of a visibility project to aid in building a business case.Having partnered with Shippeo,e2open is able to provide bespoke value assessments of prospective or in-process visibility projects based on your organizations unique needs and context.This is strongly recommended early on in your exploration of end-to-end visibility solutions as well as transport management systems,both of which benefit from integration with RTTV.Having completed countless visibility projects for international organizations,e2open can help you quantify the many benefits for your business case and assist in demonstrating their value to stakeholders.4Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Solutions Visibility Pain Points and BenefitsMany organizations experience a visibility gap when it comes to transportation.They know when a shipment is booked to be picked up and dropped off,but theres no indication of actual or estimated times,or any status updates available during transit.With improved transportation transparency and data quality,its possible to see more of whats happening within the network.This holistic view of the supply chain enables companies to make operational optimizations on the fly.The resulting transparency increases network stability,brings attention to the information needed in order to take action more quickly,and makes cross-functional cost efficiencies possible.There are eight common areas of cost reduction that real-time transportation visibility solutions can bring to supply chain organizations across a variety of company sizes and industry sectors.These areas can help form the foundation of a visibility project business case:Logistics team labor costs Customer churn costs Disputes on carrier accessorials Penalties and dispute costs Labor time wasted at delivery sites Fresh inventory turnover Maritime demurrage costs Customer service costs5Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Solutions Logistics Team Labor CostsFor decades,transport teams have employed workers to manually follow up via phone,email,or even fax on deliveries in transit a very time-consuming and inefficient process.Faced with this lack of information,shippers developed and used their own tracking portals and required carriers to manually enter information after each delivery.These proprietary tools,sometimes based on spreadsheets,create a significant amount of work for carriers.In a medium-sized firm,data entry can take three to five hours per week and tends to be subject to human error.The resulting data also lacks accuracy and objectivity for the shipper,and it is usually collected several hours after a delivery occurred.This slow flow of information can create invoicing delays,affecting cash flow.The ability to predict accurate estimated times of arrival (ETAs)for shipments can reduce administration costs for organizations by automating processes and allowing teams to focus on exceptions.The use of automated workflows enables shippers to better utilize teams who used to perform time-consuming tasks like sending delivery notifications,calling carriers to follow up on the The Added Value of AppsShippeos mobile application facilitates paperless processes with digital electronic proofs of delivery(ePODs).The application also saves drivers paper printing and handling time and accelerates customer invoicing to improve cash flow.In the same way,end customers can reduce administrative time and costs as well as the number of full-time employees required.Labor hours spent by operators to complete an“incident form”due to tracking issues can be reduced by 60-70%whereabouts of deliveries,scheduling docks,and processing payments.Automated customer notifications on shipment locations and status help improve customer satisfaction while also reducing the number of customer inquiries.The streamlining of communication between carriers,customers,and shipping departments gives transport managers more bandwidth to focus on activities that add greater value to the business.The reduction in time spent on non-value-added activities for a typical logistics team creates substantial savings.For example,labor hours spent by operators to complete an incident form or ticket due to tracking issues can be reduced by 60 to 70%.6Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Solutions Customer Churn CostsMany shippers are dealing with increasingly demanding customers.The demands are driven by new practices adopted in B2C transportation deliveries in less than two hours,precise follow-up on deliveries,and so on and push companies to improve their quality of service at the delivery level.Currently,problems occurring during transportation,particularly delays,are known only several hours after a delivery occurs.In most cases,it is the end customers themselves who alert the shipper about a delivery problem.For the receiver,whether a store or a warehouse,this lack of visibility results in significant costs,such as those incurred to mobilize teams for the unplanned loading and unloading of goods.In addition,depending on the situation,no-show rates for a large retailers warehouse may be between 5 and 15%,indicating that a number of deliveries fail to arrive when promised.A lack of real-time delivery information also leads to numerous calls and complaints that customer service teams must handle and can erode the relationship between the shipper and the recipient or end customer.A resulting decline in brand and reputation also affects an organizations ability to build healthy margins into delivery services.The resulting higher costs and thinner margins can create a vicious cycle.RTTV platforms like e2open Logistics Visibility help improve delivery service levels,contributing to reduced customer churn and an increase in sales of approximately 1%on the average.One of the worlds largest energy solutions players uses e2opens real-time shipment visibility solution to enhance customer satisfaction by creating value-added services such as real-time tracking,accurate delivery ETAs,and better incident management for shipments in transit.This helps ensure that the impact on end customers,and consequently churn,is minimized.An RTTV platform helps mitigate negative impacts on end customers by giving service teams the ability to respond to exceptions quickly and anticipate delays and other issues.Information on deliveries can also be made available directly to end customers,eliminating the middleman and helping companies manage expectations.Both of these capabilities help increase customer satisfaction,reduce negative net promoter scores(NPSs),and potentially increase sales and customer retention due to higher service levels and customer experience improvements.Reduced churn contributes to a 1%increase in sales on average.7Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Solutions Disputes on Carrier Accessorials With demand outpacing supply,costs have been on the rise and so has the importance of optimizing transportation asset use.B2B supply chains have become increasingly complex and fragmented,and deliveries have in turn become even more challenging to monitor.Companies are faced with a lack of tools for measuring the delivery service levels of carriers,especially when they are subcontracted.The lack of precise data makes it difficult to reliably measure on-time,in-full(OTIF)delivery performance,which is one of supply chain managements main objectives.Real-time ETAs are another way shippers can gain greater transparency when it comes to carrier operations.This transparency helps ensure that costs associated with freight are fair and reasonable,particularly for accessorial (non-standard)costs,through workflows.GPS and geofencing makes it possible to capture precise delivery performance data,including loading and unloading site arrival and departure times,dwell times,and journey times,providing reliable and actionable insight for improving supply chain efficacy.With real-time insights from Logistics Visibility,shippers can leverage useful delivery metrics in a customizable online dashboard.Loading and rotation rates can be optimized,boosting service levels and in many cases reducing costs.Precise delivery performance data facilitates route optimization and enables shippers to verify that the carrier costs quoted are justified,which helps minimize transport costs.In fact,improved data for eliminating carrier accessorials results in a 0.5 to 1%freight tariff reduction.For example,one of the worlds top 10 automotive manufacturers uses real-time insights on shipments in transit to collaborate more effectively with inbound delivery partners.This makes for smooth business-critical operations at the manufacturers assembly lines and helps the manufacturer ensure that fees are reasonable based on objective historical data.As a result,the company has saved an average of 775,000($829,500)on its transport budget annually.The availability of objective transportation data has resulted in freight tariff reductions of 0.5-1rriers also benefit from the data collected because it allows them to optimize their operations and reduce costs.In addition,Logistics Visibility offers carriers a cost-free way to integrate with a wider supply chain ecosystem.Traditional system integrations can be expensive and difficult to implement,especially when using more traditional EDI data exchange technologies.E2opens own API integrations make it possible to connect in a fraction of the time.8Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Solutions Penalties and Dispute CostsA lack of time-stamped delivery data may lead to penalties and disputes.Loading and unloading slots at delivery sites can be strict.If a shipment arrives too early,it can mean additional storage costs for the shipper.If the shipment is too late,it could result in penalties,dissatisfied customers,and other ripple effects downstream.Furthermore,some industries such as manufacturing and automotive rely heavily on just-in-time delivery to enable production line efficiency,which obviously requires highly accurate delivery times.Precise location data collected and processed by an RTTV solution allows for greater objectivity when measuring punctuality and OTIF performance.Automated notifications give advance warning of delays to end customers to help manage expectations and potentially avoid late penalties.For example,it may be possible to rebook dock slots without incurring additional costs.In addition,platforms such as Logistics Visibility that enable automated ePOD also bring clarity and objectivity to help avoid or resolve disputes.Shippeos mobile application makes more granular-level layers of visibility possible through handling-unit tracking.Using the apps barcode scanner on units or pallets during loading or unloading helps to reduce the number of misdeliveries and disputes.Reduce labor costs relating to dispute resolution by up toDecrease carrier waiting time penalties by up to750%A large European supermarket chain uses Logistics Visibility to save 750,000($803,000)a year in franchisee dispute costs,which is a 75%reduction in total annual dispute costs for the company.On the average,RTTV platforms also help shippers achieve a decrease of up to 30%in waiting time penalties from carriers.In addition,both a large European fast-moving consumer goods(FMCG)producer and a global beauty and cosmetics consumer packaged goods(CPG)manufacturer have estimated a reduction in penalties of 1 million per year in the French market alone by using Logistics Visibility.9Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Solutions Labor Time Wasted at Delivery SitesA lack of visibility also creates operational inefficiencies throughout the supply chain,particularly at delivery sites.This can result in high labor costs at warehouses,loading docks,and production lines.No advance knowledge of delays or early arrivals means that loading docks are not managed efficiently.An early arrival results in long dwell times while a truck waits for its scheduled delivery slot.A late arrival is forced to wait for a gap in the schedule,again increasing dwell times and the associated costs.Stores or other delivery recipients can incur additional and unnecessary costs due to poor operational visibility.Just like at warehouses,trucks held up at delivery sites,unable to unload,end up costing more in driver overtime.It is a particularly relevant problem for retailers,where late deliveries can draw staff away from other important activities such as shelf restocking or selling to customers during busy periods.When real-time tracking is combined with the advanced computational power of machine learning,it is possible to attain highly accurate and reliable ETAs.Such accuracy enables companies to increase the operational efficiency in warehouses,improving resource utilization with dynamic dock appointment bookings.Real-time location data from an RTTV platform can be used to better plan the personnel assigned to goods receiving areas or storage facilities.This is realized by combining dynamic dock appointment booking with real-time visibility and accurate ETAs.With ETA accuracy,companies are better able to keep labor hours to a minimum with less waiting around.In turn,carriers are better served and can start their next activity faster.Furthermore,many of the costs relating to exceptions,express costs,waiting times,and the rebooking of loading and unloading time slots at storage facilities can be reduced or avoided.By using the accurate data from dock booking tools,the load factor of trucks can be increased.Consequently,work time spent to prepare and load material at delivery sites can be reduced by 10 to 20%on the average,thanks to greater operational visibility and more precise dock activity planning.In stores,the streamlining of operations due to precise delivery ETAs can help reduce extra costs and overtime by as much as 30%.Streamline operations leading to areduction in extra costs30Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Solutions Fresh Inventory TurnoverOne of the consequences of poor visibility within stores is the opportunity cost of failing to keep satisfactory levels of stock on shelves.A late delivery can have a direct impact on turnover for retailers,especially for fresh products such as seafood,meat,fruit,and vegetables,as well as those on promotion.Store staff who restock fresh items must work as early as 5 AM and tend to finish at lunchtime.If a delivery truck has a significant delay(such as two hours,for example),there wont be enough time for some of the goods to be put on shelves,resulting in both loss of turnover and product waste.Predictive delivery ETAs generated by RTTV platforms help ensure that daily deliveries are well received,especially for fresh products requiring just-in-time delivery.Such ETAs can improve delivery punctuality for more efficient restocking on shelves and allow scanning teams to better monitor the availability of products and reduce shrinkage without increasing workload.Better delivery visibility also makes inventory organization and storage more efficient by improving the accuracy and predictability of future shipments,making it possible to minimize safety stock.For fresh or promoted products,RTTV can increase turnover by up to 2%by enabling smoother in-store operations thanks to precise shipment ETAs.Maritime Demurrage CostsFor maritime cargo,poor execution and timing for loading or unloading can result in containers unexpectedly lying idle in ports and yards,resulting in hefty demurrage fees.This is often caused by the lack of visibility into a vessels ETA or a containers status.Without this visibility,warehouses and other delivery sites downstream are unable to organize themselves properly to receive large volumes of inbound goods.As a consequence,containers sometimes remain at ports for many more days than necessary,resulting in millions in unexpected costs.Organizations using a visibility solution can expect a detention and demurrage fee reduction of up to 25%.In the same vein,yard management solutions can also be integrated with RTTV platforms to improve a companys ability to locate lost containers.Case in point,a large European supermarket chain was paying as much as 10 million($10.7 million)a year in demurrage costs.Real-time visibility into container shipments has helped the company cut these costs by 30%.A cost reduction of this kind is achieved through better organization within the distribution centers that the platform enables,which helps eliminate bottlenecks and allows containers to be emptied more quickly.11Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Solutions Customer Service CostsMany supply chains contain visibility blind spots where the status or whereabouts of a shipment is completely unknown potentially for days or weeks.In many cases,shippers only become aware of delays once an end customer complains about a late delivery,negatively impacting NPSs.Customer service teams subsequently waste a lot of time manually following up on customer queries about late deliveries rather than focusing on tasks that could be adding greater operational value.Average labor hours spent by operators on delivery inquiries are reduced by20-40%For many organizations,a significant portion of their customer service inquiries are related to delivery status.Improved RTTV helps customer-facing teams meet ever-higher B2B customer service expectations by sharing more delivery information proactively,which decreases the number of contacts the customer service center receives.This reduces pressure on team resources,allowing staff to provide a higher level of service when handling customer inquiries and focus on exception management.Overall satisfaction is positively impacted,and average work time spent by operators on delivery inquiries is reduced by 20 to 40%.A large European appliance manufacturing firm estimates that Logistics Visibility helped the company reduce its customer service workforce by as much as 50%.Fewer inquiries also means higher NPSs and lower customer churn.12Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Solutions Summary of Benefits The quantified benefits for each of the eight core areas outlined in this paper are summarized in the following table.Pain PointQuantified BenefitLabor hours spent on tracking issues due to non-value-added activities Up to 70%reduction in labor hoursCustomer churn and low margins from lack of proactive communication on delivery problems Up to 1%increase in salesDisputes on carrier accessorials due to lack of historical performance data Up to 1%reduction in freight tariffsPenalties and dispute costs from lack of time-stamped delivery data Up to 30crease in waiting time penalties from carriersLabor time wasted at delivery sites Up to 20%reduction in labor hoursLow fresh inventory turnover Up to 2%increase in turnoverHigh demurrage costs for maritime container shipments Up to 30%reduction in demurrage costsHigh customer service costs from delivery inquiries Up to 40%reduction of labor hours13Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Solutions Industry-Specific BenefitsBelow are additional examples of the quantified benefits of RTTV with more precise guidance on average figures achieved for a variety of industry sectors.Pain PointsQuantified BenefitIndustry SectorLabor hours spent on non-value-added delivery tracking tasksReduction in time spent to treat an incident formManufacturing 50-60%Retail 60-70%FMCG 80-90%Reduction in time needed to close a claimLogistics Services 40-50%Unproductive store staff due to inefficiency from no visibility Increase of store staff productivityRetail 16%High transport cost from lack of precise,objective performance measurement Reduction in tariffs in transport contracts based on dwell timeRetail 40-70%FMCG 50-80%Customer churn from lack of track and trace service offering Increase in business retention(incremental revenue growth)Logistics Services 0.6%Eliminating disputes on carrier accessorials due to lack of historical performance data Reduction in freight tariffsRetail 0.5-1%FMCG 0.5-1%Manufacturing 0.5-1%Automotive 2-5%Penalties and dispute costs from lack of time-stamped delivery data Decrease in carrier waiting time penaltiesManufacturing 18-24%Logistics Service 20-30%Building Materials 20-30crease in client penaltiesAutomotive 30-50%Cost of dwell time management inefficiency in plants Reduction of dwell timeFMCG 20-40%Transport budget savings Automotive 1%Costly production line halts from delayed part deliveries Transport budget savingsAutomotive 1.5%Costs of human error inefficiencies from lack of process automation Transport budget savingsAutomotive 0.5-2%Loss of productivity for transportation teams for lack of real-time information Increased transportation team productivityBuilding Materials 15%Retail 20%High exception costs due to lack of operational agility Reduction of urgent exception transport costsBuilding Materials 10-20%Automotive 15-30Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Solutions Pain PointsQuantified BenefitIndustry SectorReducing labor time wasted at delivery sites Reduced labor hoursRetail 10-20%Automotive 15-20%Building Materials 19-23%FMCG 10-30%High customer service costs from delivery inquiries Reduced labor hours spent by operatorsRetail 20-40%FMCG 23-41%Automotive 18-28%Building Materials 30-50%Logistics Services 25-45%Manufacturing 20-40%Unoptimized manufacturing utilization levels Decreased material loss valueFMCG 5-10%Manufacturing 5-10Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Solutions Requesting a Customer Value AssessmentE2open can quickly prepare a value assessment to help your organization accurately estimate the projected ROI of the e2open RTTV solution.Below are three quick generic calculations you can make to begin to quantify the benefit that an RTTV platform can provide in specific areas.Each calculation is just one example from one area of benefit,and there are usually at least a dozen others.For a full,more detailed assessment,please contact the e2open team.Example 1:Logistics Team Labor Cost Savings Reduction in Transport Incidents Caused by Unforeseen Events or Delays This represents the estimated annual labor savings from a reduction in incident forms or tickets for transportation management due to e2opens early detection of supply chain risks and automatic shipment delay warnings.The total savings at the end of the calculation below represents the associated costs of work that could be eliminated or redeployed on tasks,adding greater value to the organization.Figure ATime spent on each form/ticket:_ minutes(e.g.,10 minutes per form)Figure BNumber of incident forms/tickets per year:_ forms/tickets(e.g.,5,800 per year)Figure CAverage salary of the relevant full-time employee processing forms/tickets:_ per year (e.g.,50,000$53,500 per year)Estimated reduction in time to treat an incident form/ticket concerning tracking issues:80%Figure DTotal hours in working day:_ (e.g.,7 hours per day)Figure E Total working days in working year:_ (e.g.,220 days per year)Annual Savings in Administrative Labor Costs=A x B x C x 80 x D x E_16Guide to Optimizing ROI for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Solutions Example 2:Penalties and Dispute Cost Savings Reduction in Reclaimed PenaltiesThe reduction in reclaimed penalties from clients for late arrivals is determined using objective data captured automatically.Figure AAnnual late arrival penalties:_ (e.g.,2,600,000$2,783,000 per year)Estimated decrease in client penalties:4%Example 3:Savings Related to Carrier Accessorials Reduction in Planned Dwell Time The reduction in planned dwell-time hours that were built into the transport contract is based on an objective measurement of real dwell time per site.Figure AHourly waiting time cost:_ (e.g.,34$36 per hour)Figure BAnnual transport orders:_ (e.g.,36,000 per year)Figure CPlanned dwell time in contract:_ hours(e.g.,2 hours)Decrease in dwell time:25%Possible tariff reduction:65%Annual Savings in Late Penalties Annual Savings in Tariffs=A x 0.04A x B x C x 0.1625_9600 Great Hills Trail,Suite 300E,Austin,TX 78759|Tel.1.512.425.3500|About ShippeoShippeo is a global leader in real-time multimodal transportation visibility,helping major shippers and logistics service providers operate more collaborative,automated,sustainable,profitable,and customer-centric supply chains.This is made possible with highly accurate,real-time operational visibility and perfect workflow orchestration.Their Multimodal Visibility Network integrates with more than 1,000 TMS,telematics and ELD systems,enabling Shippeos platform to provide instant access to real-time shipment tracking across all transport modes,in a single portal,through an intuitive user experience.A proprietary and industry-leading machine learning algorithm offers unmatched ETA accuracy,allowing supply chain companies to quickly anticipate problems,proactively alert customers,efficiently manage exceptions with collaborative workflows,and accurately measure CO2 and GHG emissions from supply chain transport.Hundreds of customers,including global brands like Coca-Cola HBC,Carrefour,Renault Group,Schneider Electric,Total,Siemens Energy,Faurecia,Saint-Gobain and Eckes Granini,trust Shippeo to track more than 32 million shipments per year across 110 countries.Learn more at .About E2openE2open is the connected supply chain software platform that enables the worlds largest companies to transform the way they make,move,and sell goods and services.With the broadest cloud-native global platform purpose-built for modern supply chains,e2open connects more than 400,000 manufacturing,logistics,channel,and distribution partners as one multi-enterprise network tracking over 12 billion transactions annually.Our SaaS platform anticipates disruptions and opportunities to help companies improve efficiency,reduce waste,and operate sustainably.Moving as one.Learn More:.E2open and the e2open logo are registered trademarks of e2open,LLC.Moving as one.is a trademark of e2open,LLC.All other trademarks,registered trademarks,or service marks are the property of their respective owners.WPGTOR231Get in Touch With an Expert TodaySeasoned experts at e2open are ready to help you evaluate ways to improve performance through increased supply chain visibility for your organization.Please reach out to us at or by calling 1.866.432.6736.1.West,Carly.Key Insights to Navigating the Transportation Visibility Market.Gartner,Inc.,July 22,2022.2.Ibid.3.West,Carly.Magic Quadrant for Real-Time Transportation Visibility Platforms.Gartner,Inc.,May 24,2022.GARTNER and MAGIC QUADRANT are registered trademarks of Gartner,Inc.and/or its affiliates in the U.S.and internationally and is used herein with permission.All rights reserved.Gartner does not endorse any vendor,product or service depicted in its research publications,and does not advise technology users to select only those vendors with the highest ratings or other designation.Gartner research publications consist of the opinions of Gartners research organization and should not be construed as statements of fact.Gartner disclaims all warranties,expressed or implied,with respect to this research,including any warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.Kickstarting a Visibility ProjectAt e2open,our teams are dedicated to helping you kickstart your visibility project.Were also proud to partner with Shippeo,the best in the industry.Shippeo has been recognized in the 2022 Gartner Magic Quadrant for Real-Time Visibility Platforms for the second time in a row.3 Having worked on numerous visibility projects for international organizations,e2open can help you quantify the many benefits for your business case,assist in demonstrating their value to various stakeholders,and work with you to successfully complete your project for optimal results.
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smartport.nl 10 SmartPort Trends 2030-2050 BASED ON 6 YEARS OF SMARTPORT RESEARCH IN COOPERATION WITH VARIOUS KNOWLEDGE INSTITUTES AND UNIVERSITIES AND MORE THAN 400 COMPANIES.SmartPort is a partnership between the Port of Rotterdam Authority,Deltalinqs,the Municipality of Rotterdam,TNO,Marin,Deltares,Erasmus University Rotterdam and Delft University of Technology.By inspiring,initiating and entering into alliances,SmartPort stimulates and finances scientific research for and by the companies in the Port of Rotterdam,in collaboration with knowledge institutions.It is about developing,sharing and using knowledge based on one collective ambition.The transition to the best and smartest port can only succeed if all parties involved jointly put forward solutions for changes in the future.We are convinced that the greatest impact in knowledge development is based on specific demands from the market and that the best results are achieved by making the most of the cooperation between trade and industry,governments and science.www.smartport.nl|LinkedIn:smartportrdam|Twitter:SmartPortRdam|Instagram:smartportrdam SMARTPORT PARTNERS WITH CONTRIBUTION 10 SMARTPORT TRENDS 2030-2050 Authors:Dirk Koppenol PhD,Anique Kuijpers MSc,Mel Valies MSc and Wiebe de Boer MSc(SmartPort)5 FOREWORD the smartest port The Port of Rotterdam Authority founded SmartPort in April 2015 together with the Erasmus University Rotterdam,Delft University of Technology,Municipality of Rotterdam and Deltalinqs.TNO,Deltares and Marin later joined as partners to strengthen the expertise within SmartPort.As a knowledge hub for the Port of Rotterdam,SmartPort has one main objective:knowledge development for the port of the future(2030-2050)based on questions from within the Rotterdam business community and to accelerate innovation.Six years after its foundation,we can look back on a successful collaboration,in which added value was created for all parties in the triple helix(government,business and science).More than 100 studies have been conducted in collaboration with over 400 companies.Joint scenarios of the port have been mapped out,including the stepping stones needed to get there.In addition,SmartPort has developed scenarios for accelerating the energy transition,developed tools to better visualise the infrastructure reinforcement options and demonstrated where opportunities exist for new cluster development in the port.SmartPort has also formed the basis for an integrated vision of challenges in the port,from which companies have particularly benefited.For example,SmartPort took an important first step in the development of an integrated hydrogen vision(CEO Dinner-Hydrogen Hub Rotterdam;2018).SmartPort also signalled the urgency for an integrated view of port development based on various studies.This has ensured that research is being conducted with a consortium into the spatial challenge of the port and the usefulness and necessity of port infill and/or expansion.The trends described in this report are looking at the objective of SmartPort actually an added bonus!Based on the 100 surveys,it is possible to determine the 10 most important trends for the port.By this means,Rotterdam is taking an extra step towards becoming the Smartest Port:a port where cooperation,knowledge exchange and innovation are central.I hope that on the basis of these trends,the discussion about the future of the port will be strengthened and that the port business community will encourage more intensive cooperation with each other,the government and academia.Vivienne de Leeuw CFO,Port of Rotterdam Authority SmartPort board chairperson 6 INTRODUCTION As the busiest port in Europe and the second-largest petrochemical cluster,the Port of Rotterdam is a world-class player.More than 3,500 companies are active in Rotterdam city and port.These account for more than 384,500 jobs and 6.2%of the added value in the Netherlands.1 However,the developments that the port will encounter require a radical change of course.In order to benefit and not suffer from the rapid digitisation and automation,the energy transition and climate change,a different mindset is needed.The 10 trends in this report show the latest knowledge of the future of the Port of Rotterdam based on SmartPort research and aim to accelerate innovation and sharpen the knowledge agenda!The port is on the move in all its aspects.The increase in scale in logistics and the emergence of(booking)platforms are putting current revenue models and the market under pressure.Furthermore,the CO2 reduction targets(Paris Climate Agreement)and phasing out the use of petrochemical products have far-reaching consequences for the refineries,petrochemical industry and storage in Rotterdam.In addition,climate change causes extreme periods of high and low water on the Rhine the aorta of the Port of Rotterdam which puts pressure on inland shipping traffic.Rotterdam cannot wait,but must be proactive in order to benefit from the trends that the port will be facing.For example,there are great opportunities for Rotterdam to become a virtual director of worldwide throughput.The production,storage and transhipment of clean fuels,such as hydrogen and green synthetic fuels,also offers opportunities to transform Rotterdam into a green fuel cluster.Rotterdam can also take a leading role in dealing with climate change,for example through digitisation and greening.The independent knowledge hub SmartPort was established in 2015 to gain insight into the issues facing the port business community in Rotterdam.The facts and figures of the ensuing studies have provided a wealth of demand-driven knowledge about the opportunities for Rotterdam.In this report,the more than 100 studies have been scaled back to reveal the 10 most important trends of today*that will affect the Port of Rotterdam and offer major opportunities for port business until 2050.These trends describe developments that are occurring now and where Rotterdam must make specific choices in order to(continue to)benefit from this.We hope that you will find this inspiring and pleasant to read!*SmartPort research must meet five conditions:it must be precompetitive,meet scientific standards,be supported by at least two companies active in the Port of Rotterdam,fit in with the predefined Roadmaps and have a focus on 2030-2050.The trends based on this are a snapshot and may,of course,change over time in strength and form.Flexibility is paramount for the SmartPort knowledge agenda,and we are always open to adding new promising trends.7 Figure 1 Companies all over the world are confronted with digitisation,automation,the energy transition and climate change.These are developments that can threaten current business models but also offer great opportunities.SmartPorts research focuses specifically on the port business community that is active in and around the Port of Rotterdam.With one goal:to identify new business opportunities and thereby accelerate innovation.Based on more than hundred studies in the past 6 years,we have identified the 10 most important trends.Each of these are developments that offer opportunities specifically for the Rotterdam port business community.EXTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS 2030-2050 Digitisation,Automation Energy Transition Climate Change Port of Rotterdam SMARTPORT TRENDS:opportunities for the Port of Rotterdam 2030-2050 8 9 CONTENTS Trend 1 Growth in online platform technologies within the logistics 10 Growth of transport via alternative routes 12 Increasing spatial challenge 13 Self-organising goods 15 Self-organising(sea-going vessel)hub(s)16 Intelligent inland corridor 17(Digital Twin)17 Rise and growth of sustainable fuels 18 Large-scale industrial electrification and hydrogen integration 20 Emergence of life cycle management 22 Predictable and sustainable asset management What will Rotterdams source of income be in 2050?25 Acknowledgements 26 Endnotes 27 10 TREND 1 Growth in online platform technologies within the logistics The online platform model as an incentive for data-driven logistics where value propositions from(traditional)logistics players are variable.Platform technologies turn existing markets upside down by using new business and revenue models.Take,for example,the largest hotel booking platform(B)or taxi company(Uber).What these platforms have in common is that they enter a market but have no assets.The largest taxi company in the world does not have its own taxis,the hotel booking platform does not have its own hotels.In the logistics world,booking platforms are also gaining ground2,for example Cogoport and Flexport.What does the emergence of these platforms mean for the logistics world?Platforms are on the rise,but the disruptive effect of platform models on the logistics sector is still unclear.To understand the disruptive effect of platforms,SmartPort,together with TNO,Erasmus University Rotterdam and Fenex,initiated a survey of the impact of booking platforms on the freight forwarding market3.Digitally transformed traditional freight forwarders and the digital freight forwarders bring a wide variety in transport capacity,end-to-end visibility and coordination of logistics schedules.This survey can serve as a basis for initiating a discussion of the roles and positions of companies in future chains and what you as a company need for this.It also raises the question about sharing data with platforms.Which data do you dare to share and which not?The advance of online platforms in the logistics sector is unstoppable.Parties activities may broaden within the chain.Will a logistics company still have logistics assets in the future?In that case,who is in charge of the assets?Will the large maritime companies still have vessels in the future?These digital platforms have an impact on current logistics chains and companies.Companies or certain activities change drastically or even disappear.11 12 TREND 2 Growth of transport via alternative routes New competition in freight transport is growing rapidly,and alternative routes to the hinterland of Rotterdam are emerging.What does this mean for Rotterdams position as a gateway to Europe?The Port of Rotterdam had a record year in container throughput in 2018 and 2019 due to the capacity at the deep-sea terminals,excellent hinterland connections and investments in(digital)infrastructure4.The port has a leading position and wants to further strengthen this by being a better,faster and smarter port5.But what impact do developments in other European ports have on the activities and strength of the Port of Rotterdam?Several alternative routes to inland Europe are starting to become economically attractive.For example,China is investing heavily in the Belt and Road initiative6(BRI),where investments are not only made in the southern European ports,but also in a rail connection to European inland ports.The inland ports can serve as gateways to Europe via these railways.In addition,the polar route also seems to have great potential.It was recently announced that this route is becoming increasingly more navigable.7 What does this development mean for Rotterdam as a gateway to Europe?Recently,Duisburg,the largest European inland terminal,has developed as an important container mainport.About 30 percent of trade between Europe and China is transported by freight train via Duisburg.To explore the developments of this Belt and Road connection,SmartPort initiated a study in collaboration with Erasmus University Rotterdam.8 The study shows which developments in Duisburg influence the unique points of sale of Rotterdam as a Mainport.While Duisburg is strongly committed as a logistics hub by facilitating infrastructure and goods,Rotterdam is equally committed as an innovative and logistics knowledge centre.In this respect,it is important that Rotterdam closely monitors the developments of Duisburg at its unique points of sale.Because not only developments in Duisburg affect the Port of Rotterdam,but also developments in southern European ports or alternative route developments(polar route,Trans-Siberian railway).9 The European port playing field is subject to change,and this raises questions such as:What agreements are there with other major European seaports,such as Port of Antwerp-Bruges,Port of Hamburg and North Sea Port?Which aspects can Rotterdam apply to distinguish itself?The BRI research provides insight into the developments,challenges and,perhaps more importantly,the opportunities of the Port of Rotterdam.What will change for the Port of Rotterdam and the companies?What opportunities can new collaborations between European ports offer?How can current assets be used for a possibly new business model?Because the train is running;the question is what knowledge and strategic provisions the Port of Rotterdam should take on board.13 TREND 3 Increasing spatial challenge To enable the energy transition in the Port of Rotterdam,companies need more physical,social and environmental space.This space is becoming increasingly scarce.When Maasvlakte 2 was officially put into use in 2013,one thing was clear to everyone:for the time being,no port expansion was needed anytime soon.10 With the increase in the port area by 20%(1000 hectares net),the Port of Rotterdam was once again well within its limits.And it still is.But for how long?The energy transition is accelerating the need for strategic physical space.To meet the governments CO2 reduction targets,companies are working hard on plans to make processes more sustainable and there are opportunities for the development of a new sustainable industrial cluster.This requires extra space for both(energy)infrastructure and industry.Space is needed for the construction of infrastructure.New raw materials flow through the port and existing ones increase(hydrogen and CO2).11 The current transport of electricity,for example,is also increasing,with an industry focusing on CO2 reduction and therefore having to electrify processes.This creates an enormous increase in both electricity demand and consumption.Some experts assume an increase of a factor of 10,others even of 20.This requires a great deal of extra copper wire in the port of Rotterdam.In November 2020,SmartPort,companies,relevant grid operators,governments and knowledge institutes TU Delft and TNO joined forces(Gridmaster HIC research project).12 The aim is to develop a dynamic scenario planner that can help in the discussion with the relevant Rotterdam parties to jointly achieve a well-functioning network(Gridmaster).In addition to space for energy infrastructure,space is also needed to develop a sustainable industrial cluster.The question is,how much?The E-Fuels study(2020),conducted by TNO,calculated this for a fuel cluster that focuses entirely on e-methanol(produced with green electricity,hydrogen and CO2).13 Conclusion:up to approximately 600 hectares of extra space is needed by 2050.To give an idea of how much space that is,600 hectares is an area almost as large as the Botlek or 2/3 of Maasvlakte 2.Before it is clear which volumes and compositions will predominate in the Rotterdam Port Industrial Complex(HIC)in the longer term,much depends on variables and the choices that are made.In addition,the available social and environmental space(for example,the nitrogen and PFAS issues)and,in the long term,the(climate)adaptation space also play an important role in the choices that can be made.Developing space for companies is one of the main tasks of a port.The energy transition now presents an extra challenge.It requires relevant building up of new activities while at the same time other activities have to be modified and phased out.This makes for a tricky puzzle under the influence of time.It is precisely this puzzle that SmartPort will investigate together with the Port of Rotterdam Authority,Deltalinqs and refineries.14 The aim is to explore with the ports business sector,and based on possible scenarios,what the hectare development will look like in the period up to 2050.This joint fact-finding creates a joint picture of the impact of companies wishes and choices on the use of space in the port.This research is the first step in gaining insight into the spatial issue of the Port of Rotterdam and should help to answer questions such as is a Maasvlakte 3 needed?14 15 TREND 4 Self-organising goods With the developments surrounding digitisation and automation,the route is no longer determined by the modality but by the cargo that will organise itself through the chain.In recent years,there has been a shift in management within logistics chains.Where the focus used to be on the chain level,such as synchromodal transport15,16(offering an integrated transport solution by utilising the various modalities),and the modality17,it is now shifting to management at container level.In 2019,the Port of Rotterdam Authority presented Container 4218.This smart container is equipped with sensors and other equipment to fill in customs forms,measure cargo experience and communicate with other port operations(e.g.a crane).On the one hand,the data from the containers enable more efficient management and additional services,and on the other,logistics chains as a whole are optimised through the efficient use of smart containers19.With the further scaling up of the modalities and the containers,a first step is being taken towards control at cargo level.Projects such as IoT4Agri20 show how added value is offered to companies and authorities.Sensors on containers offer the possibility to intervene in the logistics process or chain based on real-time data(quality of products over time21,process completion,another route).Digitisation and automation offer opportunities in which cargos are organised throughout the network and arrive at the right place via the most optimal route.22 It is not the planner or the carrier but the cargo itself that determines where the cargo should go.How the cargo arrives at the right place and at the right time is discussed in the Physical Internet project.This project provides an example of how cargos can be transported more efficiently and how infrastructural networks can be better used.To control cargo,parties in the chain have to be able to respond to changes in the chain.How the parties involved can respond more efficiently to changes in the chain is being investigated in the Swarm Port23,for example.By planning at goods level,a lot of information is available at local level,which creates local intelligence.Control at cargo level offers added value,as companies that ship goods internationally are looking for reliability,speed and certainty.In the move towards a logistics system where goods organise themselves through the chain,four follow-up steps can be formulated.(1)Demonstrating the added value of control at cargo level,company level and system level.(2)Determining the transition route how different companies devise a schedule at goods level.(3)Setting up management strategies for goods at chain level and(4)gaining insight into the availability,reliability and security of data sharing.Controlling cargo is not only dependent on the availability of data.It can also be subject to the market and what the customer demand is.Take,for example,e-commerce.These developments are crucial when it comes to cargo management,but is that not the driving force behind the logistics trend above?16 TREND 5 Self-organising(sea-going vessel)hub(s)Seamlessly connecting water,road and rail by making local information available and thereby making logistics processes more efficient and sustainable(Seamless Port).The strong development of digitisation and automation of the Port of Rotterdam offers opportunities to make logistics chains more sustainable,reliable and competitive.For example,the APM Terminals and Rotterdam World Gateway(RWG)located in Rotterdam are already the most automated container terminals in the world.Another example is the Container Exchange Route24 on Maasvlakte 2,where logistics facilities are connected via a special infrastructure by means of autonomous vehicles.Local information enables logistics processes within the fences to run autonomously.This can even be enhanced by applying smart algorithms in the logistics chain.Artificial intelligence(hereinafter AI)can,for example,help to coordinate the coordination of the activities of a terminal with inland vessels,taking waterway water levels into account.From a systems perspective,AI offers opportunities for further developing a self-organising logistics system.Local information is used to make predictions that make the network more robust.Two projects that focus on self-organisation are SOLport25 and Reimagining Logistics with Autonomous Trucking26.The SOLport project investigated what a self-organising system means for logistics parties and what the possible advantages and disadvantages are.The Reimagining Logistics with Autonomous Trucking project examines the social impact as well as the technical impact of smart algorithms.In short,what the impact is of AI on business models and humans.So instead of traditional planning of truck journeys,there is a new approach with dynamic planning based on real-time information and algorithms,where trucks schedule themselves.What will be the planners responsibility?And who is liable if things go wrong;the algorithm or the human?A self-organising(maritime)hub offers companies opportunities to increase the reliability and robustness of the logistics process,create a seamless port(predict ETA)and choose sustainable transport options.In logistics,many organisations work together to ensure that goods are delivered under the right conditions,at the right time and at the right location.A number of follow-up steps are required to arrive at a self-organising system in which logistics processes are autonomously controlled.(1)Collaboration between the companies,(2)further refining essential and reliable data and(3)setting up pilots with various chain parties to investigate the impact of technologies on business models,organisational and social level.17 TREND 6 Intelligent inland corridor(Digital Twin)The Rotterdam inland shipping corridor is becoming smarter by using smart algorithms to connect knowledge about water movement,infrastructure and shipping logistics.The smarter inland shipping corridor is becoming increasingly important due to increasing competition from ports like Hamburg and Antwerp,and the expansion of land transport and transport via the southern European ports(i.e.the Belt and Road Initiative).Since 2015,SmartPort has been developing studies on optimising hinterland connections,with the aim of finding answers to the question:What does it take to become a seamless port?For example,research projects such as Synchrogaming challenged planners of chain partners to make smarter choices between road,water and rail.The aim was to reduce delays and lower emissions.27 Efforts were also made to improve data collection of the depth of rivers.For example,together with CoVadem,we worked on optimising inland vessel data streams,so that in theory the depth of the waterways can be measured 24/7,without additional use of measuring vessels.28 Finding optimal routes for inland vessels requires both logistics and environmental data(e.g.future water level,water depth,etc).The research project Climate Change and Inland Navigation(2017-2021)shows how historical data from both the environment(depth,currents,bridges,locks,etc)and logistics(location of vessels,sailing times,etc)give enormous added value to companies and governments.29 By predicting what climate change will do to water levels(during both drought and heavy precipitation),strategic advice can be given about interventions in the river,fleet composition and loading factor.This project gave rise to a digital twin of the waterways a digital replica of reality that can be used for strategic issues.The first application for this was planning the best route for Danser and NPRC inland vessels.30 The next step is to arrive at a strategic and operational application with which companies can work in practice based on real-time data,model simulations and self-learning algorithms.SmartPort will work on 3 goals within the Flagship project Artificial Intelligence and data sharing:(1)improving the digital twin by focusing on data purity,(2)establishing showcases&simulations with companies in the chain and(3)strengthening cooperation between government and business to increase support for a smart corridor.31 18 TREND 7 Rise and growth of sustainable fuels The importance of reduction of emissions from heavy transport with trucks and inland shipping and from industrial processes with high temperatures is becoming more and more a requirement,and the importance of the development of new sustainable fuels is increasing.In the period 2008-2019,steps have already been taken to make inland shipping(-12%CO2 emissions)and road transport(-10%CO2 emissions)more efficient and sustainable.32 However,the climate targets(55%reduction in 2030,98%in 2050)will not be achieved by improving efficiency alone.33 Green Deals have therefore been concluded since 2011 to accelerate the steps towards 2030 and 2050.34 The first step to reduce emissions in the transport sector is in many cases driving/sailing electrically(in combination with hydrogen).For example,a hydrogen tractor has been in operation in the Port of Rotterdam since 2020 and steps are being taken to make hydrogen inland vessels possible.35 In addition,DAF and other OEMs(truck builders)have agreed not to build trucks that run on fossil energy from 2040.36 Although the costs of hydrogen and fuel cell technology are still too high(approx 300%too high compared to current techniques)and lacks a good tank infrastructure,it offers a lot of potential for the future.However,these options do not provide the required power for all transport.37 For example,long-distance transport by road(from 1000 km)or sea-going and inland vessels that have to sail upstream for a long time.One of the bottlenecks in this case is the tank space that hydrogen occupies on the vehicle(based on an energy density that is 3 to 7 times lower than that of diesel).A possible solution can be found in the so-called e-fuels:fuels that are both sustainable and can supply enough power in the future.E-fuels are synthetic fuels that are produced on the basis of green hydrogen,electricity and CO2.38 These green fuels have major advantages:they take up less space than hydrogen,are easier to store and transport and,in some cases,they can be used directly in existing combustion engines.39 However,they are not yet available at a competitive rate,which is why both pilots and more research are needed.The Electrification field lab at PlantOne,which was opened on 10 February 2021,aims to test the production of e-fuels within a consortium of companies.40 This offers the Port of Rotterdam opportunities to develop into a sustainable fuel hub from 2030.SmartPort sees three challenges coming together around the development of new sustainable fuels for the port industry:(1)Sharpening the timeline for the development of new fuels,(2)infrastructural development and(3)technical development.41 When investing in sustainability,it is important for a carrier that there is a balance between costs and the emission reduction to be achieved and that the CO2 reduction can be demonstrated.42 For fuel manufacturers and ship and truck builders,factors such as production costs also play a role.The STRIVE project shows the added value e-fuels can offer for heavy road transport and what common steps are needed to develop affordable e-fuels.43 The use of e-fuels also requires conversion and build-up of storage,transport and refuelling infrastructure.The Gridmaster study shows which reinforcement of transport and storage infrastructure is necessary for the Rotterdam port region up until 2080.44 Subsequent steps are to broaden the geographic focus of the study and to broaden the focus on,for example,tank infrastructure.Finally,in order to accelerate the adoption of e-fuels,there are still major steps to be taken in the technical field,especially the most cost-efficient way of production.The research projects MOOI:eCOform,Interreg and E2CB are being used in this challenge.45 19 20 TREND 8 Large-scale industrial electrification and hydrogen integration For a successful energy transition,it is necessary to electrify industrial production processes and to replace fossil(industrial)fuels with more sustainable alternatives.Large-scale electrification of industry and the use of hydrogen offer great opportunities.In the Netherlands and in the North Sea,a lot of work is currently being done on the upscaling of green wind energy for large-scale electrification of,among others,the HIC in Rotterdam.Work is also being done on techniques for producing hydrogen and combining it with other molecules such as CO2,CO and nitrogen using electrons.These revolutionary new conversion techniques provide excellent opportunities for an industrial area such as the Port of Rotterdam.In addition,the industrial complex has the potential to serve as an energy buffer in periods of high wind energy landings.The right research in these areas supports the transition to a climate-neutral and optimally competitive industrial port complex in the future.These future significant changes in industrial production processes will change the position of the Port of Rotterdam.The port is currently the second-largest fossil fuel cluster in Europe for production and bunkering.The conventional fossil value chain can be made more sustainable by adapting industrial systems,for example by installing e-boilers,industrial heat pumps or CO2 capture(Porthos).However,converting these systems does not offer a solution for reducing fossil dependence during the production of basic industrial chemical building blocks and achieving the required high industrial process temperatures.Both are needed for end products that society will make full use of in the near future,such as the majority of fuels,glass,building materials and even(blue)hydrogen(H-vision).Electrochemical(conversion)processes using green electrons create opportunities here.These processes are popular for climate-neutral production of basic chemical industrial building blocks and the necessary energy storage.Unfortunately,these techniques are still a long way from the market.For this reason,various studies are underway that are looking at further development based on green hydrogen and industrial waste streams.46 In addition,pilots are under development that offer a platform for small-scale demonstrations of the young techniques.47 With the large-scale implementation of these techniques,direct integration with offshore wind energy(generation-at-sea hubs)offers a possible solution for the current lack of space in the port.48 In addition to these conversion processes,(green)hydrogen offers a suitable sustainable alternative for reducing fossil dependence while reaching the required high temperature during industrial processes.21 As stated,the current processes in the second-largest fossil fuel cluster in Europe will change significantly.How will this affect the set-up of this chain and which part of this changing value chain will remain or land in the Port of Rotterdam?With this question in mind,SmartPort initiated the CHAIN(2020-2021)study in collaboration with TNO,the Port Authority and Sohar Freezone Port.In addition to the adjustments in the supply side(electrochemical processes),the demand and infrastructure aspects also offer opportunities for large-scale electrification.With flexible industrial energy demand and efficient exchange of energy between companies,peak demand on the electricity network can be levelled off.49 Despite this,the net load on the network is increasing considerably and future reinforcements are necessary.Dynamic simulation models offer valuable tools to make the right network investment decisions.50 In addition to large-scale electrification and hydrogen integration,the trend towards circularity in the industrial complex will also be further refined towards 2050.22 TREND 9 Emergence of life cycle management The construction of sustainable energy generation and distribution assets is an important condition for achieving the climate objectives in 2050,but the exploitation and decommissioning of the assets used for this is not sustainable.The decommissioning of offshore wind farms is a concrete example of this.Offshore wind energy has recently been transformed from a young ambitious renewable energy source into one of the cornerstones of the energy transition.The Netherlands is expected to install up to 60 GW of capacity to meet the 2050 climate targets.Paradoxically enough,little account is taken of sustainability during the construction and decommissioning of these offshore wind farms.Currently,only 2 GW of offshore wind energy is available,and the number of wind turbines is increasing significantly.In addition to the number of turbines,there is also an increase in the size of magnetic turbines,composite wind blades and steel support structures.A typical 750 MW wind farm requires more than 10,000 tons of composite and 100,000 tons of steel.With the current approach,the construction of a wind farm produces emissions of more than 2,400 tons of CO2 equivalents and 5,100 tons of oil equivalents per year.Life cycle management can lead to a truly sustainable and socially responsible top sector.With a concrete strategy based on cross-company input from the sector,it should be looked into how this can be achieved.Cooperation in the chain offers relief here.Offshore wind turbines have an operational life of 20-25 years.At the end of its lifespan,a wind farm must be decommissioned in a responsible manner.At present,however,little practical experience has been gained in this area.When this disposal task is planned and executed on an ad-hoc basis,this leads to an increase in negative ecological impact due to inefficient logistics processes and irresponsible processing of the residual material flows.The Decommissioning Offshore Wind Farms project clearly demonstrates the potential of these residual material flows.There are opportunities for the Port of Rotterdam and chain partners to sustainably harvest this potential.For example,optimisation of the decommissioning task can yield both ecological and economic benefits51.23 24 TREND 10 Predictable and sustainable asset management Management&maintenance of the infrastructure of the Port of Rotterdam is becoming smarter and more predictable due to a better understanding of the condition of the existing infrastructure,new monitoring and maintenance techniques and digitisation.This offers opportunities for optimal use of assets in a changing environment,reduction of emissions and cost savings.SmartPort sees an increasing focus on smart and predictable management and maintenance of port infrastructure.In the field of quays,various studies have been carried out to better understand the strength and degradation of quay walls.52 We can use this knowledge to make better use of existing quays and for longer and design new quays more sharply.53 SmartPort is conducting comparable research for the strength of soil protection.54 This leads to cost savings for management&maintenance for quay managers and an increase in the added value and(multifunctional)use of the quays for quay users.55 By combining data and models in so-called digital twins,we can make quays smarter.This is not only relevant to make the current management&maintenance of quays more predictable,but also to be able to anticipate different use of the quays and other environmental conditions in the future;56 for example,under the influence of the energy transition,autonomous sailing and climate change.57 In the management&maintenance of the waterways,the emphasis is on dredging maintenance to maintain the depth of the navigation channels and port basins.With smart and sustainable sediment management,the port will remain safe and navigable in the future at acceptable maintenance costs and reduced greenhouse gas emissions.58 SmartPort facilitates research into sailing through silt in order to determine the effects of the silt on the manoeuvrability of vessels.59 Understanding the properties of the silt in the port is crucial for this,because the silt properties partly determine the nautical depth and the navigability of the silt.60 When vessels can navigate safely through silt,this can significantly reduce the dredging maintenance of the port of Rotterdam.In addition,research is being conducted into new measuring techniques to measure the silt properties in real time in the future.61 Research has also been carried out to measure the depth of the waterway in real time using inland vessels(CoVadem).62 With all this information,the depth of the waterway and the status of the silt can be monitored and maintenance can be scheduled at the right and most efficient time.SmartPort sees the following challenges for smart and predictable maintenance of the port infrastructure.(1)Determining the value cases to determine which studies offer the most added value for the managers and users of the infrastructure.(2)Better sharing,management and use of the infrastructure data and models to determine its condition in real-time(e.g.in digital twins).(3)Making management and maintenance more sustainable:climate neutral,circular and taking ecology into account.(4)Phased adaptation of the infrastructure to the effects of climate change and changing use of the quay.(5)Connecting the chain in order to be able to actually put the developed knowledge and innovations into practice(including any amendments to guidelines and legislation and regulations).25 What will be Rotterdams source of income in 2050?What will Rotterdams source of income be in a self-organising and autonomous logistics and a world with a sharp decline in the use of oil?SmartPort has identified 10 trends.Each one an opportunity that the Port of Rotterdam can seize to distinguish itself from competitors in 2050.This is decisive,because the competition is not standing still.But what can we do now with these trends in mind?For SmartPort,the trends are a guideline for sharpening the studies towards 2030-2050.Which routes are disregarded and which are seen as promising by the port business community?Subsequently,in the coming years work will be done on further boosting innovation through research,accelerating technology development,exploring value cases and mapping out which government policy and skills are needed to allow an innovation to land in Rotterdam.This provides decision information for companies,for their strategy and their operations.The success of SmartPort is the success of the Rotterdam port business community.Three elements are seen as most important to support companies in innovation.Firstly,SmartPort will focus on demonstrating the value of data sharing.Secondly,SmartPort focuses as much as possible on system research.This is research done by a business chain,because radical or disruptive innovations only get off the ground when all traffic lights in a chain are green.Radical or disruptive innovations are completely new services or products that are also new to the market.In view of the trends,the port must prepare for this in particular.Doing research and developing knowledge together(joint fact finding)lays the foundation for these innovations.Thirdly,SmartPort supports living labs,places where consortia of companies are experimenting with new techniques in order to lay the foundation for scaling up.Entrepreneurship is investing now with the confidence that it will pay off later.Rotterdam faces one of the greatest challenges in decades.Business models have to radically reverse to take advantage of the trends that are heading towards the port.This requires major investments,not only from companies,but also from the government.The government in particular needs a coherent vision in one area such as the Rotterdam region in order to invest in infrastructure,port expansions and stimulating business innovation.Positioning is more important than ever before.SmartPort is convinced that scientific research with the ports business sector can lay the foundation for this positioning and lay the foundation for the Rotterdam of 2050.26 Acknowledgement This report was written by the SmartPort project development team:Dirk Koppenol,Anique Kuipers,Mel Valies and Wiebe de Boer.The trends are based on the knowledge of the more than one hundred SmartPort-supported studies into the port of the future.We would therefore like to thank all researchers who have contributed to this and in particular the partner knowledge institutions:Erasmus University Rotterdam,Delft University of Technology,TNO,Marin and Deltares.These studies would not have been possible without the expertise of the more than two hundred and fifty companies directly involved and hundreds of companies indirectly involved.Thank you!We are also grateful for the support from authorities such as the Province of South Holland,the Municipality of Rotterdam and TKI Dinalog.Finally,a direct thank you to the collaboration partners:Port of Rotterdam Authority,Municipality of Rotterdam,Deltalinqs,TNO,Marin,Deltares,Erasmus University Rotterdam and Delft University of Technology.We hope that this report contributes to accelerating the innovations of the future for the Port of Rotterdam.27 Endnotes 1 Bart Kuipers,THE ROTTERDAM EFFECT.THE IMPACT OF MAINPORT ROTTERDAM ON THE DUTCH ECONOMY(2017)https:/www.eur.nl/upt/media/2018-12-rapportrotterdameffectpdf(18-01-2021)and Port of Rotterdam,FACTS&FIGURES.A WEALTH OF INFORMATION(2019)https:/ https:/www.nieuwsbladtransport.nl/logistiek/2019/06/12/wat-heeft-een-platform-te-maken-met-mijn-handel/3 SmartPort study:Impact of(Booking)platforms on the forwarding market(2020).The aim of this research is to conduct an initial exploration of platform models in the logistics sector.The operation,the ecosystem and the application of the booking platforms in the logistics sector were examined.By means of interviews and expert sessions,the impact of platforms on the forwarding market was investigated.This research was carried out in collaboration with TNO,Erasmus University Rotterdam and FENEX.4 https:/www.https:/ 5 https:/www.https:/ 6 Review NO 03/2020:The EUs response to Chinas state driven investment strategy.(https:/www.eca.europa.eu/en/Pages/DocItem.aspx?did=54733)Priorities of European Ports for 2019-2024:What ports do for Europe,What Europe can do for ports.(https:/www.espo.be/media/Memorandum ESPO FINAL Digital version.pdf).7 Nieuwsblad Transport,Polar route longer navigable than ever this year https:/www.nieuwsbladtransport.nl/scheepvaart/2020/12/15/poolroute-dit-jaar-langer-bevaarbaar-dan-ooit/(12-02-2021)and Independent,Maersk launches first container ship through Arctic route in alarming sign of global warming https:/www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/maersk-ship-arctic-route-launch-global-warming-climate-change-a8500966.html(12-03-2021).8 SmartPort study:Belt and Road Initiative(2020).This study explores Duisburgs strategy around the Belt and Road initiative.An inventory is made of not only the possible threats that may arise for the Port of Rotterdam,but also which opportunities.This study is being conducted in collaboration with Erasmus University Rotterdam,DHL global Forwarding,Municipality of Rotterdam,ECT,Port of Rotterdam Authority.9 Port Technology,Maersk launches first ever Japan UK blockchain train service,https:/www.porttechnology.org/news/maersk-launches-first-ever-japan-uk-block-train-service/(25-03-2021).10 Dirk Koppenol,Lobby for land,A historical perspective(1945-2008)on the decision-making process for the Port of Rotterdam land reclamation project Maasvlakte 2(Amsterdam 2016).11 SmartPort study:PoR Raw Material Study(2021).Conducted by the Wuppertal institute in cooperation with the Port of Rotterdam Authority and SmartPort.12 SmartPort study:Gridmaster(2021)focuses on developing a new method for adequate,thorough and above all future-proof investment decisions in the field of energy infrastructure in the Port of Rotterdam.This project is being carried out and supported by a consortium of TenneT,Gasunie,Stedin,Province of South Holland,Port of Rotterdam Authority,Municipality of Rotterdam,SmartPort,Siemens Netherlands,TU Delft,Quintel Intelligence and TNO.13 SmartPort study:TNO and Voltachem,E-fuels:towards a more sustainable future for truck transport,shipping and aviation(July 2020).https:/www.tno.nl/nl/over-tno/nieuws/2020/9/e-fuels-cruciaal-voor-verduurzaming-zwaar-transport/(20-11-2020).14 SmartPort study:CIEP and TNO,Exploring the spatial challenge of energy transition in Rotterdam(2021).The aim of this study is to determine,on the basis of 3 scenarios,how great the spatial challenge is for the port and which strategic reservations need to be made.This project is being carried out and supported by the Port of Rotterdam Authority,Deltalinqs and approximately 20 port operators(mainly refineries and tank storage companies).15 Synchromodality as subject in the lean&green deals,https:/topsectorlogistiek.nl/synchromodaal-transport/(25-03-2021).16 SmartPort study:Synchrogaming(2015-2018).Improving cooperation in the chain to increase the flexibility of the chain.Research was carried out by ProRail,the Port of Rotterdam Authority,Port of Amsterdam,the Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management,The Barn and TKI Dinalog.17 SmartPort studies:Several studies have been conducted where the emphasis has been on modality.Truck platooning(2015-2018).Conducted quick scan and developed value case increased the sense of urgency 28 among stakeholders and demonstrated the impact of the technology.Project was carried out in collaboration with the Port of Rotterdam Authority,Directorate-general for public works and water management,TNO,BVB Logistics,H.N.Post&Zonen,De JongGrauss Transport,Kamps Transport,Overbeek Int.Transport,PostKogeko,De Rijke Trucking,Starmans Transporten,Van der Wal Transport,DHL Global Forwarding,Kloosterboer,Maersk Line and Yusen Logistics.INDEEP project(2018-2019).Mapping out the innovation eco-system(stakeholders,resistance,interests)and offering stakeholders insights into how problematic an innovation process can be.This project was carried out together with Deltalinqs,EUR,the Port of Rotterdam Authority,TNO,TU Delft,NWO.Barge-Port Stay predictor(2017).Improving the predictability(reliability)of inland shipping handling in the Port of Rotterdam.The research has shown that public data is a good basis for arriving at a reliable forecast.This research was carried out in collaboration with the Port of Rotterdam Authority,Erasmus University Rotterdam and TNO.18 Container 42,https:/weare42.io/(25-03-2021).19 SmartPort study:EURECA(2016-2020).The study provides insight into the competitive position of the Port of Rotterdam in the(reefer)container market.This study was carried out in collaboration with ECT,ABB,the Port of Rotterdam Authority,DL,Seamark.20 SmartPort study:IoT4Agri project(2020-2021).Sensors measure the quality of goods during transport and where stakeholders can intervene in the logistics chain(process handling,routing).This research is being carried out in collaboration with TNO,Wageningen University,Van Oers United,Thermoking Transport Cooling,Sensor Transport,the Internet House and Euro Pool Systems.21 The IoT4Agri project examines perishable products,such as melons and avocados.This could possibly also be extended to high-value products,such as IT products.22 SmartPort study:Physical internet project(2015-2020).Research into the feasibility of the physical internet model where container loads are distributed throughout the chain over the various modalities based on available capacity and customer needs(speed,price,sustainability).This research offers opportunities to gain insight into the implementation of the physical internet concept,through which loads are transported more efficiently and infrastructural networks are utilised better.This project is being carried out by Groningen Seaports,the Port of Rotterdam Authority and the University of Groningen.23 SmartPort study:SwarmPort(2018-2021).The SwarmPort project investigates which data can be used to make good models for future-proof nautical traffic management.This research is being conducted in collaboration with the Port of Rotterdam Authority,KRVE,Loodswezen,intertransis,tug companies,Swarmlab TNO,TKI Dinalog,and TU Delft.24 Container Exchange Route,https:/ 25 SmartPort study:SOLport(2019-2020).The aim of this project is to investigate under which circumstances and for which type of chains which form of management(self-organising system,central/decentralised form of management)is most suitable.In addition,it is examined what a self-organising system means for the parties involved in the logistics chain and what exactly the advantages and disadvantages are.This project is being carried out in collaboration with TNO,University of Twente,Port of Rotterdam Authority,NPRC Pharox,Intel,Distribute,and Ab Ovo.26 SmartPort study:Reimagining Logistics with Autonomous Trucking(2020-2021).This project investigates the added value of applying smart algorithms to an inland terminal.The impact on business models and the transport planner is examined.This research offers a first stepping stone towards scaling up smart algorithms in logistics chains.This research is being conducted in collaboration with TNO,DHL Global Forwarding and Van Berkel Groep.27 SmartPort study:Synchrogaming(2015-2018).Improving cooperation in the chain to increase the flexibility of the chain.Research conducted in collaboration with ProRail,Port of Rotterdam Authority,Port of Amsterdam,Directorate-general for public works and water management,The Barn,TNO,TU Delft and TKI Dinalog.28 SmartPort study:Covadem (2 studies)(2017&2018-2020).Research into the opportunities for combining depth measurements of,among other things,inland shipping vessels for 24/7 depth determination of waterways and harbour basins.In this study,together with the Port of Rotterdam Authority,it was established that the data is very useful for the rivers,but that tides,temperature and salinity closer to the mouth create major calibration challenges.Improving the calibration will require more research.Study conducted in cooperation with CoVadem,Port of Rotterdam Authority and Deltares.29 SmartPort study:Climate change and inland shipping(2017-2021).The aim of the study is to increase the predictability of periods of extreme high and low water and the measures to be taken(infrastructure,fleet composition and logistics concept).Based on this study,in which Danser,Directorate-general for public works and water management,CBRB,EICB,NVB,Deltares and the Port Authority participate,various follow-up studies have been started to arrive at a digital twin of the rivers to make better predictions.The study was 29 conducted by the TU Delft.30 SmartPort study:Digital twin(2020).This study builds on Climate Change and inland shipping and the Covadem studies to arrive at a digital twin of Rotterdams waterways to the hinterland.The aim is to determine the best route for inland vessels based on real-time data.This has been conducted with Danser and the NPRC,and a follow-up study is in under way.The study was conducted by Deltares and the TU Delft.SmartPort study:SmartPort Data Dashboard(2020-2021).Set-up of a simple web framework in which important basic data on cargo transport across rivers is automatically updated.This framework should provide input to the digital twin and the Flagship project to be set up on Artificial Intelligence.The study was conducted by Deltares and the TU Delft.31 SmartPort study:Flagship Artificial Intelligence and data sharing(is being developed).32 CBS:transport emitted more CO2 compared with national trend.https:/www.nieuwsbladtransport.nl/voorpagina/2019/12/24/cbs-transport-stoot-tegen-landelijke-trend-in-meer-co2-uit/(This was mainly caused by air transport)(20-11-2020).Transport by water:7.5 to 6.6 million tonnes(2008-2019)and land transport 6.0 to 5.4 million tonnes(2008-2019).33 Trouw,EU increases climate objective:55 percent less CO2 in 2030 https:/www.trouw.nl/duurzaamheid-natuur/eu-schroeft-klimaatdoelstelling-op-55-procent-minder-co2-in-2030b7a06a0b/(25-03 2021).34 More than 200 green deals have been signed by various sectors since 2011 https:/www.greendeals.nl/green-deals?f0=thema_s_taxonomy_term_name:Energie&f1=thema_s_taxonomy_term_name:Grondstoffen&f2=thema_s_taxonomy_term_name:Klimaat&f3=thema_s_taxonomy_term_name:Mobiliteit(12-11-2020).35 An average hydrogen-powered heavy truck has a range of 400 km compared to more than 2,200 km for a diesel truck.In addition,the storage and transport of hydrogen is complex.There is therefore a need for a different fuel.https:/www.ttm.nl/trucks/waalhaven-groep-rijdt-terberg-waterstof-terminaltrekker-in-rotterdamse-haven/130128/(06-11-2020)en https:/www.topsectorenergie.nl/spotlight/eerste-binnenvaartschip-op-waterstof-komt-eraan(06-11-2020).36 Purely clean DAF trucks are on the horizon:by 2040,the truck industry no longer wants to build trucks powered by fossil fuels|Eindhoven|ed.nl(05-02-2021).37 First Hyundai hydrogen-powered trucks are on their way to Europe.https:/www.tankpro.nl/brandstof/2020/07/08/eerste-waterstoftrucks-van-hyundai-onderweg-naar-europa/?gdpr=accept(20-11-2020).38 Good overview:NRC,This is how synthetic fuel is made,https:/www.nrc.nl/brandedcontent/shell/zo-wordt-synthetische-brandstof-gemaakt(25-03-2021).39 SmartPort study:E-fuels:towards a more sustainable future for truck transport,shipping and aviation(July 2020).The study was conducted by TNO and Voltachem.https:/www.tno.nl/en/about-tno/news/2020/9/e-fuels-crucial-to-sustainable-heavy-transport/(20-11-2020).40 Fieldlab Industrial Electrification collaboration commences-Fieldlab Industrile Elektrificatie(fieldlabindustrieleelektrificatie.nl)(05-02-2020).41 Apart from this,safety,price development,financing,and legislation and regulations need attention.Specific to legislation and regulations:all parties in the chain are currently charged separately for their CO2 emissions.However,the potential to reduce CO2 is much higher when looking at the system.E-fuels are relatively easy to transport,store and refuel,but are not carbon neutral at the exhaust(tank to wheel).However,it is circular,because exactly this amount of CO2 is needed to produce the fuel again(well to wheel).This makes it a fuel that is emission neutral at system level.42 Example:The sustainable biofuel platform is conducting a feasibility study for setting up Clean Fuel Contracts.This concerns a system in which fuel suppliers and fuel users make agreements about the renewable fuels to be used in their vehicles,giving the end user more insight into the climate savings achieved.https:/platformduurzamebiobrandstoffen.nl/infotheek-item/kick-off-clean-fuel-contracts/(20-11-2020).43 SmartPort study:STRIVE(2021).In this follow-up to the E-fuels study,the added value of e-fuels for long-distance transport(heavy trucks)by road is examined together with fuel producers,hauliers,shippers and truck manufacturers.The study is being conducted by the TU Delft.SmartPort study:Power-2-Gas-2-Refineries(2017).The benefits and costs of investing in electrolysers were examined together with BP,Uniper,the Port of Rotterdam Authority and Joulz.Conclusion:(1)it is technically possible to use electrolysers,but scaling up is the biggest challenge and(2)European regulations explicitly prescribe the incorporation of biofuel.If these regulations were converted into a target scheme,with the aim of limiting CO2 emissions,the use of green hydrogen could be used in business cases in an equivalent way.The study was conducted by TNO.SmartPort study:Greenpower(2021-2025).The aim of the study is to develop a quantitative method to compare the performance of alternative(green)energy for inland vessels with other modalities and with 30 competing corridors.With this information,the inland shipping sector can make well-considered choices to become greener while remaining competitive at the same time.The study was conducted by the TU Delft.44 SmartPort study:Gridmaster(2021)focuses on developing a new method for adequate,thorough and above all future-proof investment decisions in the field of energy infrastructure in the Port of Rotterdam.This project is being carried out and supported by a consortium of TenneT,Gasunie,Stedin,Province of South Holland,Port of Rotterdam Authority,Municipality of Rotterdam,SmartPort,Siemens Netherlands,TU Delft,Quintel Intelligence and TNO.45 SmartPort research:eCOform(pending approval)focuses on TRL increase in electrochemical conversion of CO2 waste streams to CO and Formic acid and further downstream conversion to formaldehyde and glycolic acid.This project is being carried out by Voltachem,Hygear,COVAL Energy,Avantium,TNO,TU Delft,University of Amsterdam,DMT,Braskem,New Energy Coalition,Twence,SmartPort,Brightlands Chemcom and an Industrial Interest Group.The study was conducted by TNO.SmartPort study:Electrons-2-Chemical Bonds(2020-2025)focuses on the efficiency and scalability of electrochemical processes for the production of fuels and chemical building blocks.This project is being carried out and supported by TU Delft,Leiden University,Twente University,Wageningen University,Groningen University,Utrecht University,Eindhoven University of Technology,Shell,Proton Ventures,TNO,Tata Steel,Nuon,SmartPort,Avebe Chemelot and Yara.The study is being conducted by the TU Delft.SmartPort study:Interreg-2-zeeen-E2C(2018-2021)focuses on the implementation of indirect and direct CO2 electrochemical conversion to fuels and chemical building blocks and on setting up pilots for further scaling up.This project is being carried out and supported by TNO,ECN,Vito,University of Antwerp,University of Exeter,TU Delft,Port of Rotterdam,SmartPort and Port of Antwerp.The study is being conducted by the TU Delft.46 SmartPort study:Electrons-2-Chemical Bonds(2020-2025)focuses on the efficiency and scalability of electrochemical processes for the production of fuels and chemical building blocks.This project is being carried out and supported by TU Delft,Leiden University,Twente University,Wageningen University,Groningen University,Utrecht University,Eindhoven University of Technology,Shell,Proton Ventures,TNO,Tata Steel,Nuon,SmartPort,Avebe Chemelot and Yara.eCOform(pending approval)focuses on the electrochemical conversion of CO2 waste streams to CO and Formic acid and further downstream conversion to formaldehyde and glycolic acid.This project is being carried out by Voltachem,Hygear,COVAL Energy,Avantium,TNO,TU Delft,University of Amsterdam,DMT,Braskem,New Energy Coalition,Twence,SmartPort,Brightlands Chemcom and an Industrial Interest Group.47 SmartPort study:Interreg-2-zeeen-E2C(2018-2021)focuses on the implementation of indirect and direct CO2 electrochemical conversion to fuels and chemical building blocks and on setting up pilots for further scaling up.This project is being carried out and supported by TNO,ECN,Vito,University of Antwerp,University of Exeter,TU Delft,Port of Rotterdam,SmartPort and Port of Antwerp.48 SmartPort study:North Sea Energy Integration(2020-2021)focuses on the development of energy hubs at sea and synergy between dismantling the current oil and gas platforms.This project is being carried out and supported by TNO,SmartPort and 25 other stakeholders.DOSTA(2020-2025)focuses on facilitating large-scale offshore wind energy production by developing offshore storage and transport alternatives.Legislation is also taken into account.This project is being carried out and supported by Groningen University,Utrecht University,SmartPort,Ocean Graer,Siemens,Nogat,Noordgastransport,NeVER,Loyens&Loeff,NOGEPA,New Energy Coalition,TNO,TenneT and Vattenfall.49 SmartPort study:HAPSISH(2017-2021)focuses on the exchange of energy between companies and in a chain.This project is being carried out and supported by TU Delft,Port of Rotterdam and SmartPort.FlexI(2017-2021)focuses on the energy flexibility of industrial production processes by means of algorithm developments.This project is carried out and supported by TU Delft,Port of Rotterdam,Systems Navigator,Uniper and SmartPort.50 SmartPort study:Gridmaster(2021)focuses on developing a new method for adequate,thorough and above all future-proof investment decisions in the field of energy infrastructure in the Port of Rotterdam.This project is being carried out and supported by a consortium of TenneT,Gasunie,Stedin,Province of South Holland,Port of Rotterdam Authority,Municipality of Rotterdam,SmartPort,Siemens Netherlands,TU Delft,Quintel Intelligence and TNO.51 SmartPort study:Decommissioning Offshore Wind Farms(2019-2020)focuses on exploring the residual material flows from the decommissioning task and how the Port of Rotterdam can approach this task pragmatically for ecological and economic gain.This project was carried out and supported by TNO,SmartPort,TU Delft,Innovation Quarter,Province of South Holland,Port of Rotterdam and 13 other partners.52 SmartPort study:Enhancing reliability-based assessments of quay walls,PhD thesis Alfred Roubos(2016-2019):approach to better include the proven strength in assessments in quay wall design and testing.The research was conducted by TU Delft.53 SmartPort study:Dutch Practical Guideline Proven Strength of Sheet Piling and Quay Walls(2020-2022).31 Building on the PhD research of Alfred Roubos to actually apply the scientific insights in practice.In collaboration with the Port of Rotterdam Authority,Port of Amsterdam,Directorate-general for public works and water management,North Sea Ports,Groningen Seaports,Port of Den Helder,Port of Moerdijk,Municipality of Rotterdam and Municipality of Amsterdam.The research is being conducted by TNO and Deltares.54 Roadmap propeller jet study by Directorate-general for public works and water management and CROW(2019-2023)for new draft directive for soil protection.In collaboration with the Port of Rotterdam Authority,North Sea Ports,Deltares,MARIN,DEME,Boskalis and BAM.55 SmartPort study:Quay wall of the future(Witteveen Bos,2018),research into the proven capacity of the EMO quay based on sensor data.SmartPort study:Big data quay walls(TNO,2017).SmartPort study:IJkkade Knowledge Programme(Deltares,2021).56 SmartPort study:IJkkade research programme(2019-2020),in which the research questions and development lines for the quay wall of the future have been formulated.In collaboration with the Port of Rotterdam Authority,Witteveen Bos,RoyalHaskoningDHV and TU Delft.The research was conducted by Deltares.57 SmartPort study:Port Metatrends(2018),impact of long-term trends on requirements for activities,use of space and maritime infrastructure in the Port of Rotterdam.The research was conducted by TU Delft.58 PRISMA study by Deltares,Port of Rotterdam Authority and the Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management(2019-2020).59 SmartPort study:PhD Stefan Lovato(2017-2021)on the navigability of silt.The study was conducted by the TU Delft.60 SmartPort study:Post-doc Alex Kirichek(2016-2018),research into the rheological properties of silt in relation to navigability.The research was conducted by TU Delft.61 SmartPort study:Post-doc Xu Ma(2018-2021)and iPhD Menno Buijsman(2020-2022)on measuring the sludge strength with acoustics and glass fibre.The study was conducted by the TU Delft.62 SmartPort study:Covadem (2 studies)(2017&2018-2020).Research into the opportunities for combining depth measurements of,among other things,inland shipping vessels for 24/7 depth determination of waterways and harbour basins.In this study,together with the Port of Rotterdam Authority,it was established that the data is very useful for the rivers,but that tides,temperature and salinity closer to the mouth create major calibration challenges.Improving the calibration will require more research.The research was conducted by Deltares.Colophon SmartPort May 2021 Design:IJzersterk.nu Photography:Shutterstock All information included is the property of SmartPort.Reproduction of content,in whole or in part,is permitted provided the source is mentioned.Indemnification SmartPort has taken the greatest possible care in compiling this document.Nevertheless,SmartPort accepts no liability for any inaccuracies in the information,nor for damage,nuisance or inconvenience or other consequences arising from or related to the use of this information.www.smartport.nl|LinkedIn:smartportrdam|Twitter:SmartPortRdam|Instagram:smartportrdam connecting knowledge DO YOU HAVE ANY QUESTIONS?SmartPort infosmartport.nl Tel. 31(0)10 402 03 43 www.smartport.nl|LinkedIn:smartportrdam|Twitter:SmartPortRdam|Instagram:smartportrdam
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Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network From TEN-T regulation to practical implementation ECF gratefully acknowledges financial support from the cycling industry via Cycling Industries Europe ECF gratefully acknowledges financial support from the LIFE Programme of the European Union Publishing credits Author Aleksander Buczyski, Design Omer Malak European Cyclists Federation,March 2024 This document is also available online at ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 1 Introduction The Trans-European Transport Network(TEN-T)is a network of roads,railway lines,inland waterways,ports,maritime shipping routes and airports.It is not very often associated with cycling,but TEN-T projects can have huge impact on conditions for active mobility.Up until now,often the impact has been negative,with a new ring road or an upgraded rail line creating a barrier for walking and cycling,but in some cases these projects have also been used as an opportunity to create new connections or even prioritise active mobility.For the past five years,the European Cyclists Federation(ECF)has worked on integrating cycling in the regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on Union guidelines for the development of the trans-European transport network(TEN-T regulation).In 2024,for the first time ever,promoting active modes of transport has been included in TEN-T objectives,highlighted for synergies,included in general priorities for the whole network and additional priorities for railways,inland waterways and roads.The revised regulation also recognises the critical role of urban nodes,stipulating the need of integrating cycling with long-distance transport and modal shift towards active modes.The document is intended for the technical experts working in administrations tasked with implementing this regulation and specific TEN-T projects.It can also be used by local and regional authorities involved in planning and implementation of cycle networks,but it assumes a degree of familiarity with the TEN-T regulation,1 focusing only on its new aspects most relevant for cycling.It provides and analyses excerpts from the regulation,and follows with a brief practical advice on how to optimally integrate cycling in different types of TEN-T projects and different aspects of project preparation.The current draft is based on the provisional agreement,with the intention to revise the document after the new regulation is formally adopted and published in the Official Journal of the European Union.1 The European Commission website includes a good introduction to the TEN-T policy and terminology.https:/transport.ec.europa.eu/transport-themes/infrastructure-and-investment/trans-european-transport-network-ten-t_en.Accessed 27/03/2024.ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 2 Contents Introduction.1 Contents.2 1.Cycling and active modes in the TEN-T regulation.3 1.1.Recitals.4 1.2.General principles.5 1.3.General provisions.7 1.4.Specific provisions.8 1.4.1.Railway transport infrastructure.8 1.4.2.Inland waterways transport infrastructure.9 1.4.3.Road transport infrastructure.10 1.4.4.Maritime and air transport infrastructure.12 1.4.5.Urban nodes.12 2.How to integrate cycling into large infrastructure projects?.15 2.1.Quality requirements for cycling infrastructure.15 2.2.Cycle audit.16 2.3.Impact assessment.18 2.4.Case studies.18 ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 3 1.Cycling and active modes in the TEN-T regulation The section provides and analyses excerpts from the regulation most relevant to cycling.The excerpts reflect the provisional agreement resulting from interinstitutional negotiations,dated 9 February 2024,as published in the Legislative Observatory of the European Parliament.2 As of the time of writing,vote on the adoption of the revised regulation is expected on 22 April 2024.ECF intends to update the document after the final text is published in the Official Journal of the European Union.Text in serif font represents verbatim quotes from the revised regulation.Emphasis is used to highlight parts relevant for cycling,especially where the relevant text is only a part of a significantly longer article or point,and not to distinguish contributions from a specific EU institution.Text in sans-serif font represents the ECF view on the preceding provision.Depending on the provision,this can include a brief explanation of concepts not included in the excerpts,links to other relevant documents,interpretation doubts,potential benefits or threats resulting from the new provision.The key changes introduced in the revised regulation can be found in:Definition of active modes Article 3(p)Inclusion of health in the cost-benefit analysis Article 3(ak)Active modes as one of TEN-T objectives Article 4(2)(d)(vii)Taking into account synergies with cycling infrastructure Article 5(1)(f)and(g)Active modes in TEN-T general priorities Article 12(1)(c)and(2)(c)Active modes in additional priorities for railways,including cycle parking at stations Article 19(g)Active modes in additional priorities for inland waterways Article 23(g)Excluding non-motorised traffic from TEN-T roads Article 29(2)(a)Excluding at-grade crossings across TEN-T core and comprehensive core roads Article 30(1a)Active modes in additional priorities for roads Article 31(a)and(d)Obligatory Sustainable Urban Mobility Plans in urban nodes Article 40(1)(b)(i)and(1a)Multimodal passenger hubs accessible by active modes Article 40(1)(c)Mobility data indicators for urban nodes Article 40(1)(b)(ii)and(2)2 Procedure File:2021/0420(COD).https:/oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/ficheprocedure.do?reference=2021/0420(COD).Accessed:2024/03/20.ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 4 Figure 1.Example of a barrier created by a TEN-T project.A cycle track in the town of Zielonka,Poland(co-funded by the EU through Integrated Territorial Investments)is interrupted by an upgraded section of Rail Baltica(co-funded by the EU through Cohesion Funds).1.1.Recitals(9)In the implementation of projects of common interest,due consideration should be given to the particular circumstances of the individual project concerned.Where possible,synergies with other policies should be exploited,for instance with the trans-European energy or telecommunication networks or with the dual-use infrastructure for military purposes as well as with tourism aspects by including,within civil engineering structures such as bridges or tunnels,bicycle infrastructure for cycling paths,including the EuroVelo routes,or with security aspects by including new technologies such as sensors in bridges.(52b)The promotion of active modes,particularly in urban nodes,contributes to the Unions climate goals,improves public health,reduces congestion,offers last mile solution for passengers and provides economic benefits.When planning or upgrading transport infrastructure due account should be taken of active mode infrastructures,including walking and cycling infrastructures.(54)Multimodal digital mobility services help to enhance the integration of the different transport modes by combining several transport offers into one.Their further development should contribute to nudge behaviours towards the most sustainable modes,public transport and active modes such as walking and cycling,and unlock the full benefits of“Mobility as a Service”solutions.ECF VIEW:Recitals set out reasons for the provisions of the regulation.While they are not normative by themselves,they can play a limited role in the interpretation in case of ambiguity in a particular provision within the regulation.ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 5 1.2.General principles Article 3 Definitions For the purpose of this Regulation,the following definitions apply:(f)urban node means an urban area where elements of the transport infrastructure of the trans-European transport network for passengers and freight,such as ports including passenger terminals,airports,railway stations,bus terminals,multimodal freight terminals,located in and around the urban area,are connected with other elements of that infrastructure and with the infrastructure for regional and local traffic,including infrastructure for active modes;ECF VIEW:As for now there is no clear delimitation of urban nodes.The amendment to extend the definition to“functional urban areas”with an established EU-OECD methodology has not been included in the compromise text.The resulting definition is somewhat self-contradictory:on one side it is defined as“urban area”,on the other it includes transport infrastructure“in and around urban area”.We can only suppose that the understanding of urban nodes may differ from the administrative borders of the municipalities listed in the Annex to the Regulation,for example including an airport serving the city even if it is not inside the citys boundaries.(p)active modes means the transport of people or goods,through non-motorised means,based on human physical activity,including vehicles with electric auxiliary propulsion as referred to in Article 2(2)(h)of Regulation(EU)No 168/2013;ECF VIEW:The definition includes electrically assisted cycles,but only with an auxiliary electric motor up to 250 W,cut off before the vehicle speed reaches 25 km/h.Therefore,speed pedelecs or heavier cargo bikes are not included in the TEN-T definition of active modes,even though they can play a significant role in replacing trips currently made by motorised vehicles(commuting from suburbs,urban logistics).(ak)socio-economic cost-benefit analysis means a quantified ex-ante evaluation,based on a recognised methodology,of the value of a project,taking into account all the relevant social,economic,health,climate-related and environmental benefits and costs.The analysis of climate-related and environmental costs and benefits shall be based on the environmental impact assessment carried out pursuant to Directive 2011/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council;ECF VIEW:Including health in the cost-benefit analysis of transport infrastructure projects is a very important addition.The health benefits of cycling linked to increased physical activity can change the economic feasibility of for example including a cycle track on a motorway or railway bridge.No specific methodology for analysis of health costs and benefits has been named in the regulation,but earlier documents3 indicate Health Economic Assessment Tool(HEAT)by World Health 3 Commission Staff Working Document Accompanying the document Communication From The Commission to the European Parliament,the Council,the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions Sustainable And Smart Mobility Strategy Putting European Transport On Track For The Future.https:/eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:52020SC0331.Accessed:2024/03/20.ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 6 Organisation.Additionally,the EU-funded Danube Cycle Plans project4 provided more specific guidance and example application:Extended CBA Methodology for Transport Infrastructure Projects and Application of Updated CBA Methodology for Transport Infrastructure Projects.Taking cycling into account in cost-benefit analysis is further discussed in section 2.3.Article 4 Objectives of the trans-European transport network 2.The trans-European transport network shall strengthen the social,economic and territorial cohesion of the Union and contribute to the creation of a single European transport area which is sustainable,safe,efficient and resilient and which increases the benefits for its users and supports inclusive growth.It shall demonstrate European added value by contributing to the objectives laid down in the following four categories:(d)increasing the benefits for its users through:(vii)supporting active modes of mobility by enhancing accessibility and quality of related infrastructure,thereby improving safety and health for active users of infrastructure and fostering the environmental benefits of those modes.Article 5 Resource-efficient,resilient network and environmental protection 1.The trans-European transport network shall be planned,developed and operated in a resource-efficient way,and in accordance with the applicable Union and national environmental requirements,through:(f)the taking into account and optimisation of possible synergies with other networks,in particular the trans-European energy or telecommunication networks including,where relevant,the whole electric grid in order to ensure consistency between the recharging infrastructure planning and the respective grid planning,and the taking into account of possible synergies with the dual-use of infrastructure identified in the Military Requirements for Military Mobility within and beyond the EU approved by the Council on 26 June 2023 and 23 October 2023 and in any subsequent document revising those requirements approved thereafter,as well as with cycling infrastructure,including long-distance cycle routes;ECF VIEW:Explicit mention of long-distance cycle routes implies that the synergies need to be considered not only in urban context.There are many corridors,where long distance cycle routes,for example belonging to the EuroVelo network,are collocated with TEN-T infrastructure.In 2020,ECF analysis identified nearly 10,000 km of overlaps between EuroVelo and TEN-T,5 for example in mountain valleys,on coastal roads,or on approaches to border crossings.In such cases it is critical to closely coordinate the development of routes for different modes of transport and seize opportunities for synergies.4 Danube Cycle Plans.Policies,plans and promotion for more people cycling in the Danube region.https:/www.interreg-danube.eu/approved-projects/danube-cycle-plans.Accessed:2024/03/27.5 Close friends:EuroVelo connects with TEN-T network nearly 8,000 times.https:/ ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 7 Figure 2.Between Dresden(Germany)and Prague(Czechia)EuroVelo 7 follows the Elbe river(TEN-T waterway),together with a TEN-T rail line.Water management and rail service roads provide safe and comfortable route away from busy roads.(g)the development of green,sustainable and climate resilient infrastructure,taking into account active modes and the promotion of new technologies aimed to decarbonise the construction of transport infrastructure,including through the use of resource-efficient and climate-proof materials,designed to reduce as much as possible the negative impact on the health of citizens living around the network,the environment,including from air and noise pollution,and degradation of ecosystems;ECF VIEW:Green,sustainable and climate resilient infrastructure should not only make use of new technologies,but also take into account active modes.Providing a cycle track is often a low hanging fruit that can make a project more sustainable and bring in a positive impact on the health of citizens living around.1.3.General provisions Article 12 General priorities for the core,the extended core and the comprehensive network 1.In the development of the core,the extended core and the comprehensive network,general priority shall be given to measures that are necessary for:(c)ensuring optimal integration of the transport modes and interoperability between transport modes,including active modes of mobility in urban areas;ECF VIEW:The priorities listed in article 12 apply to all types of infrastructure on all parts of network.ECF welcomes a clear reference to active modes,even though the optimal integration of ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 8 active modes should not be limited to urban areas.Integration of cycling with other transport modes has an important role to play also in suburban or rural areas,for example by extending the catchment areas of train stations.This omission is partially alleviated by provisions of Article 12(2)(c)and 19(g),discussed further in the document.2.In order to complement the measures set out in paragraph 1,particular consideration shall be given to measures that are necessary for:(c)contributing to positive health and environmental effects by promoting the use of active modes of mobility through the development of corresponding infrastructure for cycling and walking;ECF VIEW:“Promoting the use of active modes of mobility through the development of corresponding infrastructure for cycling and walking”is an overarching general priority that should be considered in all TEN-T projects.1.4.Specific provisions 1.4.1.Railway transport infrastructure Article 19 Additional priorities for railway infrastructure development In the promotion of projects of common interest related to railway infrastructure,and in addition to the general priorities set out in Articles 12 and 13,attention shall be given to the following:(g)when building or upgrading railway infrastructure,ensure the continuity and accessibility of pedestrian and cycling paths,and develop bicycle parking in the vicinity of the stations in order to promote the active modes of transport;ECF VIEW:“Ensure the continuity and accessibility of pedestrian and cycling paths”is an additional priority that has been included for railway,inland waterway and road transport infrastructure.It can however be interpreted differently depending on the stakeholders involved,and refers to an informal,undefined concept of“cycle paths”.To avoid costly mistakes,ECF stresses the need for good communication between the authority implementing the TEN-T project and authorities responsible for national,regional and local cycle networks.The continuity and accessibility should be considered for routes both along and across the TEN-T infrastructure.The project should take into account planned cycle routes,but the plans may be adapted to take advantage of new opportunities created by the project(see examples in section 2.2).The interpretation of“upgrading”should cover also works like replacing level crossings with road tunnels or bridges,as these are often critical for continuity and accessibility of cycle routes.“Bicycle parking in the vicinity of the stations”is an additional priority specific to railways only.Secure cycle parking in adequate numbers are necessary not only in large multimodal transport hubs,but also at all smaller stations and stops along TEN-T railway lines.The size of the cycle ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 9 parking should comply with the recast directive on the energy performance of buildings(EPBD).6 Furthermore,safe and direct cycle routes allowing to reach the train station from the nearby settlements can greatly increase its“catchment areas”,and therefore the efficiency of rail infrastructure.As a bare minimum,cycle accessibility from the distance of 4 km,equivalent of a 15 minute ride on a conventional bicycle,should be considered.1.4.2.Inland waterways transport infrastructure Article 23 Additional priorities for inland waterway infrastructure development In the promotion of projects of common interest related to inland waterway infrastructures,and in addition to the general priorities set out in Articles 12 and 13,attention shall be given to the following:(g)when building or upgrading inland waterways infrastructure,ensuring the continuity and accessibility of pedestrian and cycling paths in order to promote the active modes of transport;ECF VIEW:See the commentary for railway infrastructure and article 19(g).Figure 3.The main objective of the project was to raise the clearance under bridges on Albert Canal(TEN-T inland waterway)in Belgium,but it has also been used as an opportunity to add or improve cycle infrastructure on the bridges.6 Procedure File 2021/0426(COD).https:/oeil.secure.europarl.europa.eu/oeil/popups/ficheprocedure.do?reference=2021/0426(COD)&l=en.Accessed 27/03/2024.ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 10 1.4.3.Road transport infrastructure Article 29 Transport infrastructure requirements for the comprehensive network 2.Member States shall ensure that by 31 December 2050 the roads referred in Article 28(1)(a)of the comprehensive network meet the following requirements:(a)the road is specially designed,built or upgraded for motor traffic;ECF VIEW:The requirement increases the risk that TEN-T road projects will create new barriers for walking and cycling.Currently,many TEN-T roads,especially in more remote areas of the EU,serve many different modes of transport.Sometimes a TEN-T road is the only asphalted road in the area,only access to a ferry terminal or a border crossing,or the main connection between neighbouring towns or villages.“Upgrading”these to roads serving only motorised traffic has to be compensated by providing alternative routes for active modes.These do not have to be placed directly next to the TEN-T road and can make use of lower category roads,but should not make walking or cycling trips longer;generally the cycle route should be shorter than the route for motorised traffic.Article 30 Transport infrastructure requirements for the core network and extended core network 1a.Member States shall ensure that the roads,as referred in Art 28(1)(a),comply with the following requirements,by 31 December 2030 for the road infrastructure of the core network and by 31 December 2040 for the road infrastructure of the extended core network:(i)the roads are specially designed,built or upgraded for motor traffic;(ii)the roads provide,except at special points or temporarily,separate carriageways for the two directions of traffic,separated from each other by a dividing strip not intended for traffic or by other means ensuring equivalent level of safety;and (iii)the roads do not cross at grade with any road,railway or tramway track,bicycle path or footpath.ECF VIEW:The requirement that the roads belonging to the core and extended core network do not cross at grade with any other road,cycle path or footpath,increases the risk of TEN-T roads creating barriers for active modes of transports.To balance it out,the upgraded roads will need sufficient density of grade separated crossings for cyclists and pedestrians.As detours are affecting active modes much more than motorised vehicles,the density of crossings for cyclists should be significantly higher than for cars.In particular,for built-up areas,various standards and guidelines set the cycle network mesh density(distance between neighbouring cycle routes or crossings)between 200 and 500 m.ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 11 Figure 4.Triq l-Imarr leads to the ferry between Gozo and Malta,and is an example of a TEN-T road where different modes of transport are mixed.Upgrading these roads to serve only motorised traffic needs to be accompanied by providing segregated infrastructure or alternative routes for active modes.Article 31 Additional priorities for road infrastructure development In the promotion of projects of common interest related to road infrastructure,and in addition to the general priorities set out in Articles 12 and 13,attention shall be given to the following:(a)improvement and promotion of road safety,taking into account the needs of vulnerable users and road users in all their diversity,in particular persons with reduced mobility;ECF VIEW:ECF welcomes the reference to road safety taking into account the needs of vulnerable road users.It is however somewhat disappointing that safety is listed only an additional priority for TEN-T roads,and not integrated in infrastructure requirements.(d)when building or upgrading road infrastructure,ensuring the continuity and accessibility of pedestrian and cycling paths in order to promote the active modes of transport and considering,where relevant,to improve the infrastructure for active mobility;ECF VIEW:See the commentary for railway infrastructure and article 19(g).ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 12 1.4.4.Maritime and air transport infrastructure ECF VIEW:No specific cycling-related infrastructure requirements or additional priorities have been defined in the regulation for maritime or air transport infrastructure(chapter 3,sections 3 and 5 of the regulation).However,the general priorities of Article 12(1)(c)and(2)(c)and the requirements for multimodal passenger hubs(see further)still apply.It should be kept in mind that TEN-T seaports and airports are not only hubs of passenger traffic,but also of commercial activity,offering a high concentration of workplaces.At the same time they are often excluded from municipal planning competences.Good cycling infrastructure in the area managed by port or airport authorities,integrated into the wider cycle network,may be critical for keeping the TEN-T infrastructure and related workplaces accessible.1.4.5.Urban nodes Article 40 Urban nodes requirements 1.When developing the trans-European transport network in urban nodes,in order to ensure the effective functioning of the entire network without bottlenecks,Member States shall ensure:(b)by 31 December 2027:(i)the adoption and monitoring of a sustainable urban mobility plan(SUMP)for each urban node that includes inter alia measures to integrate the different modes of transport and shift towards sustainable mobility,to promote efficient zero and low-emission mobility including urban logistics,to reduce air and noise pollution and where appropriate,to assess the users accessibility to transport;ECF VIEW:While the requirement to“assess the users accessibility to transport”does not refer specifically to cycling,it is clear that users accessibility to transport includes accessibility to cycling transport.Access to safe cycling infrastructure is definitely a parameter that varies dramatically between different Member States and even between different cities in the same country.It would be appropriate to make it an integral part of the assessment.Example metrics could include:percentage of inhabitants living within a specific distance of a safe cycle route,percentage of inhabitants having access to a safe cycle route to the closest TEN-T multimodal passenger hub(see below).Regarding SUMPs,see commentary on Article 40(1a)below.(ii)the collection and submission to the Commission of urban mobility data per urban node in the fields of sustainability,safety and accessibility according to the indicators and methodology referred to in paragraph 2 of this Article;(c)by 31 December 2030,the development of multimodal passenger hubs to facilitate first and last mile connections,including the facilitation of access to public transport infrastructure and active mobility,and which are equipped with at least one recharging station as defined in Article 2,point(52),of Regulation(EU)2023/1804 dedicated to serve buses and coaches.Member States shall also examine the ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 13 development in such hubs of a refuelling station,as defined in Article 2,point(59)of that Regulation,used for hydrogen dedicated to serve buses and coaches.ECF VIEW:Multimodal passenger hubs,which act as an interface between long-distance transport and urban nodes,should be easily accessible by active mobility.By 2030 major railway stations,bus stations,airports and ferry terminals should be connected to the cycle network of the urban node they serve.In most cases,it will be a shared responsibility of the national and local level.1a.When adopting and monitoring the SUMPs,local authorities,in cooperation with national authorities where relevant,shall make all possible efforts to ensure that SUMPs are in line with the guidelines in Annex V while also taking into consideration long distance trans-European transport flows.ECF VIEW:As of the time of writing,the text of Annex V has not been published together with the regulation.To properly integrate the different modes of transport and shift towards sustainable mobility,SUMP should include measures such as:circulation plans ensuring elimination of through traffic from city centres and residential areas,cycle highways connecting suburbs with the city centre.SUMP should also set a goal to achieve a certain percentage of cycling modal share,that can later be monitored 2.The Commission shall adopt,no later than one year after the entry into force of this Regulation,an implementing act(i)defining,in a limited number,the indicators to be used for data collection provided for under paragraph 1,point(b);(ii)establishing a methodology for the collection and submission of data pursuant to that paragraph,and(iii)specifying individual deadlines for submitting such data.Those deadlines shall be set from 3 to 5 years.The implementing act shall be prepared in close cooperation with Member States and their regional and local authorities and when doing so,the availability and accessibility of data at local level,as well as existing urban mobility plans,shall be taken into consideration.That implementing act shall be adopted in accordance with the examination procedure referred to in Article 59(3).ECF VIEW:Harmonised data collection on urban mobility in the TEN-T urban nodes is long overdue.While it remains to be seen whether the deadline of one year for the implementing act is realistic,work on defining Sustainable Urban Mobility Indicators(SUMI)is already ongoing in the SUMP subgroup of the Commission Expert Group on Urban Mobility.In a survey on data collection among urban nodes initiated by the subgroup in 2023,many cities indicated that they already collect cycling data in one way or the other.For the definition of the indicators,we will advocate for inclusion of cycling in data collection and harmonised methodologies especially when it comes to modal split,safety(including exposure data),and infrastructure.4.By.one year after the entry into force of this Regulation,the Member States shall,without prejudice to Article 8(4a),designate a national SUMP contact point and shall establish a national SUMP programme with the aim of supporting the urban nodes to adopt and to implement the SUMPs referred to in paragraph 1,point(b),sub-point(i).ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 14 Article 41 Additional priorities for urban nodes In the promotion of projects of common interest related to urban nodes,and in addition to the general priorities set out in Articles 12 and 13,attention shall be given to the following:(b)seamless interconnection between the infrastructure of the trans-European transport network and the infrastructure for regional and local sustainable transport.It may include,for passengers,the ability to access information,book,pay their journeys and retrieve their tickets through multimodal digital mobility services in order to allow for optimised itineraries for vehicles in view of improving the management of traffic flows,road safety and reducing congestion and air pollution,and for freight,urban logistic facilities to enhance the consolidation of deliveries in urban areas,such as micro-hubs and cycle logistic hubs,in particular those connected with railway and waterborne transport infrastructure;(ba)sustainable,seamless and safe interconnection of passenger transport infrastructure between rail,road,and as appropriate,inland waterway,air,and maritime,including the integration of infrastructure for active modes,especially when building or upgrading transport infrastructure;(e)where appropriate,increase of the modal share of public transport and of active modes through measures to orientate primarily the mobility of passengers in favour of these modes including safe and secure infrastructure for active modes;ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 15 2.How to integrate cycling into large infrastructure projects?While the revised TEN-T regulation is clear as a policy document stipulating the need of integrating cycling into other infrastructure projects,it does not include much specific guidance how to do that.The section aims to fill the gap with brief practical advice for different types of projects and different aspects of project preparation.2.1.Quality requirements for cycling infrastructure Cycling infrastructure standards are a basis:for determining whether and where(dedicated)cycle facilities are necessary,for their detailed designs.Most EU countries already have standards or guidelines for cycling infrastructure in place.However,some of them do not cover all quality aspects,some do not ensure sufficient level of safety,some are adopted on the municipal level or focus on urban areas,which means they are not binding,or not the most relevant for typical TEN-T projects.Figure 5.The eastern section of the S8 expressway in Warsaw,Poland was equipped with cycling facilities,but because of lack of enforcement of quality requirements the cycle tracks are not safe to use.To address the gaps,in the 2019 revision of the directive on road infrastructure safety management(RISM Directive)7 the European institutions mandated the Commission to prepare quality requirements 7 Consolidated text:Directive 2008/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 19 November 2008 on road infrastructure safety management.https:/eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:02008L0096-20191216.Accessed 2024/03/28.ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 16 for infrastructure for vulnerable road users.Unfortunately,the works of the subgroup started only in 2024.In parallel,a similar document has been nearly completed by the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe(UNECE)Group of Experts on cycling infrastructure(GE.5).The draft guide for designating cycle route networks(expected to be finalised by June 2024,most recent revision published on 18 March 20248)includes in Annex II guidance on types of cycle infrastructure and their parameters,and in Annex III on cycle crossings.ECF recommends including the two annexes in terms of reference for design or design and build contracts for TEN-T projects,unless more stringent binding standards are already in place.Generally,cycling infrastructure should meet the criteria of coherence,directness,safety,attractiveness,comfort.The general criteria translate into specific technical requirements,covering in particular:1.Acceptable detour factor,delays,frequency of interruptions;2.Criteria for segregation/integration of cyclists with motorised traffic,based mostly on volume and speed of motorised traffic(optionally also volume of cyclists);3.Criteria for segregation/integration of cyclists and pedestrians,based on(expected)volume of pedestrians and cyclists;4.Geometric parameters:minimum width and clearance,horizontal and vertical curve radii,maximum gradients,stopping sight distance,visibility splays on crossings;5.Surface quality.Further reading:1.Guide for designating cycle route networks,Annex II and Annex III.UNECE 2024(work in progress).2.Geometric design requirements for cycle infrastructure.ECF 2022.3.Catalogue of Cycling-friendly Infrastructure Standards for the Danube Countries.Ministry of the sea,transport and infrastructure of Croatia 2021.2.2.Cycle audit Large scale infrastructure projects,such as TEN-T projects,should undergo a cycle-friendliness check(audit)to make sure:1.They do not create new barriers for cycling(“Do No Significant Harm”principle);2.Opportunities to improve conditions for cycling are fully used;3.Elements of cycle infrastructure included in the project meet the quality requirements.The scope of the audit depends on the type and location of the project.The following table can be used as the first guideline:8 Guide for designating cycle route networks.https:/unece.org/transport/documents/2024/03/working-documents/guide-designating-cycle-route-networks.Accessed 2024/03/28.ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 17 Type of project Cycle audit focus 1 All road and railroad constructions and upgrades Sufficient density of cycle crossings meeting quality standards higher than density of crossings available for motorised traffic.Cycle infrastructure along the(rail)road,if there is potential for cycle traffic and no alternative route meets quality standards.2 Ring road/bypass of a town/city In addition to 1:Circulation plan in the bypassed area that ensures elimination of through motorised traffic from it.3 Road projects in new itineraries In addition to 1:Adaptation of the substituted road for safe walking and cycling,for example reallocating a part of the carriageway to pedestrians and cyclists,introducing traffic filters to eliminate through traffic,or reclassifying the whole carriageway to a cycle track.4 Railroad line construction or upgrade In addition to 1:Secure cycle parking at stations.Safe routes to reach the stations(design of the area around the station).Accessibility of platforms with cycles(ramps or large enough lifts).5 Inland waterways Cycle infrastructure along the river/canal/coast(possible synergy with service roads).Cycle infrastructure on new/modernised bridges.6 Ports and airports Cycle infrastructure enabling access to passenger terminals and workplaces 7 All projects Upgrade of other roads affected by the project(for example,where traffic is likely to increase as a result of the project)to meet the quality requirements for cycle infrastructure Figure 6.6,000 cyclists per day use“Snelbinder”,a 2-km long cycling bridge attached to the railroad bridge over the Waal river and embankment in Nijmegen,Netherlands.ECF|Integrating cycling in the trans-European transport network 18 Further reading:1.Cycling and Dutch national infrastructure.Working towards a more structural approach to incorporating cycling in national-level projects.Ministry of Infrastructure and Water Management,and Rijkswaterstaat,2020.2.Interim Advice Note 195/16.Cycle Traffic and the Strategic Road Network,Section 2.1.Highways England 2016.2.3.Impact assessment Projects should integrate into their cost-benefit analysis:1.the impact of the investment on modal split and number of trips by different modes of transport,2.health impact through increased or decreased physical activity,resulting from changes in number of trips by active modes,3.impact of number of trips by different modes of transport on CO2 and other emissions.For example,if a project claims time savings in road journey times(positive effect),it will make car journeys more competitive in comparison to more sustainable modes of transport,resulting in a shift of some trips towards individual motorised transport.This will likely increase CO2 emissions and reduce physical activity of the users(negative effects).To achieve overall positive balance,the negative effects might need to be compensated by additional measures(for example,leading to time saving also for cycle trips).Further reading:1.Health Economic Assessment Tool(HEAT).WHO 2023.2.Extended CBA Methodology for Transport Infrastructure Projects.KTI Institute for Transport Sciences 2022.3.Application of Updated CBA Methodology for Transport Infrastructure Projects.KTI Institute for Transport Sciences 2022.2.4.Case studies An interactive map of good and bad practices in integrating cycling into TEN-T infrastructure is available in the TEN-T section of the ECF website.As of March 2024,93 case studies from 25 countries(22 EU Member States,Norway,Switzerland and UK)are displayed.A considerable effort has been made to ensure that the information presented is current and accurate.If outdated or incorrect information is brought to our attention,ECF will correct or remove it.Additional case studies are also welcome.European Cyclists Federation Mundo Madou Rue de la Charit 22 B-1210 Brussels 32 2 329 03 80
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INVENTORY OF BESTPRACTICES FOR LOWCARBON AND RESILIENTINFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAYNETWORK20240 Inventory of Best Practices for Low Carbon and Resilient Infrastructure along the Asian Highway Network i The Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP)serves as the United Nations regional hub promoting cooperation among countries to achieve inclusive and sustainable development.The largest regional intergovernmental platform with 53 member States and 9 associate members,ESCAP has emerged as a strong regional think-tank offering countries sound analytical products that shed insight into the evolving economic,social and environmental dynamics of the region.The Commissions strategic focus is to deliver on the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,which it does by reinforcing and deepening regional cooperation and integration to advance connectivity,financial cooperation and market integration.The research and analysis of ESCAP coupled with its policy advisory services,and capacity-building and technical assistance to governments aims to support countries sustainable and inclusive development ambitions.The views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Secretariat.The opinions,figures and estimates set forth in this publication are the responsibility of the authors and should not necessarily be considered as reflecting the views or carrying the endorsement of the United Nations.The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area,or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.Mention of firm names and commercial products does not imply the endorsement of the United Nations.ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The present publication was prepared by the Transport Division of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP)under the overall guidance of Ms.Azhar Jaimurzina Ducrest,Section Chief and led by Mr.Edouard Chong,Economic Affairs Officer,Transport Connectivity and Logistics Section.The core authors are(in alphabetical order)Mr.Andrey Yershov,Expert consultant,Astana,Kazakhstan;Dr.Chunho Yeom,Professor,University of Seoul,Seoul,Republic of Korea;and Dr.Yu Shen,Associate Professor,Tongji University,Shanghai,China.Grateful acknowledgment is made to the Government of China for the generous funding of this study.iii TABLE OF CONTENTS EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.3 1.INTRODUCTION.5 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK.7 2.1 China.7 2.2 India.11 2.3 Kazakhstan.17 2.4 Republic of Korea.20 2.5 Philippines.25 2.6 The Russian Federation.29 2.7 Uzbekistan.35 3.SELECTED CASE STUDIES ON LOW CARBON,RESILIENT AND ACCESSIBLE ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE FROM ESCAP MEMBER STATES.40 3.1 Cambodia:Dynamic adaptive policy pathways for road resilience.41 3.2 Georgia:Adopting low carbon,sustainable and socially inclusive transport.51 3.3 India:Building resilience through infrastructure development in rural areas.52 3.4 Pacific Islands.58 3.4.1 Kiribati and Tuvalu:Climate and disaster resilient roads using geocell concrete pavements .58 3.4.2 Samoa:building road resilience in a small island developing State.60 3.4.3 Local materials for climate resilient coastal protection in coral atolls of the Pacific islands.62 3.5 Republic of Korea:.65 3.6 The Russian Federation:.71 3.7 Sri Lanka:Geosynthetic reinforced soils for rapid and low-cost bridges.75 3.8 Trkiye:supporting green,sustainable and resilient road network.78 3.9 United States of America:.80 3.10 Viet Nam:Empowering women to manage rural road maintenance.89 4.SELECTED CASE STUDIES FROM OTHER REGIONS.92 4.1 Costa Rica:Managing critical infrastructure resilience.92 iv 4.2 European Union:Developing a cost-effective and durable roads maintenance approach.94 4.3 Mozambique:Prioritization of road interventions based on economic development potential and flood risk.100 4.4 Nicaragua:Low carbon,inclusive,and cost-effective road program.102 4.5 Portugal:developing a low carbon infrastructure framework.107 5.CONCLUSIONS:TOWARDS A REGIONAL APPROACH TO PROMOTING LOW-CARBON AND RESILIENT ASIAN HIGHWAYS.111 CONCLUSIONS.125 REFERENCES.126 APPENDIXES.133 Appendix 1-Summary of Engineering options for increasing infrastructure resilience.134 Appendix 2-Opportunities to build infrastructure resilience across Asia and the Pacific.135 v Figures Figure 1.Regulatory scope of TR TS 014/2011.18 Figure 2.National Road 2 damaged by landslide and flooding in Cambodia.41 Figure 3.Steps in the creation of dynamic adaptive policy pathways.44 Figure 4.Appraisal of dynamic adaptive pathway option.46 Figure 5.Illustrative dynamic adaptive policy pathway.48 Figure 6.Investment cost for Road Segment 92,by pathway.49 Figure 7.Typical landslide interrupting a road.51 Figure 8.Geomat installation for slope stabilization.52 Figure 9.Contour bunding or embankment built in Barbaspur village,Chhattisgarh.53 Figure 10.Geocell formwork ready for placement of concrete.58 Figure 11.Feeder Road on South Tarawa before and after construction of geocell pavements.59 Figure 12.The vulnerable west coast road of Samoa.60 Figure 13.Planning under the vulnerability assessment and the Climate Resilient Road Strategy.62 Figure 14.Rock revetment in Temaiku,South Tarawa.63 Figure 15.Geosynthetic container revetment.64 Figure 16.Model of concrete masonry block revetment tested to failure.64 Figure 17.Diamond grinder and grinded pavements.66 Figure 18.Electric excavator and hydrogen fuel cell loader,Hyundai Motors.66 Figure 19.Carbon capture utilization and storage.69 Figure 20.Hi-pass(expressway smart tolling system).69 Figure 21.Construction of Salekhard-Sazym Federal Highway using heat-insulating sheets.71 Figure 22.Raw materials for soil stabilization.74 Figure 23.Kolyma road section before and after soil stabilization.74 Figure 24.Typical damage to a bridge abutment caused by flood flow in Sri Lanka.75 Figure 25.Typical geogrid for use in bridge construction.76 Figure 26.Schematic of a geosynthetic reinforced soil abutment for bridges.77 Figure 27.Bicycle lane in Hatay province,Trkiye.78 Figure 28.Several CA/T structures vulnerable to coastal flooding requiring adaptive measures.83 Figure 29.The Aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans.86 Figure 30.Climate change vulnerability assessment framework.88 Figure 31.Construction of a road drainage system by local communities in Viet Nam.90 Figure 32.A flooded street in Costa Rica during rainy season.92 Figure 33.Decision-making tree and set of alternatives for road materials.96 Figure 34.Graphene-based materials synthesis from Graphite.97 Figure 35.Percentages of alternative aggregates used in the asphalt mixes.97 Figure 36.Live cycle assessment by ReCiPe EndPoint(H)of a road pavement versus.DURABROADS mixes.99 Figure 37.An example of a stone(adoquine)road in Nicaragua.102 Figure 38.Typical block stone used in Nicaragua roads programme.104 Figure 39.Cost of block stone paving using different MCA modalities.105 Figure 40.Consequences of floods and landslides in Madeira,2020.107 Figure 41.Methodological approach for developing the green infrastructure of Setbal.108 Figure 42.Proposed investment actions to implement the green infrastructure in Setbal.109 vi Tables Table 1.Elements for consideration in environmentally friendly road design and construction.23 Table 2.Main implementation tasks for the Korea Expressway Corporation in 2022.24 Table 3.Korean GreenRoads Certification Grades.25 Table 4.Transport accidents and traffic disruptions caused by natural hazards during the period 19922018.30 Table 5.Main types of actions in dynamic adaptive policy pathways.41 Table 6.Planned investments in road infrastructure resilience in Cambodia.43 Table 7.Optimal pathways for key road segments in Cambodia.49 Table 8.Particulate Matter LED signals at the construction site.67 Table 9.Particulate matter LED signals at the construction site.68 Table 10.Power generation capacity from solar energy panels of Namhae Expressway.69 Table 11.Examples of the evaluation criteria from the Barrier Free Certification System.70 Table 12.Summary of recommendations and activities.93 Table 13.Main considerations for the selection of environmentally friendly alignment.111 Table 14.Main design considerations for low carbon and resilient highway infrastructure.113 Table 15.List of cohesive soil treatment methods.115 Table 16.Animal types and wildlife crossing considerations.116 Table 17.Road drainage structures in different conditions.118 vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Abbreviation Full Name AADT Average annual daily traffic AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials ADT Average daily traffic BMP Modified road bitumen BND Oil-based road bitumen CA/T Central Artery/Tunnel Project(in Boston)CCU Conventional car unit CDRI Coalition for Disaster-Resilient Infrastructure CLART Composite Land Assessment&Restoration Tool CRRI Central Road Research Institute of India DAPP Dynamic adaptive policy pathways DFID Department for International Development DGCS Design Guidelines,Criteria and Standards in the Philippines EQ Earthquake FHWA Federal Highway Administration(of the US)FWD Falling Weight Deflectometer GDP Gross domestic product GHG Greenhouse gas GOST National(state)standard(in some of post-soviet republics)GREET greenhouse gases,regulated emissions,and energy use ICRG Infrastructure for Climate Resilient Growth IRC Indian Road Congress IRI International Roughness Index ISC Interstate Council for Standardization,Metrology and Certification KazDorNII Kazakhstani Road Research Institute LRFD Load and Resistance Factor Design LSGD Local Self-Government Department MassDOT Massachusetts Department of Transportation MDR Major District Roads MEPDG Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Abbreviation Full Name MGNREGA Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act MoRTH Ministry of Road Transport and Highways of India MSW Municipal solid waste NDC NDC NH National Highway NHAI National Highways Authority of India NRIDA National Rural Infrastructure Development Agency of India ODR Other District Roads PMC Premix Carpet PMGSY Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana Program in India PWD Persons with Disability SH State Highways SIDS Small Island Developing States ST Standard(in Kazakhstans codification)TR TS Technical regulation(document)of the Customs Union 3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Road transport is the most predominantly used mode of passenger and freight transport and vector of economic activities and human exchanges in Asia and the Pacific.As the bulk of the regional road transport network has been constructed and formalized as the Asian Highway Network,improving infrastructure quality along the Network is a significant opportunity to raise the overall sustainability of road transport sector.The latest technological progress,new pavement materials,design and construction,as well as the maintenance and upgrade needs of Asian highways offer numerous opportunities to transition to a more environmentally sustainable infrastructure design,to bring higher resilience to future disruptions,as low-quality road transport infrastructure is more vulnerable to extreme weather,and to make road transport infrastructure more accessible and inclusive.Against this background,this study includes information from the selected members of the Asian Highway Network related to road infrastructure development standards and parameters and policy initiatives which support low carbon and resilient roads.The report also offers case studies on low carbon,resilient and accessible road transport in Asia and the Pacific and beyond with the goal to offer an inventory for low-carbon and resilient infrastructure solutions for the members of the Asian Highway Network.Generally,the collected information reveals that road design standards,standardization systems,governance and the solution to each problem differ significantly among countries.The diversity of the challenges,local conditions and capacities leads to a high variety of solutions and countermeasures to climate change,suggesting that more regional efforts are needed to ensure effective and efficient planning and implementation of low carbon and resilient projects along the Asian Highway Network.Initial recommendations and best practices are,therefore,proposed to provide guidelines that can help countries design and construct highways and other road infrastructure take into considerations of the main technical elements for ensuring environmentally friendly and resilient road infrastructure.5 5 1.INTRODUCTION 1.INTRODUCTION Road transport is the most predominantly used mode of passenger and freight transport and vector of economic activities and human exchanges in Asia and the Pacific.Greater environmental sustainability and resilience of the transport infrastructure can be achieved through improvements to the quality of the infrastructure,along the Asian Highway Network the regional network of roads in 32 countries in Asia and the Pacific,formalized by the Intergovernmental Agreement on the Asian Highway Network.While the bulk of the Network has already been constructed,countries still add new routes to the Network through amendments to the Intergovernmental Agreement on the Asian Highway Network.Just as importantly,in line with their commitment to bring the Asian Highway network into conformity with the design standards described in the Agreement,many countries face the persisting challenge to upgrade the existing road infrastructure,as currently,60 per cent of the network consist of lower quality Class-II,Class-III and below Class-III roads.Improving infrastructure quality along the Asian Highway network is a significant opportunity to raise the overall sustainability of road transport sector.Continued infrastructure development is an essential precondition for lowering emissions and ensuring resilience.Introduction of new technologies,such as new pavement designs,materials and construction methods,can help achieve a more environmentally friendly or“green”infrastructure.Improving substandard road infrastructure enhances transport connectivity among the countries by removing bottlenecks along transport corridors,which currently result in suboptimal use of road vehicles.Furthermore,as low-quality road transport infrastructure is more vulnerable to increasingly extreme weather events or other adverse events,higher road quality brings higher resilience to future disruptions and improves its accessibility.Between 2004 and 2020,natural disasters caused more than$500 billion in losses across the region,affecting 2.1 billion people in total(Sirivunnabood and Alwarritzi,2020).In the coming years,the risk of exposure to natural hazards is expected to increase globally,and the developing economies of Asia and the Pacific will be among the most vulnerable and risk-prone countries.The location and design of infrastructure determines the degree of damage sustained during hazards and shapes how accessible basic services are after a disaster.Continued infrastructure development is also an opportunity to make road transport infrastructure more accessible and inclusive by generating new economic opportunities for marginalized communities.Again this background,this technical report has been prepared under the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP)project“Supporting the polices on green and resilient transport infrastructure along the Asian Highway Network”with the objective to increase the awareness and understanding among member countries regarding new construction and design elements,that are expected to make road infrastructure more environmentally sustainable,more resilient to natural hazards and other disruptions and,in some cases,also more accessible.The primary information and data for the study were derived from the following open sources:6 6 1.INTRODUCTION Official sites of national highway administrations National standardization bodies National statistical bureaus Study reports Interviews with highway scientists and researchers Conference proceedings.Approximately 100 technical documents,reports,and publications were analyzed to prepare this report.The rest of the report is structured as follows:Chapter II contains a review of the current road engineering standards and examples of the policy initiatives on low carbon and resilient road infrastructure in the selected countries members of the Asian Highway Network,including China,India,Kazakhstan,Republic of Korea,Philippines,the Russian Federation and Uzbekistan.Chapter III presents case studies of low carbon,resilient and accessible road infrastructure from ESCAP Member States,including Cambodia,Georgia,India,the Pacific,Republic of Korea,the Russian Federation,Sri Lanka,Trkiye and United States of America.Chapter IV includes cases studies for non-ESCAP member States,such as Costa Rica,European Union,Mozambique,Nicaragua and Portugal,selected because of their experience in making adaptations to build resilience.Chapter V contains conclusion and collection of recommendations on a possible regional approach to promoting low carbon and resilient Asian Highways.Appendixes present two sets of examples of engineering interventions and policy recommendations formulated under internationally funded studies and research.The case studies used in the report are mainly based on the adaptation of existing published case studies with appropriate references to the original work.Views and opinions expressed in the adaptations have not been endorsed by the owners of the original work.7 7 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK This chapter offers a review of the current road engineering standards and examples of the policy initiatives on low carbon and resilient road infrastructure in the selected countries members of the Asian Highway Network,including China,India,Kazakhstan,Republic of Korea,Philippines,the Russian Federation and Uzbekistan.2.1 China a)Country overview In 2019,the total mileage of national highways in China extended 5 million kilometres,of which 161,000 kilometres were expressways.As there was an unbalance between the increase in the highway mileage and the efficiency of the highway operation,digitalization and intelligence had become the trend of highway development in the country.In August 2016,the Ministry of Transport promulgated the Thirteenth Five-Year Plan for the Transportation Technology,which elaborated on the intelligent design of highways,and consequently,in 2020,the“Guiding opinions on promoting the construction of New Infrastructure in the Field of Transportation”,issued by the Ministry of Transport,was intended to achieve visible results towards the digitalization of countrys highways by 2035.b)Standardization system overview In China,the road engineering standard system is divided into six levels:policy;national standards;ministerial standards;local standards;enterprise standards;and association standards.Among them,policies,national standards,ministerial standards and local standards are formulated by the Government for the basic operation of road design and construction.On the other hand,enterprise standards and association standards are independently formulated by relevant associations and enterprises to enhance their market competition.While policies and national standards are mandatory and applied to all roads,other standards can only be implemented if they comply with the requirements of these mandatory standards.c)Road standards overview Ministerial standards regulate mandatory rules for road engineering;their requirements tend to be more flexible than local standards,enterprise standards and association standards.Different ministerial standards have different focus areas,such as materials and pavement,subgrades.on contents and technical parameters.In principle,the design parameters of the road construction projects in China should follow JTG D50-2017 Specification for Design of Highway Asphalt Pavement,which is considered to be one of the most essential standards for designing highways.In detail,road construction technical parameters of different structure layer follows specific specifications.Subgrades must be in line with JTG/T 3610-2019 technical 8 8 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK specifications for construction of highway subgrades,the base must be in line with JTG/T F20-2015 Technical Guidelines For Construction of Highway Roadbeds and Pavement Layers must be line with JTG F40 Technical Specification for Construction of Highway Asphalt Pavements.Among the various technical parameters of highways,China attaches great importance to the technical parameters of pavement strength,such as the California Bearing Ration(CBR)value and deflection values.Many heavy and overloaded vehicles travel on Chinese roads.Accordingly,a more economical semi-rigid pavement and semi-rigid base have been developed to improve the bearing capacity of the pavement.Furthermore,some Chinese scholars have proposed a road construction concept of strong base and thin pavement.They are of the view that this pavement structure could prolong the service life of the road(Jiang,2015).National standards National standards are published by the Standardization Administration.Compliance with them is mandatory.The number of national standards is limited because the regulation of these standards is cautious and relatively hysteretic.Updating and revising national standards should guarantee that the contents are reliable and practical.National standards focus on key problems in road construction.The GB 50092-1996 Code for Construction and Acceptance of Asphalt Pavements sets rules on basic material and construction techniques used in road engineering.Parameters and test methods in the standard are generally applied in all projects.The standard published in 1996 has good usability and universality.National standards also are focused on materials and machines used in road engineering.GB/T 30598-2014 general specification of epoxy asphalt materials for paving roads and bridges is a standard for specific asphalt materials and clarifies property and usage of epoxy asphalt materials.In addition,GB/T 7920.13-2006 Concrete Pavement Machine and Equipment-terminology defines the terminology of construction machine and sets rules on the application of concrete pavement machine.As shown above,national standards generally are related to basic concepts or products.Ministerial standards JTG F40 Technical Specification For Construction Of Highway Asphalt Pavement and JTG D50 Specifications For Design Of Highway Asphalt Pavement Ministerial Standards set regulations on construction and design separately,which are two main areas in road engineering.Many other standards related to these areas need to follow the rules made in these two standards.JTG/T D31-04-2012 Guidelines For Design And Construction Of Highway In Permafrost Area pertains to highways in a permafrost area.To solve road frost boil and heave in the seasonal frozen region,the standard put forward a special requirement for the design of road and bridges.NB/T 10209 code for design of road for wind power projects is another standard for a specific kind of road.The standard centres on a special condition of the highway in permafrost area and modifies the parameters of the design based on the general design standard to make them suitable for that area.For example,in areas directly affected by wind turbines,the speed for a road is only 10km/h,much lower than for general roads.JTG/T 5521-9 9 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK 2019 Technical Specification For Highway Asphalt Pavement Recycling sets a rule on a technology that uses recycled asphalt material to pave highways and efficiently reduce emission produced in the production of materials.Local standards Local authorities establish standards tailored to their specific regions.These regional norms complement national and ministerial guidelines,as they are crafted based on the unique conditions of the area and incorporate relevant innovations.For example,Anhui province has issued DB34/T 4098 Technical Specification for Recycling Building Solid Waste as road material in highway engineering system regulations under which regulations pertaining to the recycling of construction solid waste as road materials for the surface layer is included.Similarly,Shandong province has issued DB37/T 5187-2021 Technical Specification for Construction of Central Plant Hot Recycling Asphalt Pavement in the City,and Jilinp province has issued DB22/T 5015-Technical Standards For Recycled Aggregate Road Base Engineering.Enterprise standards Private and public enterprises publish enterprise standards to improve their competitiveness in the market for specific products or techniques.Compared to the minimal public standards,the publication is less strict,can cover various fields and supplement existing standards with unlimited details.The areas in which they can supplement public standards are in construction techniques,quality acceptance content of new materials and green material production and utilization.Some examples are the Shanxi Bosheng Road Materials Co.,Ltd.Q/TSBS 001-2022 Technical Guidelines for the Construction of Solid Waste-Based Cementitious Materials Stabilized Granule Base Construction and the Jiangsu Tiannuo Road Material Technology Co.,Ltd.Q/321191 JSTN003-2020 Environmentally Friendly Heavy Traffic Road Petroleum Asphalt.Association standards Formulated associations,similar to enterprises,publish their own standards.These standards have contributed towards raising the threshold of the industry.The Standards of China Association of Engineering Construction Standardization has published T/CECS G:K44-02-2020 Technical Specification of SBS and Crumb Rubber Modified Asphalt Mixture for Highway Pavement and T/CECS G:C31-2020 Technical Specifications for Soil and Water Conservation for Highway Projects,and CCCC First Highway Consultants Co.,Ltd.published T/CECS G:C10-01-2020 Technical Standards for Construction of Green Road.d)Projects and policy initiatives for low carbon and resilient road infrastructure As shown from the standards above,China has focused on introducing digitalization and green resilient highways.In line with the Outline for the Construction of Nation with a Strong Transportation System,the country has proposed to carry out pilot smart highways in nine provinces and cities,including,among them,Beijing,Zhejiang and Guangdong,in 2018 and in 2020,it proposed to build an integrated efficient smart transportation infrastructure to boost the construction of smart highways.10 10 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK Smart Highway Pilot Project in S342 Highway,Jiangsu The S342S Smart Highway is in the Wuxi provincial highway section,spanning 52.75 km.It runs parallel to the Shanghai-Nanjing Expressway,one of the busiest expressways in the country.On the highway is a panoramic video surveillance system and meteorological monitoring system,which improves traffic efficiency of the main line and gives an early warning of environmental changes and to de-ice and remove snow.Superhighway pilot project in G92 Highway,Zhejiang G92 highway,which starts in Shanghai and ends in Ningbo via Hangzhou,is the first smart expressway in China.The expressway spans 161 kilometers and has a design speed of 140 km/h.The hot in-place recycling technology is adopted,through which carbon emissions from pavement milling and old material transport are greatly reduced.Similarly,the EPS lightweight mixed soil technology used allows disposal of mollisol at the bridge embankment to reduce the use of cement powder piles.Anti-freezing salted asphalt technology also delays pavement icing in winter.Smart highway pilot project in G3 Highway,Shandong G3 Highway is a planned expressway to connect Beijing and Taiwan Province of China that will span 2,030 kilometers.The Shandong section of the expressway takes into account the whole life cycle characteristics of green highway construction in the design and construction stage of the project.Humus utilization,roadside vegetation protection and ecological side ditch preserve slope vegetation.In the construction stage,excavation sages from tunnels are reutilized and energy-saving machinery replace old energy-consuming machines.Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao bridge The 55-kilometre bridge,still under construction,is intended to be environmentally friendly and green.As the bridge alignment passes through the reserve of 2,000 Chinese white dolphins,the construction team has set a special rule that bans diesel piling hammers and direct dredging.Major components,such as immersed tube tunnels,bridge caps and pier bodies,are assembled offshore and prefabricated to improve operation efficiency and to reduce the number of piers required.Advanced road construction techniques In addition to the abovementioned projects,China has introduced various techniques that can enhance the efficiency,resilience and environmental friendliness of its roads.Temperature self-regulating roadways,such as phase-change temperature regulating roadways,thermal reflection roadways,thermal resistance roadways and water retaining roadways are being introduced.Similarly,there are self-healing roadways,self-energy capturing roadways,intelligent de-icing and snow-removing roadways and noise-reducing roadways.Modified asphalts Modified asphalt reduces the noise of driving,supports optimization of economic and social benefits of highways and prolongs the service life of highways.Despite its use and development over decades in China,the main problems associated with it,such as compatibility and stability,remain an issue.To resolve such issues,the following solutions have been proposed:11 11 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK Development of new modifiers such as Styrene-butadiene glue and ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymer to enhance environmental friendliness and provide cost effective construction materials;Use of variety of additives and improve production processes to improve the high temperature performance,low temperature crack resistance and storability;Development of new road structure suitable for modified asphalt;Set up the experimental evaluation system of modified asphalt.Autopilot lanes construction techniques Autopilot lanes diversify and customize intelligent services to road users,while effectively extending the life cycle of road facilities and improving transportation safety and public welfare.Though the construction of autopilot lanes are still in the conceptual design stage because they are touted as a future technology that needs to be developed in line with the development of automated driving,many institutions in China have conducted research on innovative techniques for autopilot lanes,covering the following:Self-perception ability of autopilot lanes to provide real-time dynamic monitoring function to deal with over-speed and overload behaviors;Road active adaptation ability to deal with environmental changes(self-repair);Energy recovery and recycling of lanes to provide continuous power for information perception,data acquisition and transmission.2.2 India a)Country overview Indias unique geoclimatic and socioeconomic conditions are vulnerable to a wide range of natural and man-made disasters.Five distinct regions of the country,the Himalayan region,the alluvial plains,the hilly part of the peninsula and the coastal zone,have their specific problems.For example,the Himalayan region is prone to disasters,such as earthquakes and landslides,the plain is affected by floods,the desert part of the country is affected by droughts and famine and the coastal zone is susceptible to cyclones and storms.Landslides are one of the main natural hazards causing enormous loss of lives and property damage in the landslide-prone hilly terrain during the monsoon periods and also in the event of earthquakes.Approximately 12.6 per cent of the area(420,000 km2)of the country is exposed to landslides.The countrys road network of 5.8 million kilometres is the second largest and most dense in the world(1.7 km per km2 of area).It carries 65 per cent of the freight traffic,85 per cent of the total passenger traffic and comprises a primary network of 141,000 km of national highways,a secondary network of 171,000 km of state highways and major and other district roads,and a tertiary network of rural roads.12 12 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK b)Standardization system overview 1 The standards process in India is largely government-led,with the Bureau of Indian Standards publishing the majority of voluntary products and services-related standards.Other specialist bodies develop and publish standards in their domain areas.A few large public-sector organizations also publish standards for their own use.There is currently no regulation or prohibition on voluntary standards development or promotional activities by organizations,except that they cannot claim their standards to be Indian Standards only standards published by Bureau of Indian Standards have that status.The standards development work is distributed over 14 division councils,which are comprised of more than 650 technical committees.Many of these committees act as shadow or mirror committees of their international counterparts at the International Organization for Standardization(ISO)/International Electrotechnical Commission(IEC).Regulatory bodies involve stakeholders in developing technical regulations or the adoption of standards either through structured committees or wide stakeholder consultation.Prior notification of the draft regulations in the form of public notifications and the WTO TBT/SPS notifications is practiced by all technical regulators.In some areas,such as food safety,scientific risk evaluation is carried out by the relevant committees.In addition to the national standardization system,several overseas standards organizations have established offices in India to assist the countrys industry in adopting their standards,especially to meet international trade obligations.Notable among these are the following:Seconded European Standardization Expert in India(SESEI),set up by the European Standardization Organizations CEN,CENELEC,and ETSI;American Society of Mechanical Engineers(ASME);International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials(IAPMO);IEEE;and IEEE American Society of Heating,Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.The Bureau of Indian Standards is also a member of the Pacific Area Standards Congress and South Asian Regional Standards Organization.As the national standards body of India,it represents the country in ISO.The Bureau has national mirror committees to shadow the work of ISO CASCO and COPOLCO.The IEC National Committee of India,which has its secretariat at the Bureau of Indian standards,is an Indian member of the International Electrotechnical Commission.c)Road standards overview The Ministry of Road Transport and Highways of India formulates national policies and legislation governing road transport and evolving road standards.The development and adoption of standard specifications and guidelines on various aspects of road design engineering for highways,and urban and non-urban road types are the responsibility of the 1 Set the India Standards Portal(http:/indiastandardsportal.org/(accessed 7 September 2022).13 13 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK Indian Road Congress,2 which is an apex body of highway engineers,set up by the Government of India.The International Road Congress has adopted more than 100 standards relating to roads,namely survey,investigation,equipment,design,construction,environment,maintenance,geometrics,safety,road signage and technology.In addition,the Indian Road Congress has developed and issued numerous standards,specifications,codes of practices and manuals on different aspects of roads,bridges,tunnels and traffic engineering.As of 2020,it had published 127 codes of practices for specifications and standards and 121 manuals and special publications on guidelines,in addition to,25 state-of-the-art reports on new technologies and methodologies,77 highway research bulletins,16 highway research journals,41 highway research and several publications made on behalf of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways,NITI Aayog,which is a public policy think tank,the National Highway Authority of India and the Ministry of Rural Development.The Indian Road Commission has issued 15 standards that directly deal with asphalt pavements.IRC 37,which provides guidelines for the design of flexible pavements,was issued in 1970 and has been revised four times since then,with the latest revision being in November 2018.Regarding the new materials and technology,the Commission has published 16 codes/guidelines that recommend the use of environment-friendly green and sustainable technology for road construction.It has also made provisions for using new and alternative technologies by contractors through manuals issued as a part of contracts based on the engineering,procurement and construction,and public-private partnership models.In addition,the Commission has set up a dedicated committee for accreditation of new materials,technology,and equipment,allowing their use in pilot projects.The system of road standards in India is well-established.There are many specific standards,guidelines and state-of-the-art reports that deal with various aspects of road resilience and sustainability.Following the pace of technology development,several new regulations were developed and adopted over the past 10 years to further introduce energy-saving and durable materials and technologies for greener and more resilient roads.These in particular covered such areas as the use of coir geotextiles and geosynthetics;seismic design;green urban roads;rockfall,landslide,and flood mitigation;the use of industrial,plastic,and demolition wastes and slag;and erosion control.d)Projects and policy initiatives for low carbon and resilient road infrastructure In September 2019,the prime minister of India launched the Coalition for Disaster-Resilient Infrastructure at the Secretary-Generals Climate Action Summit in New York(IISD,2019).The fledgling partnership has a secretariat in Delhi,supported by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction(UNDRR),to enable knowledge exchange,technical support and capacity-building.The mission of the Coalition for Disaster-Resilient Infrastructure is to rapidly expand the development of resilient infrastructure,retrofit existing infrastructure for resilience and 2 See https:/www.irc.nic.in/.14 14 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK enable a measurable reduction in infrastructure losses.In the mission statement of the Coalition,it is noted that,in recent weather and climate-related disasters,up to 66 per cent public-sector losses were related to infrastructure damage.The partnership is working in the areas of governance and policy,emerging technology,risk identification and estimation,recovery and reconstruction,resilience standards and certification,finance,and capacity development.In 2015,the Department for International Development(DFID)of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland provided funding to help launch a technical assistance project called the Infrastructure for Climate Resilient Growth(ICRG),in India(IISD,2019).3 The objection of the project is to strengthen the resilience of rural communities by building resilient rural infrastructure.It initiated more than 900 climate resilient infrastructure projects in just 4 years.The DFID-supported ICRG programne,is active across 22 districts in three Indian states,Bihar,Chhattisgarh,and Odisha.The Infrastructure for Climate Resilient Growth programme connects resilient infrastructure with social protection to build community resilience.It links with the countrys largest social security programme,the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act,a wage-for-labour programme,which has deployed$25 billion as wage payments to rural households in more than 13,000 villages.Under the ICRG programme,climate resilient works are built by local communities.The programme has trained more than 10,000 people to ensure that the infrastructure delivers resilience benefits.The Infrastructure for Climate Resilient Growth project has used technology and climate data to inform asset selection delivered through mobile phone applications.More than 8 out of 10 climate resilient works built under the ICRG project have been geotagged,creating a digital database and asset map that helps state-level officials track existing assets and plan new ones.This project differs from conventional infrastructure projects in that it uses climate data and tools to incorporate resilience in the creation of assets under the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act.At the start of the project,a climate modelling study was used to map projections of rainfall and drought intensity between 2030 and 2050 in the 22 pilot districts.In addition,a vulnerability assessment was conducted to capture biophysical and socioeconomic parameters in select areas.These documents were subsequently used to develop an“adaptation package”to select the type of assets that could be built for each block or district subdivision.In December 2020,the Government of India and the World Bank initiated a$500 million project the Green National Highways Corridors Project to build safe and green road corridors in the states of Rajasthan,Himachal Pradesh,Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh.The project will also enhance the capacity of the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways in mainstreaming safety and green technologies(India,Ministry of Finance,2020).The project is expected to support Ministry of Road Transport and Highways in constructing 783 km of highways in various areas by integrating safe and green technology designs,such 3 See https:/www.resilienceshift.org/case-study/icrg-india/.15 15 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK as local and marginal materials,industrial by-products,and other bioengineering solutions.It will help reduce greenhouse gas emissions in the construction and maintenance of highways.According to the World Bank country director in India,the project has set new standards in the construction of safe roads by promoting the efficient use of construction materials and water to reduce the depletion of scarce natural resources and help lower greenhouse gas emission.It will strengthen and widen existing structures and construct new pavements,drainage facilities,and bypasses;improve junctions;and introduce road safety features.To ensure climate resilience of the infrastructure investments,a disaster risk assessment of approximately 5,000 km of the National Highway network is envisaged,along with support to the Government in mainstreaming climate resilience aspects into project design and implementation.Several government agencies in India are promoting the use of environmentally sustainable materials for the construction of pavements.At a conference organized by India Infrastructure in November 2019,key government stakeholders analysed the trends and advancements in the construction of flexible pavements and highlighted the key initiatives to promote green roads(Indian Infrastructure,2019).According to the conference speakers,the Government has taken notable initiatives to ensure the conservation of the natural ecosystem.For example,the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways issued draft guidelines in September 2013 for adopting rainwater harvesting and artificial groundwater recharge systems along national highways.In addition,in May 2019,the Ministry instructed all implementing agencies to avoid sanctuaries and national parks at the planning stage and to take a detour,wherever possible.Apart from this,the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways has issued guidelines for using recyclable materials,such as waste plastic and fly ash for road construction and renewal.The Central Road Research Institute(CRRI)of India has been conducting extensive research on pavement design and engineering,and new technologies and materials to be used for highway construction.In particular,the solutions have opted to fast-track road construction and reduce the consumption of aggregates by using treated local materials,new stabilization methods,and industrial and other wastes in road construction.New technologies and materials used as substitutes include stabilized sub-base and base courses,warm/cold mixes,improved marginal aggregates,recycling,reclaimed asphalt pavement,stone matrix asphalt,and cement-grouted bituminous mix.In the 1990s,CRRI was the first institute in the country to use fly ash for a road project in Delhi.In 2012,it used steel slag as an aggregate for a road project in Jamshedpur that was sponsored by Tata Steel.In addition,the Ministry of Steel has entrusted CRRI with developing a process for making steel slag usable for high-volume road projects.Furthermore,in 2016,CRRI submitted a report to the National Highways Authority of India based on design guidelines,technical specifications and construction methodology for utilizing municipal solid waste from the Ghazipur landfill in road embankment construction.It has also proposed a new methodology for the segregation of municipal solid waste by considering its bulk utilization in road works.16 16 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK As for reducing energy consumption in road projects,CRRI has proposed using the emulsion-based cold mix for road construction,which has proven to be energy efficient and contributed towards carbon footprint reduction.The warm mix is another example of energy-saving technology that allows the mixing and compaction of bituminous mixes at lower temperatures.In 2000,the National Rural Infrastructure Development Agency launched the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana programme,with the objective to provide all-weather connectivity to eligible unconnected localities with a population that exceeds 500 people in the plains,250 persons in special category states(north-eastern states,Jammu and Kashmir,Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand)and desert areas,as identified in the Desert Development Program and 88 backward and tribal districts,as identified by the Ministry of Home Affairs/Planning Commission.Unconnected habitations with a population that exceeds 100 people are covered under the programme.In addition,it also focuses on upgrading rural roads.The National Rural Infrastructure Development Agency has issued various guidelines for using new technologies and materials in road construction under the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana programme approximately 13,000 km of roads have been paved using waste plastic.Other technologies,such as panelled concrete technology and roller-compacted concrete technology,in addition to the application of jute and coir,have also been widely used in road construction under the programme.To adopt green technology,the Local Self-Government Department of Thiruvananthapuram district in the Indian state of Kerala has started using emulsion-based cold mix instead of hot bitumen mixes for laying roads in the State(Radhakrishnan,2016).Cold mixes are prepared by mixing aggregates with bitumen emulsion at ambient temperature compared to the hot mix prepared at a temperature of 155C,which leads to the emission of hydrocarbon and suspended particulate matters.The Vengodu-Cheroor Road,near Pothencode,in the capital district under the Local Self-Government Department Sub-Division,Pothencode,has become the first section to get the bitumen emulsion-based cold mix.According to project staff,the road had a good finishing and better hardness that when the conventional mix was applied.The trial was carried out on the 100-metre damaged bituminous surface,over which the premix chipping carpet with seal coat was laid using bitumen emulsion.The cold mix was prepared in a concrete mixer with 13.2 mm and 11.2 mm locally available aggregates in 2:1 ratio and premix MS emulsion.The blended aggregates were charged in the mixer and water was added to dampen the aggregates.A 6 per cent emulsion by weight of aggregates was added.The laying of the premix carpet was done manually by spreading cold mix on tack coated existing road.The compaction was done with 8-10-ton rollers and the seal coat was carried out on the premix carpet to fill the voids.The road was opened to traffic within an hour of completing the work.The method resulted in cost and energy savings,protection of the environment,a decrease in the carbon footprint,and the use of damp aggregates.Construction with cold mix has proven to be feasible in cold climate and even during the monsoon season with wet aggregates.The method can also be adopted in forest areas vulnerable to fire.17 17 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK 2.3 Kazakhstan a)Country overview Kazakhstan is the largest landlocked country and the ninth largest country in the world by area.Located in Central Asia,the country shares borders with the Russian Federation to the north,China to the east,and Turkmenistan,Uzbekistan,and the Kyrgyzstan to the south.The Caspian Sea forms a natural boundary to the west.Kazakhstan contains forest-steppe,steppe,semi-arid,and desert climate zones,and precipitation is low throughout the country(World Bank and ADB,2021).It faces a diverse set of natural hazards,many of which are expected to be augmented by climate change.Some key threats are earthquakes,floods,drought,avalanches,and landslides.Central and northern parts of the country are subject to frost up to-45C and frequent snowstorms in winter,which paralyse road traffic for several days in worst cases.Kazakhstan experienced six major flooding incidents between 1985 and 2013,making floods the second most frequent category of natural hazard during this period(Broka and others,2016).The deadliest flood during this period occurred in 2010,killing more than 40 people,while the more economically damaging floods of 1993,2008 and 2011 each caused$60 million to$100 million worth of damage.Flooding is more prevalent in the southern and eastern parts of the country.The length of the public road network as of 2022 totaled 96,000 km,of which about 25,000 km are on the republican network and 71,000 km are provincial(oblast)and district roads.Approximately 9,000 km of roads are I and II class expressways and highways.Approximately 90 per cent of the republican roads are in fair to good technical condition.Twelve Asian Highways pass through the territory of Kazakhstan,connecting the Central Asian countries to each other,China,and Europe through the Russian Federation.b)Standardization system overview The administration of the standardization system in Kazakhstan is regulated by the law“On Standardization”,dated 5 October 2018.The following institutions are involved in the setting road standards:Government of Kazakhstan Authorized state body Ministry of Trade and Integration State bodies within their competencies Ministry of Industry and Infrastructure Development through the Roads Committee National standardization body Kazakhstani Institute for Standardization and Metrology Technical committees on standardization for example,Technical Committee under EAEU Technical experts,legal persons and individuals for example,the Kazakh Road Research Institute KazDorNII The following is a list of types of regulatory documents of the State standardization system:18 18 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK National(state)standards(GOST,ST RK)Sectoral standards Associations/unions standards Organizational standards Technical conditions(specifications)Interstate standards Recommendations Technical regulations State classifiers of technoeconomic data c)Road standards overview As a member of the Customs Union,the Eurasian Economic Union(EAEU),Kazakhstan has ratified the technical regulation document TR TS 014/2011“Road Safety”,which covers a broad scope of regulated areas,including,among others,road building materials,design and work methods(see figure 1).Following the adoption of TR TS 014/2011,Kazakhstan has adopted more than 130 interstate GOST standards most of which were introduced in lieu of previously applied national standards.These included some new standards that set technical requirements for new materials and technologies to extend the pavement lifetime under conditions of increasing traffic intensity,vehicular loads and weather impacts.An overarching road standard in Kazakhstan is the Code of Rules No.SP RK 3.03-101,whose scope,among other things,sets parameters for the following:Road classification Designed speed Cross section Road alignment and longitudinal profile Landscape design Crossings and junctions Embankment,pavement(rigid,non-rigid)Sidewalks and bike lanes Road furniture,buildings and structures Environmental protection Landscape and soil classifiers In 2016,the Kazakh Road Research Institute(KazDorNI)issued recommendations on rational pavement designs R RK 218-129-2016,taking into account the countrys natural and climatic conditions and road categories(KazDorNII,2016).These recommendations have formally introduced a variety of new technologies and materials for road design,construction and maintenance,some of which had been applied in the first road sector projects in the country with financing from international financial institutions,but were not formally adopted for use under the national road standards.The documents,in particular,introduced the following:ProcessesSurveyDesignConstructionReconstructionOverhaulRepairOperationProductsRoad building materials(Appendix 1 to TR TS 014/2011)Articles(Appendix 2 to TR TS 014/2011)TR TS 014/2011Road SafetyFigure 1.Regulatory scope of TR TS 014/2011 19 19 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK Geosynthetic materials(geotextile,steam-moisture-windproof insulating membranes made of polymeric materials,reinforced polymeric geogrids,protective and reinforcing layers,slope strengthening,geogrids,geocomposite,geosynthetic rolled meshes,geosynthetic woven and non-woven materials,geosynthetic composite mats);Polymers for preparing polymer asphalt concrete(styrene-butadiene-styrene block copolymer,ethylene copolymer,n-butyl acrylate and glycidyl,alpha-olephins,blend of various polymers,crumb rubber);Stabilizers(ionized stabilizers,enzyme stabilizers,polymer stabilizers,complex inorganic binders)In 2017,RK 218-137-2017“Recommendations on Green Principles for Sustainable Development of Road Transport Infrastructure”offer a summary of methods and principles for planning,building and operating the road infrastructure with a view to reduce energy consumption,optimize the use of natural resources,reduce the negative environmental impact during the construction and operation of highways,create favourable conditions for human activities and ensure the economic profitability of architectural,structural and engineering solutions.The document also provides an evaluation criteria and indicators for sustainability assessments of highways,engineering structures and roadside facilities during the design,construction,reconstruction,repair and operation of them.Particular attention was given to such areas as conservation of resources and waste management,noise control;protection of surfaces,protection of surface waters from pollution;air pollution control fertile soils protection and environmental monitoring.In 2014,standard GOST 33149-2014 was adopted by the Interstate Council for Standardization,Metrology and Certification to supplement another interstate standard “Public Roads.Design Rules.”as the latter does not have relevant design requirements to ensure resilience of roads under complex engineering and geological conditions.The definition of“complex conditions”applies to territories that are or have been exposed to the following:1)Specific soils permafrost,soft soil,shifting sand,saline soil(alkaline land),technogenic soil,collapsible soil,and dilative soil.2)Hazardous geological and hydrogeological events landslide,rock fall,snowslide,run-of-hill,mudflow,karst,gully development,wetlands.3)Particular natural and man-made conditions undermining areas,earthquake endangered zones,aufeis formation areas.The standard further provides specific design recommendations to enhance the sustainability and climate resilience of future roads under special conditions.For example,it proposes the following solutions to control mudflow:Snow removal facilities(fences,walls,shields,bars,bridges)Terraced slopes Agroforestry Snow-retaining fence and shield systems Snow-blowing panels(nozzles),guide structures(walls,artificial channels,avalanche cutters,wedges)Braking and stopping structures(hills,trenches,dams,sinuses)Galleries,sheds,overpasses 20 20 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK Concrete dams Reinforced concrete dams Masonry dams Earth dams Channels Mudflow viaducts Guiding and protecting dams Groins Dam cascades Retaining walls Drainage devices Slope terracing Mudflow control dams Spillways on lake cofferdams In 2015 this standard was also adopted for application in the Russian Federation.d)Policy initiatives and projects for low carbon and resilient road infrastructure To renovate the poorly conditioned primary road network,new approaches and materials were used,such as cold recycling,polymer modified bitumen and pavements on a reinforced concrete base course.The first major road project employing concrete works was the reconstruction of the 200-km Astana-Shchuchinsk highway from a class III(2 lanes)secondary road to a six-lane class IA speedway.During severe environmental conditions in Kazakhstan when ambient temperatures can range from-45 to 50C,the cement concrete road proved to be extremely resilient.Consequently,the same approach was scaled out to other arterial highways of the country,including several I and II class sections of the Western Europe Western China road corridor(the AH9 route).In the national infrastructure development programme for 20202025 entitled“Nurly Zhol”the reconstruction and repair of approximately 11,000 km of national highways by 2025 is envisaged,including the reconstruction of trunk road corridors using cement concrete pavements.2.4 Republic of Korea e)Country overview The Republic of Korea is in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula,in East Asia.The countrys terrain is mostly mountainous,only 30 per cent of the total land area are lowlands.The total area of the Republic of Korea is 100,032 square kilometres.The country has a temperate climate with four distinct seasons as it is part of the East Asian Monsoon region.Summers tend to be short,hot and humid,with an average monthly temperature of between 21 21 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK 22.5 to 25C in July in Seoul,whereas winters are long,cold and dry;the mean temperature in January is between-5 to-2.5C,while spring and autumn are pleasant but short in comparison.The country is also vulnerable to natural disasters,such as typhoons and flooding,though its vulnerability is comparatively less in relation to Japan,China and the Philippines.The road network of the Republic of Korea spans 113,405 km,of which 4,866 km are national expressways and 14,175 km are general national highways.The Ministry of Land,Infrastructure and Transport is the authority in charge of national expressways and national highways,while local routes are under the authority of the provincial governor,and other roads fall under the auspices of the local administration that the road is under the jurisdiction of.In addition,the Korea Expressway Corporation(abbreviation:KEC or EX)manages the construction and maintenance of national expressways.Regarding national expressways,32 routes are in operation of which two-way expressways are the majority,75 per cent,followed by 13 per cent have 6 lanes,11 per cent have 8 lanes and 1 per cent have 10 lanes.f)Standardization system overview The Road Act is the paramount law,which encompasses regulations for road type,construction and management standards.It was developed by the Ministry of Land,Infrastructure and Transport in the Republic of Korea.Below the Road Act and Framework Act on the Construction Industry,sub-standards exist in a hierarchical system.The hierarchy of standardization-related documents comprises(a)enforcement rules;(b)standards;(c)guidelines;(d)handbooks;(e)minor guidelines;and(f)explanations and manuals.The Korea Construction Standards Center,which was founded in 2013 in accordance with article 44-2 of the Construction Technology Promotion Act,has reorganized national standards related to the construction sector and now there are only two merged codes:KDS(Korean Design Standard.)and KCS(Korean Construction Specification)(Korea Construction Standards Center,n.d.).Road construction standards start with 44(KDS or KCS 44 00 00),whereas bridges start with 24 codes and tunnels with 27.Currently,there are 28 KDSs and 26 KCSs registered for the road sector.g)Road standards overview As the paramount law in the road sector,the Road Act includes regulations for planning,design,facility standards,construction methods,operation and maintenance.Kinds and grades of roads are as follows in the order of grade 1 to grade 7:national expressways;national highways;special metropolitan city roads;local highways;roads;gun roads;and gu roads.There are four road construction rules under the Road Act:1.Rules about the road structure and facilities standards:This outlines minimum standards for road structures and facilities when a new road is constructed,or an existing road is renovated or designated as a national expressway.22 22 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK 2.Rules for connecting roads and other facilities:This rule contains regulations for approval standards,procedures,construction standards for connecting roads and other auxiliary facilities.3.Rules for road repair and maintenance:This rule outlines requirements for operation,maintenance and the repair of roads.4.Rules for road signs:This rule applies to road signs,such as sign types and dimensions.The overarching road design standard of the Republic of Korea,Road Design Standard,KDS 440000 contains minimum general and technical standards that are applied to all grades of roads mentioned in article 8 of the Road Act(7 grades).It sets parameters for the following:Road design standards(such as road,median strip,shoulder width,cross slope and grade);Earthwork standards(such as cutting,banking and rock blasting);Pavement design standards(design grade and minimum thickness of pavement);Road safety and management facility standards(barrier,studs and lightings);Environmental facility standards(such as soundproof walls and wildlife crossings).Under the road design standard and specification,there are a guideline,a handbook,and explanations and manuals,which,unlike superior standards,are not mandatory in every situation.In addition,there are 57 road construction-related guidelines;among them,are instructions pertaining to environmentally friendly road construction technologies,low-carbon emission WMA(warm mix asphalt)mixture production and construction,industrial by-product pavement and construction waste recycling pavement and ITS project implementation guidelines.On 31 August 2015,the Ministry of Environment launched the Environmentally Friendly Road Construction Guidelines,which consists of environmentally friendly road alignment and design methods.Each method contains proposals on how to mitigate 10 main relevant environmental impacts,either by evading the impacts or by mitigating the impacts.23 23 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK Table 1.Elements for consideration in environmentally friendly road design and construction ELEMENTS DETAILS Topography and geology-Preservation of topographical and geological heritage with conservation value-Conservation of topographical features(such as wetlands,coastlines and valleys)-Analysis of earthquake,ground fissure,settlement,underground cavity,among others-Minimization of damage to existing topography Wildlife-Conservation of area with ecological and environmental conservation value-Conservation of main plant species(including protected,old and big trees),and vegetation-Minimization of damage to animal habitat or severance of wildlife movement Land use-Consistency with superior policy and connectivity with relevant plans-Minimization of inconvenience to inhabitants from damages to residential areas-Minimization of obstacle and farmland integration-Minimization of abandoned roads through maximized use of the existing road Air quality-Air quality should satisfy legally specified environmental standards-If the air quality inevitably exceeds standards,a pollution reduction facility should be installed-Provision of distance between the proposed road and residential area Water quality-Conservation of watersource protection area,special measures area,waterfront area,among other that require protection and management-Conservation of facilities,such as intake facility,water treatment plant and,reservoir with conservation value-Minimization of impact to the freshwater ecosystem,such as rivers and wetlands -Consideration of the impact to groundwater-Impact to drainage in valleys and drainage area Noise and vibration-Consideration of structures sensitive to noise and vibration,cultural properties protection zones and special wildlife protection districts-Protection of areas expected to adversely affect inhabitants considering environment related regulations Landscape-Minimization of damage to landscape caused by road construction-When selecting a route,designated landscape areas,such as national parks,provincial parks,ecological and landscape conservation area,parks and amusement parks.should be considered so that they can be preserved h)Projects and policy initiatives for low carbon and resilient road infrastructure As a response to the Paris Agreement and the United Nations Climate Change Conference of Parties(COP),the national determined contributions(NDCs)of the Republic of Korea to 2050 include the following:40 per cent reduction of carbon emissions in relation to 2018(2030 NDC)Zero domestic carbon emissions by 2050(2050 Carbon Neutrality Scenario)24 24 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK Consequently,the Korea Expressway Corporation has established the Carbon Neutrality Committee and the Carbon Neutrality Task Force Team.According an analysis conducted by the task force,80 percent of the carbon emissions are generated by the construction of new expressways,9.1 per cent from service station operations,7.2 per cent from maintenance,3.6 per cent from tollgate operations and 0.1 from waste management(KEC,2022).To comply with the Governments carbon neutrality policy and to reduce carbon emissions of expressways,the Korea Expressway Corporation announced a strategy under which it promotes a mandatory reduction and a social reduction in parallel.Mandatory Reduction-Energy independence(independent renewable energy generation,RE100,carbon sink)-Transition to green infrastructure(highly efficient road management system,KEC type EV100,green remodeling of infrastructure)Social Reduction-People-oriented reduction(smart driving management,CITS(Cooperative Intelligent Transport Systems),carbon capture technology)-Low-carbon technology(use of new materials with low-carbon content,development and commercialization of technology,expanded use of recyclable construction materials)In addition to the above,the Korea Expressway Corporation set out the main implementation tasks for 2022 based on the principle of ESG Management(environment,social and governance)Table 2.Main implementation tasks for the Korea Expressway Corporation in 2022 NO.THEME TASKS 1 Carbon neutrality Use of carbon reducing compound advanced material(GFRP)that overcame rebar corrosion problem 2 Expressway energy independence through expansion of new renewable energy usage 3 Smart driving management(for example,improved traffic pattern)4 To lead green new deal,creation of“carbon neutral forest”5 Infrastructure Accomplishment of RE100 goal through research and development(R&D)of independent energy model for expressway 6 Establishment of carbon neutral environmentally friendly vehicle recharge infrastructure 7 Communication Establishment of new renewable energy portal 8 From separate waste collection to commercialization,HU Cycle 2.0 25 25 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK The Carbon Neutral Road R&D Group of the Korea Agency for Infrastructure Technology Advancement has established a green roads certification system based on the United States model,which consists of four evaluation fields,namely road pavement design and technology,green environment,green resource and energy,and green transport,supported by 40 evaluation criteria and 52 evaluation indices.Road design and pavement technology:environmentally friendly road design,carbon reducing road design,road landscape design;long-life pavement;low-carbon asphalt pavement;life cycle;and environmental cost analysis Green environment:road carbon capture/absorption;storm water management;waste treatment;ecological relevance;environmental education;and water resource planning Green resource and energy:resource-recycling technology;generation of renewable energy;balanced earthworks;and environmentally friendly materials Green transport:traffic flow management;intelligent transport system(ITC);green car infrastructure;public transport;and pedestrian paths/cycle lane Table 3.Korean Green Roads Certification Grades Greend Roads grades Points percentage(%)Points per stage Construction(100)Operation(150)Certified 30.0 39.9 30.0 39.9 45.0 59.9 Silver 40.0 49.9 40.0 49.9 60.0 74.9 Gold 50.0 59.9 50.0 59.9 75.0 89.9 Evergreen No less than 60 No less than 60 No less than 90 Source:Korea Agency for Infrastructure Technology Advancement,Ministry of Land,Infrastructure and Transport(2015)2.5 Philippines a)Country overview The Philippines is an archipelagic country comprised of more than 7,600 islands that relies on transportation systems involving road,water,air,and rail networks.Despite its unique island geography,which could give water transport a more significant role,road transport dominates the system,accounting for 98 per cent of passenger traffic and 58 per cent of cargo traffic(ADB,2012).Estimated damage to infrastructure from natural disasters during the period 20062015,which were driven by an increase in extreme climate-related events,amounted to$1.64 billion(Guha-Sapir,2017).The Philippines is also among the worlds most disaster-prone countries.Commonly occurring hazards are floods,droughts,typhoons,landslides and mudslides,earthquakes,and volcanic eruptions.In recent decades,there has been an increase in damaging extreme events,such as heavy rainfall and tropical cyclone activity.This trend is expected to continue under a changing climate(GFDRR,2011).26 26 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK The mean annual temperature(19812020)of the Philippines is 27.5 C with an annual average rainfall of 960 mm to 4,105 mm.The annual average number of tropical cyclones is 19-20.Changes in weather and climate conditions that could affect operations in the Philippines include the following Lucas and others,2020):Flooding,repeated or long-term inundation of low-lying areas,especially from run-off;Sea-level rise and storm surge;Increased frequency and severity of tropical storms and cyclones;Increased temperature variability,especially high temperatures;Landslides,slope failures and other damage to roads.As of 2020,the countrys national road network was predominantly concrete(65 per cent or 21,651 km out of 33,120 km).Asphalt roads,which comprised 33 per cent of the total road network,covered 10,875 km in 2020.Gravel and earth roads totaled approximately 2 per cent of the network.Overall,paved roads accounted for 98 per cent of the total road network.The Philippine roads are notorious for being perennially in need of repair and rehabilitation,especially after flooding,landslides,heavy rains and tropical cyclones.In the context of climate resilience,the need for quality infrastructure goes beyond whether roads are paved.Adaptation strategies that strengthen networks and decrease their vulnerability to climate impacts appear to be the best approach to ensuring climate resilience in the countrys transport infrastructure.b)Road standards overview The national standards body responsible for the development,adoption and publication of the Philippine national standards is the Bureau of Philippine Standards.The Department of Public Works and Highways,the engineering arm of the Government,is responsible for the formulation of the design standards to ensure the safety and cost-effectiveness of public infrastructure,as well as the development of high-quality detailed design for public engineering projects.The Design Guidelines,Criteria and Standards were prepared to update the previous guidelines published in 1984.The revision was significant,as it introduced the industrys best practices in design for public infrastructure adaptable to local requirements,such as climatological,geological,geotechnical and seismological conditions.The Design Guidelines,Criteria and Standards covers all classes of infrastructure and comprises the following volumes:4 Volume 1:Introduction and Overview.Defines the scope,purpose and overview of the six volumes and considers design for emergency response,safety,resiliency,environment,gender and provisions for accessibility for persons with disabilities.Volume 2A:GeoHazard Assessment.Describes the nature of geohazards in the Philippines,the information required to assess their likelihood at a site and a procedure for preparing a preliminary assessment.4 None of these standards are available for free and must be purchased.27 27 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK Volume 2B:Engineering Surveys.Provides the knowledge on the basic survey requirements and uniform approach in the conduct of engineering surveys using state-of-the-art surveying technologies,digital processing and collection of cutting-edge survey data.Volume 2C:Geological and Geotechnical Investigations.Provides a uniform approach for conducting geological and geotechnical investigations as design input,monitoring and damage assessment of infrastructure projects.Volume 3:Water Engineering Projects.Provides basic requirements and essential tools in the design preparation of water engineering projects,specifically for flood control,water supply,coastal facilities and urban drainage infrastructures.Volume 4:Highway Design(Philippines,Department of Public Works and Highways,2015).Covers design of all types of highways,including geometry,intersections,pavement,highway drainage,facilities and lighting.Volume 5:Bridge Design.Covers the general requirement and the Load And Resistance Factor Design approach for construction,alterations,repairs and retrofitting of highway bridges and other highway structures.Volume 6:Public Buildings and Other Related Structures.Covers design of public buildings and related structures in a range of different disciplines in site planning,architectural and engineering design services.Highway Safety Design Standards:Part 1:Road Safety Design Manual and Part 2:Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual.The countrys highway standards are mainly based on the AASHTO standards and are used by the road authorities under an exclusive copyright agreement with AASHTO.For the purpose of analysis under the study,the following documents have been retrieved from the official site of Department of Public Works and Highways)Philippines,Department of Public Works and Highways,(n.d.a)Highway Safety Design Standards Manuals:Part 1 Road Safety Design Manual Highway Safety Design Standards Manuals:Part 2 Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual Philippines,Department of Public Works and Highways(n.d.b)c)Projects and policy initiatives for low carbon and resilient road infrastructure The leading resilience solutions identified in the road sector in the Philippines are climate resilient construction materials and technologies.Two examples are geofoam,a geotechnical material,and coconut coir-based products,such as geotextile nets(Nordic Development Fund,and others,n.d.).EPS geofoam is usually applied as a ground fill to reduce stress or loads imposed on the underlying soil or adjacent soil and structures.There are several benefits from the use of geofoam in road construction.Geofoam installation does not require a significant labour force or special equipment and can be easily moved.It is a strong,lightweight and low-density cellular plastic material,weighing equivalent to approximately 1 per cent of regular earth fills or soil and less than 10 per cent of other lightweight fill alternatives.Another benefit,which directly relates to scheduling and climate resilience,is that the installation of it is unaffected 28 28 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK by exposure to ongoing weather events,such as storms,as it does not wash away,thus saving time and money.Geofoam has a wide variety of applications,such as road construction,particularly in soft-ground areas,slope stabilization and retaining walls,bridge abutment,foundation fill and utility protection.One of the main constraints to the large-scale uptake of geofoam is that it is expensive compared with traditional materials.There is no local production,so any material used must be imported.Adding to this,the material is made of plastic and is inflammable,making it necessary to invest in protection against fuel spills.Given the major barrier,private actors consider the application of geofoam as an additional production cost rather than an investment in resilience.This problem is further aggravated by the lack of project specifications requiring the use of climate-resilient construction materials.Although evidence is still limited,the use of geofoam is expected to reduce damages caused by extreme weather and climate events,as well as costs and disruptions in supply chains and distribution networks.The market for local production is still unexplored.Nonetheless,initial uptake is evident in the private sector and the Government.For example,geofoam is being used in new embankment projects led by the Government.There are no policy restrictions or impediments to using geofoam in government projects.Updating government regulations and project specifications would significantly contribute towards the large-scale uptake of geofoam and similar materials as climate resilience solutions for the road sector.Coconut coir-based products are bioengineered construction materials and technologies that are proven to prevent rain-induced landslides,soil erosion and sedimentation and reinforce slope mitigation.Coir-based products include geotextile nets,such as coco nets and coco logs,and peats.The coco-net bioengineering solution uses live plants and dead or organic materials,such as coconut fibres.Coconut husks are harvested or collected,then decorticated and de-fibred.The fibres are then stockpiled in preparation for twining and weaving into nets according to desired sizes.The installation of these products involves laying out rolls of nets in overlapping patterns and fastening them with stakes.Using coconut coir-based products in road construction is in accordance with biological,ecological and engineering principles to develop living and functioning systems that can help strengthen slopes and mitigate or prevent erosion and sedimentation while allowing nature,plants,and vegetation to thrive.The products are 100 per cent biodegradable,resistant to UV degradation and can last 2 to3 years,upon which vegetation would have taken over soil control.The materials have high water-absorption capacity and are resistant to high water velocities.The materials are substantially cheaper than similar solutions,and installation does not require a high labour skill level.However,there is a risk of fire,especially if installations are made during the warm months,and periodic maintenance is required to ensure that vegetation has taken over as expected.The material application requires thorough planning and preparation for the solution to be most effective.Stability assessments also need to be considered,including those related to hydrology,seismicity and choice of vegetation.29 29 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK The main contribution of this product to resilience is the prevention of disruptions in the road network due to weather events,particularly landslides and floods.Moreover,immediate erosion control can occur while waiting for vegetation cover to be firmly established.While the road solution is still very new,the use of coco net technology is widespread,and markets for it exist locally and abroad.In the context of strengthening soil erosion control,the Government is actively supporting the large-scale uptake of the solution.Moreover,the solution enjoys community support as it generates jobs and has strong environmental protection features.Another example of a major step towards sustainability occurred in 2019 when the San Miguel Corporation laid the first batch of asphalt that utilizes recycled plastic waste(San Diego,2019)Asphalt using plastics was laid on a 1,500-square metre pilot test site at a new logistics centre in General Trias,Cavite.The test site was chosen as it will be used primarily as a marshaling area for trucks with heavy loads,including 18-wheelers,and heavy equipment.Some 900 kilos of plastic waste,equivalent to approximately 180,000 sachets and plastic bags,were used for the test site.The companys engineers believe that using recycled plastics in the production process can help make roads longer lasting and more durable compared to conventional asphalt.2.6 The Russian Federation a)Country overview The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world by land size,covering a total area of 17 million square kilometres.Its territory spans 11 time zones and stretches 6,000 miles from east to west.The climate ranges from steppes in the south to humid continental in much of European Russia;subarctic in Siberia to tundra climate in the polar north;and winters vary from cool along the Black Sea coast to frigid in Siberia.Permafrost over much of Siberia is a significant impediment to development.The public road network totals about 1,543,000 km,of which 71 per cent is paved.The density of the network is 90 km per 1,000 km2 of territory(Transport in Russia,2020).The countrys transport infrastructure is exposed to multiple impacts of various natural hazards and weather phenomena,such as heavy rains and snowfalls,strong winds,floods,earthquakes,volcanic eruptions,landslides,debris flows,snow avalanches,rockfalls and icy conditions on roads(Error!Reference source not found.).In many cases,these impacts occur simultaneously or successively and reinforce each other.Some natural hazards trigger hazards of different types;for example,an earthquake or volcanic eruption can provoke rockfalls;ice collapses can lead to landslides,debris flows and lahars and snow avalanches;heavy rain can cause debris flows,landslides and floods(Petrova,2019).30 30 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK Table 4.Transport accidents and traffic disruptions caused by natural hazards during the period 19922018 NATURAL HAZARD MODES OF TRANSPORT Road transport Railway transport Air transport Water transport Strong wind,storm Snowfall,snowstorm,snowdrift,sleet Rainfall,hail Hard frost,icing,ice-crusted ground Thunderstorm,lightning Fog,mist Flood Heatwave Earthquake,volcanic eruption Landslide,slump,debris flow Rockfall Snow avalanche Source:Petrova(2020).The Transport Strategy of the Russian Federation recognizes climate change as an important factor limiting the development of transport infrastructure.In addition,the need to fulfil the global goals of the Paris Climate Agreement is becoming one of the significant drivers of the transformation of the transport industry(Russian Federation,n.d.).To increase the spatial connectivity and transport accessibility of territories,one of the objectives of the strategy is to bring the transport infrastructure in line with regulatory requirements and ensure its long-term sustainability,including ensuring that it is protected from climate change impacts.In addition,the strategy aims to reduce the negative impact of the transport complex on the environment and climate by following the principles of sustainable development.The adaptation of construction technologies and materials to climate change is seen as a particular challenge for the implementation of transport infrastructure development programmes.b)Standardization system overview The standardization system is regulated by the Federal Law on Standardization in the Russian Federation,adopted in 2015.It is comprised of the following principles:Application of standards is mandatory in relation to defense products(goods,works,services)under the State defense order,products used to protect information 31 31 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK constituting a State secret,and products for which requirements are established related to ensuring safety in the field of the use of atomic energy;Application of standards is voluntary in most of the other areas,including road planning,design and operation standards.The Ministry of Industry and Trade is responsible for the following:(a)developing State policy in the field of standardization;(b)providing interdepartmental coordination between federal executive authorities and other stakeholders for the implementation of the State standardization policy;(c)regulating standardization activities;and(d)defining indicators to evaluate the performance of the national standardization system.The functions of the national standardization authority are assigned to Rosstandart.The hierarchy of standardization-related documents comprises(a)national standardization system documents;(b)national classifiers;(c)standards of organizations,including technical specifications;(d)codes of practice;and(e)standardization documents that establish mandatory requirements for defense products,products used to protect information constituting a State secret and products related to ensuring safety in the field of atomic energy.The regulatory framework in the road sector comprises the following tiers:Technical regulations;Interstate standards(GOST)that are part of the list of standards adopted to comply with the requirements of the Technical Regulation of the Customs Union“Road Safety”(TR TS 014/2011),including rules and methods of sampling,testing,and measurements(171 standards as of 2022);National standardization system documents(GOST R OSN,GOST R,PNST)(410 GOSTs and 24 PNSTs as of 2022);Organizational standards(STO);National classifiers(OK);Sectoral methodological documents(ODM);Sets of rules(SP);Special technical conditions(STU).c)Road standards overview The number of regulatory documents for the road sector exceeds 700,including interstate and national standards,and sectoral methodological documents.Regarding only asphalt concrete pavement,there are more than 100 standards in force,of which the vast majority of them were adopted over the period 20102022.These standards can be divided into three large groups:(i)General requirements for roads and pavements,GOST 32825,GOST 32729,GOST 32960,GOST 33101,and GOST 33220;(ii)Requirements for asphalt concrete,GOST R 54400 and GOST R 54401;(iii)Requirements for materials for the preparation of asphalt concrete and mixtures,include more than 100 standards setting requirements for the following materials:a.Oil road viscous bitumen;b.Binder oil bituminous materials;c.Mineral materials for the preparation of asphalt concrete mixtures;d.Coarse-grained and fine-grained mineral materials for asphalt concrete mixtures;32 32 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK e.Natural sand and crushed sand;f.Mineral powder;g.Asphalt concrete mixes for roads and asphalt concrete;h.Crushed stone and gravel from rocks;i.Clag crushed stone and slag sand.Following the introduction of the EAEU technical regulation TR TS 014/2011),more than 60 additional national standards have been adopted,providing technical requirements for new materials and technologies to extend the life of non-rigid pavements under conditions of increasing traffic intensity,vehicular loads and weather impacts.These included two major amendments to one of the key road standards,SP 78.13330.2012/SNiP 3.06.03-85“Automobile Roads”.The amendments have set technical requirements for new work methods and materials such as:the following:Installation of conduits to enable subsequent laying of underground fibre cables and reduce environmental impact and barriers to traffic;The use of polymer asphalt concrete mixture(GOST 9128-2013)and concrete with polymer bitumen binders(GOST R 52056)to extend pavement resilience and service life;Construction of basecourse and pavements using 3D automatic control systems that adhere to designed elevations and ensure the necessary adjustment on the go;The use of cold recycling technology,which can significantly reduce the amount of road machinery involved and achieve cost savings of up to 25 per cent;Application of geosynthetic materials in road construction;Use of geogrids for slope preservation and strengthening and reducing susceptibility to erosion;Reinforcement of asphalt concrete pavements with geogrids to increase 1.5-2 times the overhaul life of roads,reduce cracking and rutting at densely trafficked sections;The use of cube-shaped crushed stone in road building,which prevents rutting at high temperatures,reduce the consumption of crushed stone by 15-20 per cent and binders by 30-40 per cent,increase the compaction coefficient to 0.98 with less roller time,reduce paving labour costs by 8-15 per cent;reduce the noise level and increase the adhesion coefficient by 20-30 per cent,and increase the shear resistance up to 0.840 MPa.In 2020 a new standard,GOST R 58831-2020,was introduced,which provides recommendations regarding the use of state-of-the-art and climate resilient technologies and materials in road construction;previously,the recommendations regarding this topic were dispersed among several documents.In particular,the standard offers recommendations on using surfactants,foamed bituminous binders,and special weather-resistant additives.The document also gives a description of new work methods and types of machinery and equipment to ensure the required quality and sustainability of asphalt concrete pavement.Particular focus is given to defining and standardizing the concept of“adverse weather conditions”during the construction of asphalt concrete layers.According to GOST,such conditions refer to spring and summer ambient temperatures ranging from 5 to-10 C,and autumn/winter temperatures from 10 to-10C,as well as precipitation of all kinds.The 33 33 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK standard prohibits asphalt laying under heavy rain or snowfall.Long and short-term weather forecasts are required for road work planning.The standards setting the geometric design requirements are the interstate standard GOST 33475-2015,national standard GOST R 52399-2022“Public roads.Geometry elements.Technical requirements”for I IV class roads,and national standard GOST R 58818-2020“Road with low traffic intensity”for rural roads and approaches(several subclasses of class IV and class V roads).Regulatory requirements for pavements are set by national standard GOST R 591202021“Public Roads.Pavement.General requirements”.It covers the following:(a)pavement classification;(b)pavement lifetimes and designed axle loads;(c)physical properties,geometric parameters and deviations;and(d)requirement to pavement materials.d)Projects and policy initiatives for low carbon and resilient road infrastructure Dozens of innovative environmentally friendly technologies are being introduced in the countrys road industry.Upgrading federal highways and local roads The following innovations have been applied in throughout the country for federal highways in the regions Don,Volga,Ural,Ussuri,Lena,Amur,Kolyma and Vilyui and for 3 and 4 category roads in the Central and Far Eastern regions.5 Construction of road base from crushed stone and sand mixture.This significantly improves the process of laying and compacting the base,and only local materials are used(washed crushed stone of various grades,screenings,products of secondary processing ash,rubber crumb,products of secondary processing of building materials).Cement concrete as an alternative to asphalt concrete(in cases in which cement with polymer additives is used as a binder).The bearing capacity of cement concrete is 10-15 times higher.Cement concrete pavements are not prone to temperature changes and the service life is up to 30-40 years.Two construction methods have been developed:in-situ laying when the concrete poured into the formwork hardens to natural conditions(in rail forms,in sliding forms,by rolling with vibratory rollers,among others),and the construction of a roadbed from prestressed reinforced concrete slabs manufactured in the factory and mounted at the place of operation(post-tensioning system with steel ropes).This allows the construction of roads on soft and frozen soils,which,in turn,allows for the construction of pavement on floating supports and joint sealing.The use of cement concrete reduces the impact on ecosystems(landscapes,watercourses),accelerates work by up to 10 times and increases the performance and durability of the road surface.Construction of the overlay with crushed stone asphalt concrete with mastic(SMA)to improve the adhesion,achieve greater resistance to permanent deformation,prevent 5 See https:/www.elibrary.ru/download/elibrary_23143515_20749795.pdf.34 34 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK water impermeability,build resistance to cracking and rutting,reduce dust generation and reduce maintenance costs.Cold recycling or cold milling of asphalt.A recycling method for top layers of pavements:crushed material is mixed with a binder(bitumen or cement)and,after compaction is used as a base course for new asphalt.This makes it possible to increase the bearing capacity of the road,restore its geometry and reduce the costs of the impact on the roadside ecosystem and the repair time.Bituminous emulsion is used for priming before laying the asphalt concrete mixture,ensuring better adhesion with the lower layers and reducing bitumen consumption.Expanded polystyrene or basalt insulation(mats)is used as a barrier for the base courses of pavement from freezing or moisture-saturated weak soils.This helps to avoid the need to replace the soil by preventing swelling and deformation of the pavement,increase the period between maintenance works and reduce the negative impact of the road on the environment.Polymer-bitumen binder is used to form pavements;it is bitumen with various polymer additives.It improves the resistance to rutting in summer,increases crack resistance in winter and the service life between repairs is increased by 8-10 per cent.Road use characteristics are improved(less noise and dust generation).Thermoplastic sulfur binder is used to build pavements.It is a composite material designed to modify asphalt concrete mixtures and replace cement in cement concrete mixtures.The binder is made from technical sulfur,ss a by-product from the refining and processing of oil,natural and flue gases and has high strength properties.Sulfur concrete and sulfur asphalt concrete reach their design strength in a few hours and are almost totally waterproof when cured,resistant to extreme temperatures(from 130150 C to 40 C)and environmentally friendly.Gabion structures have a wide range of applications for landscape conservation.They can be used to strengthen the embankments on weak and watered soils,reinforce high embankments to ensure stability,reinforce asphalt concrete pavement to combat cracks and rutting and strengthen slopes to prevent erosion and landslides,and for drainage works.Geosynthetic materials play a pivotal role in the construction sector.They are integral to the development of tunnel-style overpasses,corrugated metal pipes,and foundational layers(base courses)for embankments.Additionally,in terrains characterized by weak,swelling and saturated soils,these materials are crucial for establishing stable pavement base courses.Composite materials are used for construction of artificial transport infrastructure facilities.They are resistant to high and low temperatures and corrosion resistant,and have a low specific gravity.The use of composite materials reduces road construction time and the impact on the environment.Noise screens are the most efficient state-of-the-art protection of residential buildings and natural ecosystems from the road as a source of the noise.The noise screens reduce the noise level by 2.5 times and help reduce pollution in the surrounding areas.Vibration screens are designed to reduce the level of vibration from heavy traffic.The vibration protection screens help reduce the level of vibration by 7 times.This is a 0.5 m wide,and 1.5 m deep trench filled with crushed stone.35 35 2.HIGHWAY STANDARDS AND LOW CARBON AND RESILIENT ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE ALONG THE ASIAN HIGHWAY NETWORK Policy initiatives for sustainable and resilient infrastructure development The 2030 Transport strategy of the Russian Federation provides additional incentives for green construction in the country.One of the goals of the ongoing changes is to improve the quality of tra
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UC Office of the PresidentITS reportsTitleAdvanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research needsfor the State of California(2023-2030)Permalinkhttps:/escholarship.org/uc/item/0656t0dhAuthorsCohen,Adam,MSShaheen,Susan,PhDPublication Date2024-02-01DOI10.7922/G2JH3JJCeScholarship.orgPowered by the California Digital LibraryUniversity of CaliforniaRESEARCH REPORTInstitute ofStudiesTransportationAdvanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)Adam Cohen,M.S.,Survey Researcher,Transportation Sustainability Research Center,University of California,BerkeleySusan Shaheen,Ph.D.,Professor and Co-Director,Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,Transportation Sustainability Research Center,University of California,BerkeleyFebruary 2024Report No.:RIMI-5C-01|DOI:10.7922/G2JH3JJC Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)i Technical Report Documentation Page 1.Report No.RIMI-5C-01 2.Government Accession No.N/A 3.Recipients Catalog No.N/A 4.Title and Subtitle Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research needs for the State of California(2023-2030)5.Report Date February 2024 6.Performing Organization Code ITS Berkeley 7.Author(s)Adam Cohen,M.S.,https:/orcid.org/0000-0002-7455-5442;Susan Shaheen,Ph.D.,orcid.org/0000-0002-3350-856X 8.Performing Organization Report No.N/A 9.Performing Organization Name and Address Institute of Transportation Studies,Berkeley 109 McLaughlin Hall,MC1720 Berkeley,CA 94720-1720 10.Work Unit No.N/A 11.Contract or Grant No.RIMI-5C-01 12.Sponsoring Agency Name and Address The University of California Institute of Transportation Studies www.ucits.org 13.Type of Report and Period Covered Final Report(June 2022 June 2023)14.Sponsoring Agency Code UC ITS 15.Supplementary Notes DOI:10.7922/G2JH3JJC 16.Abstract Advanced air mobility(AAM)is a broad concept that enables consumers access to air mobility,goods delivery,and emergency services through an integrated and connected multimodal transportation network.AAM can provide short-range urban,suburban,and rural flights of about 50-miles and mid-range regional flights up to a several hundred miles.State law delegates responsibility for oversight in aviation primarily to the California Department of Transportation(Caltrans).This white paper presents an overview of the state of the market,such as the aircraft under development and forecast market growth and discusses factors that could facilitate the development of AAM or pose risks to its deployment or to the public,including the safety and the regulatory environment,airspace and air traffic management,security,environmental impacts,weather,infrastructure and multimodal integration,workforce and economic development,social equity,and community engagement and social acceptance.It concludes by recommending actions that Caltrans and other state agencies can take to facilitate the development of AAM.17.Key Words Air transportation,mobility,market assessment,risk analysis,airspace,multimodal transportation,regulation 18.Distribution Statement No restrictions.19.Security Classification(of this report)Unclassified 20.Security Classification(of this page)Unclassified 21.No.of Pages 57 22.Price N/A Form Dot F 1700.7(8-72)Reproduction of completed page authorized Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)ii About the UC Institute of Transportation Studies The University of California Institute of Transportation Studies(UC ITS)is a network of faculty,research and administrative staff,and students dedicated to advancing the state of the art in transportation engineering,planning,and policy for the people of California.Established by the Legislature in 1947,ITS has branches at UC Berkeley,UC Davis,UC Irvine,and UCLA.The California Resilient and Innovative Mobility Initiative The California Resilient and Innovative Mobility Initiative(RIMI)serves as a living laboratory bringing together university experts from across the four UC ITS campusespolicymakers,public agencies,industry stakeholders,and community leadersto inform the state transportation systems immediate COVID-19 response and recovery needs,while establishing a long-term vision and pathway for directing innovative mobility to develop sustainable and resilient transportation in California.RIMI is organized around three core research pillars:Carbon Neutral Transportation,Emerging Transportation Technology,and Public Transit and Shared Mobility.Equity and high-road jobs serve as cross-cutting themes that are integrated across the three pillars.Acknowledgments This study was made possible with funding received by the University of California Institute of Transportation Studies from the State of California through a one-time General Fund allocation in the 2021 State Budget Act for the Resilient and Innovative Mobility Initiative.The authors would like to thank the State of California for its support of university-based research,and especially for the funding received for this project.The authors would also like to thank Greer Cowan of UCLA for her assistance with the AAM Research Roadmap.The authors also thank all the expert contributors who participated in the AAM Research Roadmap engagement sessions and for their invaluable feedback.The authors give special thanks to Alex Bayen of UC Berkeley for his role in supporting this research.Finally,the authors would like to thank Lori Pepper,Mollie DAgostino,and Jacqueline Huynh for reviewing and providing feedback on this report.Disclaimer The contents of this report reflect the views of the authors,who are responsible for the facts and the accuracy of the information presented herein.This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the State of California in the interest of information exchange.The State of California assumes no liability for the contents or use thereof.Nor does the content necessarily reflect the official views or policies of the State of California.This report does not constitute a standard,specification,or regulation.Report No.:RIMI-5C-01|DOI:10.7922/G2JH3JJC Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)Adam Cohen,M.S.,Survey Researcher,Transportation Sustainability Research Center,University of California,BerkeleySusan Shaheen,Ph.D.,Professor and Co-Director,Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,Transportation Sustainability Research Center,University of California,BerkeleyFebruary 2024Institute of Transportation StudiesTableofContentsAdvanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)v Table of Contents Executive Summary 1 Introduction 3 Background 3 Report Overview 4 Section 1.State of the Market 5 Section 2.Enabling and Risk Factors 7 2.1 Safety and Regulatory Environment 7 2.2 Airspace and Air Traffic Management 11 2.3 Security 13 2.4 Environmental Impacts 14 2.5 Weather 17 2.6 Infrastructure and Multimodal Integration 19 2.7 Workforce and Economic Development 20 2.8 Social Equity 21 2.9 Community Engagement and Social Acceptance 22 Section 3:Potential State Role in AAM 23 Glossary 25 References 26 Appendix:AAM Research Roadmap 30 A1.Key Current and Pending AAM Research Efforts 30 A2.Research Roadmap 36 A3.Research Needs and Gaps 37 A4.Role of Demonstrations 48 A5.Key Takeaways 49 Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)vi List of Tables Table 1.Flight Safety Evaluation Characteristics 9 Table 2.Common Types of Atmospheric Conditions that May Impact AAM 21 Table 3.Advanced Air Mobility Research Needs by Thematic Area 38 List of Figures Figure 1.FAAs Envisioned UAM Corridors 14 Figure 2.Advanced Air Mobility Research Roadmap Projects by Thematic Area 37 Figure 3.Envisioned Airlink SystemA5.Research Roadmap Key Takeaways 48 Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)vii List of Terms and Acronyms AAM Advanced Air Mobility ACRP Airport Cooperative Research Program CALTRANS California Department of Transportation CEQA California Environmental Quality Act CFR Code of Federal Regulations DOT Department of Transportation eVTOL Electric Vertical Takeoff and Land IFR Instrument Flight Rules FAA Federal Aviation Administration MPOs Metropolitan Planning Organizations NAS National Airspace System NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration OEMs Original Equipment Manufacturers PSUs Providers of Services for Urban Air Mobility RAM Regional Air Mobility STOL Short Takeoff and Land TRB Transportation Research Board UAM Urban Air Mobility sUAS small Uncrewed/Unmanned Aircraft Systems UAS Uncrewed/Unmanned Aircraft Systems USDOT United States Department of Transportation UTM Uncrewed/Unmanned Aircraft System Traffic Management VTOL Vertical Takeoff and Land ExecutiveSummaryAdvanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)1 Executive Summary Advanced air mobility(AAM)is a broad concept that integrates new,advanced aircraft designs and emerging flight technologies into lower altitude airspace operations,as part of an integrated and connected multimodal transportation network,including first-and last-mile connections to airports.AAM services are focused on aviation and can accommodate urban,suburban,and rural flights of about 50 miles and regional flights up to a several hundred miles.AAM operations serve passengers,logistics and goods delivery,aeromedical transportation and treatment,emergency response,disaster relief operations,and other professional and industrial activities.AAM incorporates several converging innovations,such as vertical takeoff/landing,electrification,automation,and the growth of app-based on-demand mobility services.Urban Air Mobility and Regional Air Mobility are subsets of AAM.Californias Aeronautics Act(Public Utilities Code Section 21001 et seq.)broadly establishes and clarifies the roles and responsibilities of state agencies with respect to aviation.The law delegates responsibility for oversight in aviation primarily to the California Department of Transportation(Caltrans).Caltrans and other state agencies must defer to the Federal Aviation Administration(FAA)and other federal agencies on all matters preempted by federal law(e.g.,aircraft,airworthiness,and pilot certification,management of the National Airspace System(NAS),etc.).This white paper presents an overview of the state of the market,such as the aircraft under development and forecast market growth and discusses factors that could facilitate the development of AAM or pose risks to its deployment or to the public,including the safety and the regulatory environment,airspace and air traffic management,security,environmental impacts,weather,infrastructure and multimodal integration,workforce and economic development,social equity,and community engagement and social acceptance.While the roles and responsibilities of state agencies in aviation regulation are largely defined in the State Aeronautics Act,California could also play a key role in AAM in several additional ways,such as:Supporting stakeholder and community engagement on AAM issues,such as vertiport siting and community impacts,Providing resources to educate local and regional entities on their roles and responsibilities with respect to AAM and aviation-related issues,Conducting an environmental justice analysis of proposed vertiports when Caltrans reviews permit applications for new takeoff and landing facilities,Adopting state and local social equity and justice policies to help mitigate potential effects of gentrification and displacement in the vicinity of vertiports,Establishing state grant programs to support electrification,hydrogen,and other infrastructure consistent with safety and other requirements established by federal partners,Adopting state tax credits,incentives,and other policies to support AAM activities(e.g.,aircraft manufacturing,infrastructure development,etc.),and Supporting the development of training/retraining programs that provide the job skills and technical expertise to enter AAM career fields.ContentsAdvanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)3 Introduction Advanced air mobility(AAM)is a broad concept that integrates new,advanced aircraft designs and emerging flight technologies into lower altitude airspace operations,as part of an integrated and connected multimodal transportation network,including first-and last-mile connections to airports.1 AAM services are focused on aviation and can accommodate urban,suburban,and rural trips up to about 50 miles(known as Urban Air Mobility)and regional trips up to a several hundred miles(known as Regional Air Mobility(RAM)(Cohen,Shaheen,and Farrar 2021).Urban Air Mobility(UAM)and RAM are a subset of AAM.AAM operations can serve passengers,logistics and goods delivery,aeromedical transportation and treatment,emergency response,disaster relief operations,and other professional and industrial activities.AAM encompasses a number of converging innovations,such as vertical takeoff/landing,electrification,automation,and the growth of app-based on-demand mobility services.Background The concept of urban aviation is not new.Beginning in the early 1900s,inventors began developing“flying car”concepts and by the mid-20th century early operators began offering scheduled flights using helicopters.Between the 1950s and 1980s,several operators began providing early passenger helicopter services in Los Angeles,New York City,San Francisco,and other cities.In the U.S.,these services were typically supported by a combination of helicopter subsidies(discontinued in 1966)and airmail revenue(Cohen,Shaheen,and Farrar 2021).Between 1965 and 1968(resuming in 1977),Pan Am offered hourly connections between Midtown and JFKs WorldPort,allowing passengers to check in at the Pan American building in Midtown 40 minutes prior to their flight departure at JFK.Over the years,the service offered various promotions,such as“buy one,get one free”that offered international business travelers a free helicopter connection to their flight.The service was discontinued in 1977 when an incident involving metal fatigue of the landing gear caused a rooftop crash killing five people(four people on the roof and one person 59 stories below on the ground)(Cohen,Shaheen,and Farrar 2021).Helicopter services began to slowly re-emerge in Manhattan in the 1980s.Trump Air offered scheduled service using Sikorsky S-61 helicopters between Wall Street and LaGuardia airport connecting to Trump Shuttle flights.The service was discontinued in the early 1990s when Trump Shuttle was acquired by US Airways(Cohen,Shaheen,and Farrar 2021).Californias Aeronautics Act(Public Utilities Code Section 21001 et seq.)broadly establishes and clarifies the roles and responsibilities of state agencies with respect to aviation.The law delegates responsibility for oversight in aviation primarily to the California Department of Transportation(Caltrans).2 The law specifically grants Caltrans the following roles and responsibilities:Encouraging the establishment of airports and air navigation facilities Cooperating with and assisting the federal government,political subdivisions of California,and others 1 The California State Transportation Agency(CalSTA)is embarking on a study to identify policies which could ensure that AAM provides broad societal benefits to Californians.2 The State Aeronautics Law also addresses civil liability issues and rules against the operation of aircraft while under the influence of drugs and alcohol.The law also provides people or entities aggrieved by any procedure or aeronautical action of Caltrans the opportunity to seek redress before the California Transportation Commission.Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)4 in aeronautical activities Drafting and recommending necessary legislation to advance Californias interest in aeronautics Representing California in all aeronautical matters before federal and other agencies Participating as plaintiff,defendant,or intervenor on behalf of the state or any political subdivision or citizen in any controversy that involves Californias interest in aeronautics Assisting political subdivisions and their law enforcement agencies in becoming acquainted with and enforcing civil air regulations Entering into agreements with other states and federal agencies to receive,share,and exchange data and reports,and Accepting,receiving,disbursing,and expending federal and other funds.Report Overview This white paper is organized into four sections.The first section provides an overview of the state of the market,such as the aircraft under development and forecasted market growth.The second section discusses factors that could facilitate the development of AAM or pose risks to its deployment or to the public,including the safety and regulatory environment,airspace and air traffic management,security,environmental impacts,weather,infrastructure and multimodal integration,workforce and economic development,social equity,and community engagement and social acceptance.The final section discusses potential actions California could take over the next two to five years to plan and prepare for AAM over the next decade.The appendix includes a discussion of the role of research and presents an AAM research roadmap for the State of California,of which this study is a part.Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)5 Section 1.State of the Market Recent developments in electric propulsion,automation,and other technologies are contributing to the development of emerging aircraft designs.AAM includes an array of novel aircraft types with various propulsion technologies(e.g.,battery electric,hydrogen electric,hybrid,or gas-powered);design;and flight capabilities(e.g.,conventional,short distance,and vertical takeoff and landing);aircraft capacity(i.e.,payload or passengers);aircraft range;and degrees of autonomy(e.g.,piloted,remotely piloted,and autonomous).While AAM does not have a distinct regulatory category at this time;it is an area of regulatory and policy development that is still emerging.Common aircraft types include:Short Takeoff and Land(STOL)aircraft that require a short runway for takeoff and landing.Small Uncrewed Aircraft Systems(sUAS,also referred to as“drones”)that weigh less than 55 pounds on takeoff,including everything that is on board or otherwise attached.Uncrewed Aircraft that operate without the possibility of direct human intervention from within or on the aircraft(i.e.,no on-board pilot).Vertical Takeoff and Land(VTOL)aircraft that can take off,hover,and land vertically.The term electric VTOL,or eVTOL,is also commonly used to refer to such aircraft that are powered by electric engines.As with any emerging technology,it is important to note that AAM is an evolving field encompassing a variety of definitions,including aircraft types.Nearly 300 innovative aircraft concepts are currently under development by traditional manufacturers such as Airbus,Bell,and Embraer and new market entrants such as Archer,Ehang,EVE,Joby,Lilium,Vertical Aerospace,and Wisk.Additionally,a number of automotive manufacturers have announced investments in AAM including Aston Martin,Audi,Daimler,Geely,General Motors,Hyundai,Porsche,Stellantis,and Toyota(Cohen,Shaheen,and Farrar 2021).Many of these aircraft under development will accommodate two to seven passengers(or equivalent weight in cargo).While a few petroleum and hydrogen powered aircraft are under development,the vast majority are electric VTOL(eVTOLs)with a power requirement typically ranging between 300 to 600 kW(Cohen,Shaheen,and Farrar 2021).Several pre-pandemic market studies forecast the total passenger mobility market potential for AAM over the next decade at between$2.8 to$4 billion USD and a goods delivery market projected between$3.1 and$8 billion USD in 2030.Global market studies forecast a market potential ranging from$74 to$641 billion USD,with the wide variation attributable to different study assumptions such as including or excluding various submarkets(e.g.,military applications)(Reiche,Goyal,et al.2018;Hasan 2019;Porsche Consulting 2018;Jonas 2019).Variations in geography,timeline,methodologies,and scenarios examined can notably influence market forecasts.However,Johnston et al.(2020)and Lineberger et al.(2019)find that limited infrastructure globally has the potential to constrain AAM growth(Lineberger,et al.2019;Johnston,Riedel and Sahdev 2020).A market study examining 74 existing studies from cities around the globe coupled with an analytical forecasting model that included demographics;infrastructure costs;aircraft and supply chains,demand assumptions;and community and regulatory constraints estimated a market potential of$318 billion USD across the cities in 2040(Herman 2019).Other studies have estimated a global demand for 23,000 eVTOL aircraft in 2035(Porsche Consulting 2018)and regional air taxis(up to 300 km)in 2042(Becker et al.2018)Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)6 One AAM market study commissioned by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA)estimates that an air taxi and airport shuttle operations could capture a 0.5%mode share in the U.S.upon market maturity.This study concludes that daily demand for AAM passenger services could reach 82,000 passengers(nearly 30 million trips annually)served by approximately 4,000 four-to five-seat aircraft in the U.S.under the most conservative scenario(Reiche,Goyal,et al.2018).Another AAM market study commissioned by NASA estimated that by 2030,drone deliveries using 40,000 small unmanned aircraft could reach 0.5 billion annual deliveries by 2030(Hasan 2019).However,Johnston et al.(2020)and Lineberger et al.(2019)found that a variety of factors such as limited takeoff and landing and energy infrastructure could constrain AAM growth.Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)7 Section 2.Enabling and Risk Factors AAM could benefit from existing conditions in the aviation industry but also face a number of potential barriers from factors such as:1)the safety and regulatory environment;2)airspace and air traffic management;3)security;4)environmental impacts(e.g.,noise,visual pollution,and privacy);5)weather;6)infrastructure and multimodal integration;7)workforce and economic development;8)social equity;and 9)community engagement and social acceptance.This section discusses these potential enabling and risk factors that could support or impede AAM growth,as well as the potential role for the State of California,where applicable.2.1 Safety and Regulatory Environment Aviation safety is supported by a robust federal policy and regulatory environment governing aircraft and airworthiness;operations(including crew requirements);and access to airspace(Graydon,Neogi,and Wasson 2020;Thipphavong,et al.2018).Civil aviation authorities have several tools,such as certification,operational approvals,airspace access,and others to promote safety.This broad regulatory scope provides a toolbox of approaches that the FAA can use to manage and promote safety.Additionally,California and local governments can promote aviation safety through land use and zoning,building and fire codes,and law enforcement operations(Cohen,Shaheen,and Farrar 2021).Valid concerns about the safety of AAM users,other airspace users,and those on the ground could present barriers to adoption(Cohen,Shaheen,and Farrar 2021;Graydon,Neogi,and Wasson 2020;Thipphavong,et al.2018).Seven system-wide,safety-critical risks related to aircraft and their operating environment(Connors 2020)that will need to be addressed include:Flight outside approved airspace Unsafe proximity to people and/or property Critical system failure and loss of control(e.g.,degraded or loss of command and control,GPS;engine failure;etc.)Cybersecurity risks Hull loss(i.e.,an aviation accident that catastrophically damages the aircraft beyond economical repair,resulting in a total loss),and Other potential hazards such as weather,bird strikes,air and ground crew errors(e.g.,loss of situational awareness,task saturation,etc.),passenger interference(e.g.,disruptions,hijacking,sabotage,etc.).Flight safety is evaluated by the interaction of three characteristics or conditions:1)criticality of the function;2)severity of a failure;and 3)probability of an event,with criticality of the function and severity of a failure overlapping concepts(Connors 2020).Each of these concepts are summarized in Table 1.Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)8 Table 1.Flight Safety Evaluation Characteristics Criticality Non-essential.Non-essential functions are those functions that do not contribute to or cause a failure condition that would significantly impact the safety of the airplane or the ability of the flight crew to cope with adverse operating conditions.Essential.Essential functions are those that could contribute to or cause a failure condition that would significantly impact the safety of the airplane or the ability of the flight crew to cope with adverse conditions.Critical.Critical functions are those whose failure would cause a condition that would prevent the continued safe flight and landing of the airplane.Severity Failure with no safety effects Minor failure conditions Major failure conditions Hazardous failure conditions Catastrophic failure conditions Probability Extremely improbable.Failure would be expected to occur no more than once in a billion hours of flight.Improbable or remote.Failure would be expected to occur no more than once in 100,000 hours of flight.Probable.Failure would be expected to occur more than once in 100,000 hours of flight.Adapted and reprinted from:Connors(2020)Connors(2020)explains that assessing the severity and probability of an individual failure is relatively straightforward;however,the emergence of complex and autonomous systems is resulting in the need for more advanced risk assessment techniques.Connors further notes that quantitative safety measures are increasingly being complemented with qualitative measures,which include:Extremely improbable.A failure condition is not expected to occur during the entire operational life of all airplanes of this type.Improbable or remote.A failure condition is not anticipated to occur during the entire life of a single random airplane.However,a failure may occur occasionally during the entire operational life of all airplanes of one type.Probable.A failure condition is anticipated to occur one or more times during the operational lifetime of each aircraft.According to Connors(p.6)“An acceptable safety level for equipment and systems is based on an inverse Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)9 relationship between average probability of failure per flight hour and the severity of the failure condition being considered.Critical aircraft functions are required to be Extremely Improbable.Essential functions are required to be Improbable;while non-essential functions have no specific probability requirements.”The current regulatory regime only sets standards for on-board piloted operations.This may present challenges for certifying and authorizing the use of some novel technologies and combinations of features that could be found in AAM aircraft(Coudert,et al.2019;Reiche,Goyal,et al.2018;Connors 2020).While not an exhaustive list,some of the novel AAM technologies that may pose risks include distributed electric propulsion/tilt-wing propulsion,VTOL,autonomy hardware and software,optionally piloted configurations,electric energy storage,and others(Reiche,Goyal,et al.2018;Coudert,et al.2019).Additional safety challenges for emerging aviation technologies can include:Autonomy and Highly Complex Software:Machine learning and other algorithms are not always predictable,which means that even for the same input,the algorithm may exhibit different behaviors on different runs(Reiche,Goyal,et al.2018)Electric Propulsion and Energy Storage:Both propulsion and energy storage may pose a variety of challenges.More research is needed to understand the variety of risks associated with aircraft electrification(Reiche,Goyal,et al.2018)Unmanned and Optionally Piloted Aircraft:For AAM aircraft to operate autonomously,there are a number of operational risks,such as physical security,operational procedures,cybersecurity and unmanned traffic management that will need to be considered as part of certifying airworthiness(Reiche,Goyal,et al.2018),and More Aircraft than Operators:Several AAM business models involve a transition period to full autonomy that may include operations centers with remote operators controlling multiple aircraft.The associated operational risks will need to be considered as part of airworthiness certification;airspace access;crew training;certifications(e.g.,airworthiness,aircrew,training,air carrier,air agency);and operational approvals(Reiche,Goyal,et al.2018).Safety data from the FAA shows that over time commercial airlines(operating under 14 CFR 121)have the fewest number of accidents and fatalities,followed by commuter and on-demand operations(operating under 14 CFR 135),with the highest number of accidents and fatalities reported for general aviation.3 In 2020,scheduled and non-scheduled commercial airlines reported 0.132 and 0.529 accidents per 100,000 flight hours,respectively.In comparison commuter and on-demand air carriers reported 2.223 and 1.317 accidents per 100,000 flight hours,respectively.In contrast,general aviation had 5.572 accidents per 100,000 flight hours.Thus,while aviation has historically had a relatively good safety record compared to other modes,aviations safety record varies considerably when comparing specific categories of operations.There are likely many factors for this such as regulatory,policies/procedures,aircrew training,aircraft types,etc.Because AAM is an emerging technology,the regulatory environment and how AAM aircraft,personnel,and air carriers are certified and regulated is likely to evolve over time.3 The operating regulations refer to the U.S.Federal Aviation Regulations(FARs)that govern all aviation activities in the U.S(Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations(CFR).Part 107 regulates a broad spectrum of commercial and government uses of small Uncrewed Aircraft Systems(sUAS).Part 121 regulates scheduled air carriers(i.e.,commercial airlines).Part 135 primarily oversees commuter and on-demand operations.Generally,each of these parts has requirements for pilot licensing,aircraft maintenance,crew duties,insurance,and other requirements that must be met to legally operate in the National Airspace System.Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)10 California and federal agencies could consider tracking safety incidents involving specific aircraft designs and technologies to aid in early identification of emerging safety risks and trends.Examples of categories that Caltrans(and other agencies)may consider tracking include AAM safety incidents involving:Piloted,remotely piloted,and autonomous AAM aircraft Vertical,short,and conventional takeoff and land aircraft(VTOL,STOL,and CTOL,respectively)Aircraft configuration(e.g.,multicopter,lift cruise,vectored thrust,augmented lift,and other design categories)Propulsion type(e.g.,gas-powered,electric,hydrogen,etc.),and Use case(e.g.,passenger services,cargo delivery,emergency response,etc.)Type of service(e.g.,passenger services,cargo delivery,emergency response,etc.)California Department of Transportation(Caltrans)Role While the FAA will remain the primary regulatory authority for aircraft and airworthiness,operations,and airspace,the California Department of Transportation(Caltrans)can play an important role in several key areas.For example,Caltrans administers state and federal funds for airport development,maintenance,and operation.They also regulate,inspect,and license aviation operations.They also could support safe flight through radio and visual navigation aids;electrical and lighting systems;and collect and disseminate weather information to aircrews.A few key areas in which Caltrans could support AAM safety include:Educational and research safety programs;Grants and funding of airport and other AAM infrastructure improvements intended to enhance safety;Registration of aircraft and aircrew in accordance with state laws and regulations;Inspections and permitting of public-and private-use facilities to ensure compliance with state and federal regulations;Wildlife management and security at and near airfields;Facilitating search,rescue,and recovery operations when safety incidents occur;and Partnering with the NTSB,FAA,and Transportation Security Administration(TSA)on safety related roles(e.g.,holding investigations,inquiries,and hearings concerning accidents in aeronautics in California).Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)11 2.2 Airspace and Air Traffic Management AAM operations are expected to take place at relatively low altitudes and in dense urban environments(Cohen,Shaheen,and Farrar 2021).One of the principal challenges facing AAM is that it will likely have to interact with existing commercial aviation and uncrewed/unmanned aircraft systems in a variety of contexts.FAA considers AAM separate from uncrewed/unmanned aircraft systems(or UAS)due to their separate concept of operations.Commercial air carriers operate with experienced pilots in controlled airspace where air traffic controllers have the authority to direct air traffic.In contrast,unmanned aircraft and drones have generally evolved in low-level and uncontrolled airspace using a different set of regulations,often with relatively inexperienced operators.AAM services operating in urban areas(and particularly to and from large and medium airports)will have to interact with both operational environments and likely fly in both controlled and uncontrolled airspace.Controlled airspace encompasses different classifications of airspace and defined areas where air traffic control services are provided to pilots.To enter controlled airspace,an aircraft must first gain clearance from air traffic control.In controlled airspace all aircraft must maintain continual radio contact with air traffic control and submit a flight plan detailing the route and height they will fly.In uncontrolled airspace,clearance is not required to operate and there is no supervision by air traffic control.Additionally,AAM will also need to ensure safe takeoff,approach,and landing alongside drones that typically operate below 400 feet(Federal Aviation Administration 2018).These interactions present a number of interrelated air traffic management related safety risks including collision avoidance,managing shared airspace,and greater air traffic congestion as the tempo of AAM activity increases.The ability for AAM to move from either uncontrolled airspace(Class G)and/or designated AAM airspace corridors to busy controlled airspace4(Class B)without overwhelming air traffic control is one key risk.Additionally,procedures will need to be established for resolving collision avoidance alerts,particularly between AAM and commercial aircraft.As the number of operations increase,collision avoidance,communication,and management systems of both AAM and non-AAM airspace users may need to adapt(Graydon,Neogi,and Wasson 2020;Neogi and Sen 2017).The risks AAM presents to air traffic management may vary based on a variety of external factors such as the size and growth of the industry;composition of piloted,remotely piloted,and autonomous flight operations(including whether these operations can co-exist within the same airspace);and enabling air traffic technologies such as unmanned aircraft systems traffic management(UTM)5 (Graydon,Neogi,and Wasson 2020;Neogi and Sen 2017).Due to the complexity of flying in low altitude urban airspace,urban air mobility will likely present a greater degree of risk associated with air traffic management than rural operations.However,even in urban areas air traffic management risks will likely vary based on a variety of local and 4 Controlled airspace is a generic term that covers the different classifications of airspace and defined dimensions within which air traffic control service is provided in accordance with the airspace classification.In the U.S.,controlled airspace consists of Classes A through E.Class B airspace is employed around airports with a high traffic volume.Class C airspace is used around airports with a moderate traffic level.Class D is used for smaller airports that have a control tower.Class E is a type of controlled airspace that often is controlled by air traffic control via radar coverage rather than by a local control tower.Class G airspace(uncontrolled)is that portion of airspace that has not been designated as Class A,Class B,Class C,Class D,or Class E airspace.5 Uncrewed aircraft system traffic management(UTM)is a traffic management system that establishes airspace integration requirements enabling safe low-altitude operations.UTM provides services such as:airspace design,corridors,dynamic geofencing,weather avoidance,and route planning.UTM systems will not require human operators to monitor every aircraft continuously;rather,the system will provide data to human managers for making strategic decisions.Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)12 regional factors such as existing airspace classes and congestion,location and proximity of major airports to AAM operations,and other factors.As such,it is not possible to forecast the level or likelihood of air traffic management risk.The 1958 Federal Aviation Act delegated responsibility for the safe and efficient use of the airspace to the FAA,requiring it to create and enforce federal regulations(Serrao,Nilsson,and Kimmel 2018).Under existing laws and regulations,the FAA has exclusive authority over the national airspace.In recent years,the FAA has taken a number of steps to manage risks related to AAM air traffic.In March 2020,the FAA released the UTM Concept of Operations 2.0 that seeks to address more complex airspace operations for unmanned aircraft operating at or below 400 feet above ground level and increasingly more complex operations within and across controlled and uncontrolled airspace(Federal Aviation Administration 2020).Additionally,the FAA has published Urban Air Mobility Concept of Operations(ConOps)2.0 describing the operational environment needed to support the anticipated growth of flight operations in and around these urban areas(Federal Aviation Administration 2023).ConOps 2.0 presents the FAAs air traffic management vision to support initial AAM operations in urban and suburban environments.The agency envisions that initial AAM operations will consist of a small number of low complexity operations and will evolve to more numerous and complex mature state operations.As the operational tempo of AAM increases,the FAA envisions the establishment of“Urban Air Mobility/UAM Corridors”where piloted aircraft will have the capability to exchange information with other corridor users in order to safely separate air traffic without relying on air traffic control(Federal Aviation Administration 2023).Figure 1 illustrates the envisioned UAM corridors(Federal Aviation Administration 2023).The State of California can support safe early deployments of AAM by establishing UAM corridors for demonstration flights.The FAA also envisions the establishment of“Providers of Services for Urban Air Mobility”(PSUs)to support operations planning,operational intent(e.g.,flight plans),airspace management,and information exchange during operations(e.g.,notifications,weather information,etc.).The PSUs would process flight requests;FFigure SEQ Figure*ARABIC 1.FAAs Envisioned UAM Corridors.Image Source:Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)13 evaluate the operational intent for air traffic,space availability,and adverse conditions;and if approved,facilitate information sharing with a network of other PSU providers(Federal Aviation Administration 2023).The PSU could negotiate airport access through an airports sponsor.PSUs could also support the management of Urban Air Mobility operations without direct FAA involvement on an individual flight basis(Federal Aviation Administration 2023).PSUs would be able to support local governments to gather,incorporate,and maintain information that may be accessed by AAM service providers.Although ConOps 2.0 does not specify how many PSUs there could be and whether or not PSUs would be public or private entities,the services offered by PSUs could theoretically be offered by a state agency such as Caltrans.The ability for AAM aircraft and PSUs to communicate with both commercial and general aviation aircraft(which have a range of sophisticated to basic avionics and communication capabilities,respectively)is also an unknown and unresolved risk.In the future,remotely piloted and autonomous aircraft could allow for increasingly complex and higher volume operations;however,the development of new regulations,policies,procedures,guidance materials,and training requirements are needed to enable these operations(Cohen,Shaheen,and Farrar 2021).Due to federal preemption in airspace management,metropolitan planning organizations and Caltrans should monitor the growth and complexity of AAM operations and work with the FAA on strategies to manage air traffic management,as appropriate.2.3 Security Ensuring personal,personnel,physical,and cyber security of all aspects of AAM will be critical to maintaining safety and building public confidence.In a 2018 focus group study,participants in Los Angeles and Washington DC.raised numerous concerns about passenger security during booking,boarding,and on-board the aircraft from departure to arrival(Shaheen,Cohen,and Farrar 2018).Key security concerns included hijacking,terrorism and aircraft sabotage,people pointing lasers at passengers and aircrew on takeoff and final approach,and unruly passengers and incidents involving passenger violence(particularly in an autonomous flight scenario without any aircrew on-board).Data on security incidents involving general aviation(Part 91)and charter services(Part 135)are more limited than incidents involving commercial aviation(Part 121).Fortunately,the most serious incidents have declined in recent decades and remain relatively rare particularly given the total number of flights and flight hours.Since 2002,there have been 57 aircraft hijackings globally,although none in the U.S.since 9/11(Mazareanu 2021).Sabotage,terrorism,and other intentional acts are not always included in aviation safety statistics.The Aviation Safety Network has identified five intentional incidents impacting commercial aviation globally between 2013 and 2017(Flight Safety Foundation n.d.).In 2020,the FAA reported 6,852 incidents involving lasers pointed at aircraft(Federal Aviation Administration n.d.).Finally,as of January 2023,the FAA reported that incidents involving unruly passengers occurred 2.1 times per every 10,000 commercial aviation flights(Federal Aviation Administration 2023).While terrorism,hijacking,aircraft sabotage,lasing,unruly passengers,and violence against passengers represent security risks,limited data and information on how AAM may operate make it difficult to assess the potential likelihood of these security issues.For example,the risk of an AAM hijacking may be highly dependent on whether AAM passengers and personnel go through security screening,and if so,how extensive those screening procedures may be.There could also be scenarios where some AAM services or routes screen passengers and personnel while others do not,for example,trips to or from an airport versus a route between two intracity non-airport locations.Strategies such as passenger background checks,no-fly lists for people convicted of certain criminal offenses,passenger rating systems(similar to passenger and driver ratings used by transportation network companies/TNCs,also known as ridehailing and ridesourcing),as well as and trusted traveler programs(similar Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)14 to the Transportation Security Administrations PreCheck that offers expedited security screening for passengers that have completed a vetting process)are a few strategies that could be employed to enhance AAM security.In addition,technologies such as biometric screening,emergency dispatch buttons,and individual passenger compartments within an aircraft could also be employed to enhance personal safety.Regulators,air carriers,and ancillary service providers will likely need a system of policies and procedures to mitigate the risk of insiders(e.g.,workers,contractors,vendors,etc.)exploiting their legitimate access to AAM infrastructure and services for unauthorized purposes.Moreover,the physical security of vertiports(areas that can support the takeoff and landing of VTOL aircraft),aircraft,charging/refueling,other physical infrastructure,and cargo will also need to be ensured.Finally,cybersecurity of all the enabling IT systems,including but not limited to ticketing/booking,air traffic management,communications,navigation,surveillance,and autonomous aircraft systems will be critical.In the future,close coordination among private sector stakeholders,local and state law enforcement,airports/vertiports,Caltrans,and national security agencies will be necessary to establish security standards and emergency plans for an array of possible scenarios.2.4 Environmental Impacts AAM could have several environmental impacts,such as noise,visual pollution,and privacy.The subsections below review each of these potential impacts in greater detail.Noise Aircraft and helicopter noise are a frequently cited nuisance in neighborhoods around airports and heliports(Federal Aviation Administration 2021).In the near future,the high level of rotorcraft noise will likely limit the use of helicopters in urban areas.A general population survey across four locationsLos Angeles,Mexico City,Switzerland,and New Zealandfound that the second and third highest factors impacting the public perception of AAM was the type of sound generated by eVTOL aircraft,followed by the volume of sound generated from an aircraft(Yedavalli and Mooberry 2019).An exploratory study which included a general population survey in five U.S.cities combined with focus groups in Los Angeles and Washington,D.C.,found that noise levels could impact public support for AAM(Shaheen,Cohen,and Farrar 2018).According to a study by Holden and Goel(2016),eVTOL aircraft should be one-half as loud as a medium-sized truck passing a house(75 to 80 decibels at 50 feet;approximately 62 decibels at 500 feet altitude)approximately one-fourth as loud as the smallest four-seat helicopter on the market(Holden and Goel 2016).Please note this has yet to be regulated,and aircraft noise can vary widely based on aircraft design and propulsion type.As the AAM market grows,noise concerns could be mitigated through technological improvements(e.g.,aircraft design and electrification)or persist as the market matures into larger-scale operations(due to the total ambient aircraft noise from multiple aircraft operating in close proximity).Plainly stated,increased demand for AAM poses potentially greater risk that noise will be a concern for communities impacted by AAM.Additionally,as surface transportation electrifies,a potential reduction in overall ambient urban noise could make aircraft noise more perceptible in the future than it is today.Unfortunately,it is difficult to estimate the precise likelihood or magnitude of AAM noise because public tolerance of AAM noise may vary considerably based on a variety of factors such as aircraft and propulsion type;noise characteristics;flight operation type;time of day;and specific conditions.For example,the public may perceive noise from air ambulances to be highly disruptive but willing to Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)15 accept the noise because the activity is occasional and serves a public good.In the future,nine AAM noise considerations that will need to be addressed include:Volume of AAM noise(e.g.,dB level)Length of time AAM noise occurs Time of day AAM noise occurs Type or frequency of AAM noise Number of people affected by AAM noise Location of AAM noise and proximity to sensitive land uses Number and location of takeoff and landing facilities Comparison of AAM noise to other ambient noise Differences in noise associated with varying types of AAM operations Differences between individual AAM aircraft noise compared to noise from large-scale AAM operations.Under existing law,local governments can plan for and mitigate aviation noise primarily by promoting compatible land uses,requiring real estate disclosures,and including noise data in municipal codes.With respect to larger aircraft(e.g.,commercial aviation operations),the Airport Noise and Capacity Act(ANCA)of 1990 prohibits local governments from implementing aircraft noise restrictions after October 1990.Although airports can apply to the FAA to impose additional noise restrictions,such as curfews under FAR Part 161,airports almost never receive approval(Castagna 2020).In some cases,communities have closed smaller airports in response to community complaints about noise and quality of life(e.g.,Santa Monica airport is now scheduled to close in 2028).The State Aeronautics Act grants Caltrans the ability to adopt noise standards governing the operation of aircraft and aircraft engines for airports operating under a valid permit issued by Caltrans to an extent not prohibited by federal law.State law also establishes misdemeanor offenses and fines for the violation of noise standards by aircraft.Finally,state law allows property owners to enter into avigation easements whereby a property owner allows another entity to subject that property to noise,vibration,and other impacts commonly associated with airport(and presumably also vertiport)activity.Although the FAA and other regulatory bodies have set thresholds for aviation noise around airports,AAM may need to meet stricter noise standards due to the nature of low-level flights over highly populated urban areas,coupled with large-scale operations(Holden and Goel 2016).At present,the primary mechanism for local,regional,and California agencies to influence noise may be through land use planning,and more specifically the location and approval of takeoff and landing infrastructure such as vertiports.In some cases,noise risk could be mitigated by prohibiting vertiports near sensitive land uses(or not allowing sensitive land uses near vertiports).Additionally,during the vertiport planning process,a public agency may conditionally approve a vertiport but prohibit flight operations during late night and early morning hours.Public agencies may own,operate,and/or fund vertiports to retain greater influence over AAM operations.In other cases,local agencies may be able to reduce the impacts of AAM noise through building codes,grants,and other practices that require or incentivize the use of sound deadening material in structures near vertiports and along key flight paths(Volpe Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)16 Center 2017).Other noise mitigation measures may be more appropriate for the FAA and the private industry such as reducing noise through aircraft and flight operation design.In the future,legislative and regulatory reform could expand policy mechanisms for noise abatement by local communities,metropolitan planning organizations(MPOs),and Caltrans.Visual Pollution An excessive number of low-altitude aircraft flights in urbanized areas,particularly for non-essential activities that can be completed using ground transportation,could create unwanted visual disturbances(Cohen and Shaheen 2021).However,the environmental impacts from AAM visual pollution are difficult to ascertain because aesthetic impacts can vary based on several qualitative factors such as frequency of operations,location of operations relative to surrounding land uses,aircraft size,and other characteristics.For example,the public may be more annoyed by the presence of an air taxi flying over a historic neighborhood or greenspace than over the parking lot of a shopping mall.Similarly,the public may be more annoyed by multiple aircraft near one another(e.g.,near a vertiport with a high volume of air traffic).The public also could be concerned by the size of an aircraft in the sky or by its color or materials(e.g.,if the aircraft has a reflective surface).For all these reasons,the risks associated with visual pollution are diverse and difficult to quantify.A few studies have attempted to understand the potential aesthetic impacts of Urban Air Mobility operations and the proliferation of uncrewed aircraft through public surveys;however,limited experience observing AAM in the built environment can make it difficult for survey respondents to accurately respond to these types of survey questions.Although studies on the impacts of AAM visual pollution on society are limited,some emerging research on the impacts of visual pollution from uncrewed aircraft/drones as well as other sources may be able to provide some insight.A survey(n=3,690)by the European Union Aviation Safety Agency(EASA)on the potential societal barriers associated with AAM found that 19 percent of survey respondents raised concerns about visual pollution from drones and 16 percent were concerned about air taxis(European Union Aviation Safety Agency 2021).A survey(n=1,465)on the use of drones conducted by the United States Postal Service found that approximately one in five respondents raised concerns about visual pollution associated with drone use.Interestingly,the findings were consistent among respondents in urban,suburban,and rural communities(United States Postal Service Office of the Inspector General 2016).A number of studies on visual pollution in other contexts such as outdoor advertising(Portella 2014;Abaya Gomez Jr.2012;Chmielewski,Lee,et al.2016;Chmielewski,Samulowska,et al.2018;Wakil,et al.2021),cellular towers(Nagle 2009),and wind turbines(Jensen,Panduro,and Lundhede 2014)suggest that AAM could also present concerns about visual pollution,however,more research is needed(Jacksonville Community Council,Inc.1985).Privacy Another concern about AAM is both physical and data privacy.For example,residential communities may be concerned with low-altitude aircraft flying over homes and yards(as well as other impacts).While studies are limited,some emerging studies on uncrewed aircraft/drone privacy may provide some insight.Broadly,drones are capable of highly advanced surveillance and are already used by law enforcement.They may be equipped with various types of devices,such as live-feed video cameras,infrared cameras,heat sensors,and radar,potentially raising privacy and civil liberties concerns.Several qualitative and quantitative studies examining bystanders perception of drones have found that the public has notable concerns relating to stalking,photo/video recording,the sharing of recorded information,and the use of drones near residential land uses(Wang,et al.2016;Rice,et al.2018;Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)17 Winter,et al.2016;Uchidiuno,Manweiler,and Weisz 2018;Bajde,et al.2017).In contrast,a study of uncrewed aircraft/drone controllers found that many drone operators believed that privacy concerns were exaggerated and that drone operators have the constitutional right to fly drones in public spaces(Yao,et al.2017).Other studies suggest regulation has not kept pace with the potential technological and privacy concerns associated with drones(Winkler,Zeadally,and Evans 2018;Jenkins 2013-2014;Popescu Ljungholm 2019).Some states have begun to pass legislation intended to protect individuals from aerial surveillance.For example,Californias Assembly Bill 856(2015),makes individuals liable for the physical invasion of privacy when a person knowingly enters the land or airspace above the land of another person without permission to capture a visual image or sound recording.California Assembly Bill 2655(2020),prohibits first responders from taking pictures(including pictures by drone)of a crime scene without a valid reason.The likelihood and severity of physical privacy risks will likely vary based on a variety of factors such as aircraft configuration(e.g.,the ability for owners to outfit their aircraft with equipment that can collect sensitive information),operational characteristics(e.g.,the altitude and flight paths of AAM operations),and operational tempo(i.e.,overall volume and intensity of AAM operations over a particular area).Additionally,there are multiple privacy concerns associated with data collection,sharing and management(e.g.,user,financial,location,trip data,etc.).Broadly these issues center on traveler or user privacy.Californias Consumer Privacy Act(CCPA)gives consumers more control over the personal information that businesses collect such as:1)the right to know about the personal information collected about them and how it is used and shared;2)the right to delete personal information collected from them(with some exceptions);3)the right to opt-out of the sale of their personal information;and 4)right to non-discrimination for exercising their CCPA rights(California Office of the Attorney General 2023).AAM businesses operating in California may be required to give consumers certain notices explaining their privacy practices.However,there could also be privacy concerns from the private sector perspective associated with the sharing and storage of data and its potential impacts on proprietary trade secrets.California may want to work closely with the FAA to ensure the state protects controlled,privacy,sensitive,and unclassified critical infrastructure data and information pertaining to AAM.The FAA has established a Data and Information Management Policy intended to protect sensitive data while simultaneously ensuring awareness and compliance with the federal Open,Public,Electronic,and Necessary(OPEN)Government Data Act to support evidence-based policymaking(Dickson 2021).2.5 Weather Weather could pose a number of safety risks and operational challenges for AAM.Smaller aircraft and their passengers are more sensitivity to weather hazards(Reiche,Cohen,and Fernando 2021).Additionally,weather conditions such as low visibility,icing(snow/ice that accumulates on flight surfaces),wind shear,and precipitation(rain,thunderstorms)could present several weather-related challenges for AAM.Table 2 describes some of the common atmospheric conditions that could impact AAM.Some of these weather conditions could pose greater risks to AAM due to their low-altitude operations over urbanized areas,and for VTOL operations during the transition from vertical to horizontal flight.Strategies that are typically used in commercial aviation to overcome adverse weather conditions,such as delaying and rerouting flights to alternate airports are not particularly viable strategies for AAM because its value is premised on convenience and time savings over other transportation modes.Additionally,several proposed technologies for Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)18 autonomous flight operations(e.g.,lidar)may be degraded in low visibility conditions.Table 2.Common Types of Atmospheric Conditions that May Impact AAM Weather Condition Description High Winds High winds and wind gusts can create several challenges for AAM operating at low altitude and in high-density built environments.High-rise buildings can also create canyon effects that produce unpredictable wind environments in urban centers.Ice Snow and ice can stick to critical surfaces(e.g.,wings and rotors).De-icing systems and icephobic surfaces(currently under development)may be able to help mitigate some of these risks.Precipitation Rain,thunderstorms,snow,sleet,and hail can create a variety of flight hazards for aircraft which can include turbulence,tornados,icing,lighting,and downdrafts/microbursts.Turbulence Turbulence is an irregular motion of the air resulting from air currents.Smaller aircraft are typically more susceptible to turbulence.Visibility Low visibility can limit a pilots ability to safely fly,particularly during critical phases of flight such as takeoff and landing.For most piloted aircraft under instrument flight rules(IFR)conditions,pilots are still required to visually observe the landing environment.In the future,autonomous aircraft may be able to land in a greater variety of low visibility conditions,however,minimums may still be required given potential technological limitations of the landing systems Wind Shear The sudden change in wind speed and/or direction which can cause a loss of airspeed and/or altitude.Wind shear can be particularly hazardous during critical phases of flight such as takeoff and landing.One exploratory study of AAM found that no more than 16 percent of aggregate operational time will be impacted by weather.However,the study also notes that certain areas could have greater weather constraints(Holden and Goel 2016).A key limitation of this study is that it focuses on case studies of particular markets rather than large multi-city analyses.Another study conducting an exploratory AAM climatology analysis of ten U.S.cities with a variety of typologies and weather patterns,found the most favorable weather in the Pacific region(Reiche,Cohen,and Fernando 2021).A key limitation of this study,though,is the difficulty of precisely estimating the impacts of weather on AAM operations due to the variety of weather conditions and aircraft under development(each with different design characteristics and performance limitations).Additionally,the proprietary nature of these aircraft concepts results in limited publicly available information about their design capability in terms of airspeed,weight,cruise altitude,density altitude,etc.While aircraft design and technology may be able to expand the performance limits,some weather challenges are likely to remain(Reiche,Cohen,and Fernando 2021).One way the State of California could support AAM is through the deployment of a network of high-fidelity weather sensors.California also could establish a weather data clearinghouse that collects,aggregates,and disseminates weather data collected on automated vehicles,drones,and VTOLs equipped with meteorological sensors.Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)19 The ability for AAM businesses to grow their operations may depend on the ability to provide dependable and consistent service with minimal delays.The integration of AAM into mobility platforms(e.g.,mobility-as-a-service)could help improve traveler reliability and minimize delays by automatically routing a travelers journey around travel disruptions,such as weather(Shaheen,Cohen,and Broader,et al.2020).This could include shifting trips from AAM to other modes at the onset of adverse weather.Additionally,AAM service providers and aircraft manufacturers may be able to consider mixed fleets of aircraft with different performance capabilities suited for a variety of weather conditions and climates.Thus,weather could present a variety of operational and safety risks to California agencies and be an important factor for why AAM may succeed in some parts of the state and not others.2.6 Infrastructure and Multimodal Integration AAM will require an extensive network of infrastructure,such as takeoff and landing facilities and energy infrastructure(e.g.,charging and fueling stations).While AAM businesses may be able to use existing aviation facilities such as airports and heliports,as they grow a variety of different sized facilities could evolve.Several studies have attempted to develop a standardized classification for vertical takeoff and landing infrastructure.Generally,these studies classify three types of facilities,from smallest to largest:1)vertipads;2)vertiports;and 3)vertihubs.Vertipads are single landing pads and parking stalls intended to accommodate one or two parked aircraft.Johnston et al.(2020)estimated that vertipads would be approximately 6,000 square feet and cost between$200,000 and$400,000 USD to construct.A vertiport is a medium-sized facility intended to accommodate up to three landing pads and up to six parked aircraft.Johnston et al.estimated vertiports would be approximately 23,000 square feet and cost between$500,000 and$800,000 USD to construct.Vertihubs are larger facilities(possibly with multiple floors)to accommodate numerous landing pads with parking for multiple aircraft.Johnston et al.estimate vertihubs would be approximately 70,000 square feet,spread across multiple floors,and cost between$6 and$7 million USD to build.Given that many vertiports will require substantial electric infrastructure for charging,some experts envision vertiports and vertihubs will also serve as multimodal facilities that could integrate electric vehicle charging and serve as a depot for shared automated vehicles.The FAA has an Airport Zero Emissions Vehicle(ZEV)and Infrastructure Pilot Program that allows airport sponsors to use Airport Improvement Program(AIP)funds to purchase ZEVs and to construct or modify infrastructure needed to use ZEVs.Caltrans or other state agencies could offer similar grant programs to encourage the development of electric infrastructure and the use of zero emission vehicles and equipment at AAM facilities.State agencies would need to coordinate closely with the FAA to ensure potential grant programs fund infrastructure that meets FAA safety standards,as appropriate.Mixed-use development around intermodal passenger facilities could create synergies with public transportation and provide transportation alternatives in the event of inclement weather,maintenance,or other operational delays impacting AAM.Californias Senate Bill 375 permits California Environmental Quality Act(CEQA)exemptions for transit priority projects within a mile radius of high-quality transit corridors.Similar policies could be applied in the vicinity of intermodal passenger facilities with AAM,being mindful of AAM land use compatibility concerns(e.g.,noise impacts on sensitive land uses).Californias Aeronautics Law requires the construction of new airports to be approved by the county board of supervisors or city council where a proposed facility will be located.The law also allows boards of supervisors and city councils to delegate the authority to approve new helicopter takeoff and landing areas to their respective planning departments.The law also prohibits the takeoff and landing of helicopters within 1,000 feet of a public or private K-12 school.Caltrans requires a permit to establish and operate takeoff and landing facilities(Meyers 2022).Caltrans may review and assess vertiport permit applications;assist current and Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)20 prospective vertiport owners,managers,and consultants with permitting,regulatory,and other aviation issues and facilitate coordination between local governments,state agencies,and the FAA.In California,Airport Land Use Commissions(ALUCs)have also been established for all counties with public use airports within the state to implement state law regarding airports and surrounding land use compatibility(Los Angeles County 2009).ALUCs coordinate planning efforts at the state,regional and local levels;prepare and adopt an Airport Land Use Compatibility Plan for each public-use airport in its jurisdiction;and review plans,regulations and other actions of local agencies and airport operators(to promote and ensure compatibility between each airport in the county and surrounding land uses(Los Angeles County 2009).With legislative and regulatory reform,California may be able to leverage ALUCs to support compatible land uses around vertiports as well as private use facilities.Finally,trip planning,booking,fare payment,and ticketing integration with other modes of transportation through programs such as the California Integrated Travel Project(CalITP)could allow for seamless modal connections and enable the public and private sectors to price trips efficiently with respect to existing surface modes of transportation(Cohen,Shaheen and Wulff 2023).2.7 Workforce and Economic Development Although a California-specific economic analysis of AAM has not been conducted,anecdotal evidence suggests that AAM could represent an important economic cluster given the high number of California-based manufacturers.To capitalize on these potential opportunities,California could consider tax credits,incentives,and other policies to support AAM activities in the state(e.g.,aircraft manufacturing,infrastructure development,etc.).For example,California works with local governments to help identify census tracts which meet the definition of“low-income community”under Internal Revenue Code Section 45(e).Census tracts meeting this definition can qualify as“Opportunity Zones.”California has the potential to incentivize AAM investment and economic development(e.g.,aircraft design,manufacturing,and assembly)in distressed communities by establishing state tax benefits for AAM.At the federal level,opportunity zones enable businesses to obtain a temporary deferral on capital gains for qualified investments through a Qualified Opportunity Fund established with the Internal Revenue Service.California may also be able to apply and/or expand a number of business incentives and tax credits to AAM,such as:California Competes Tax Credit:This is an income tax credit available to businesses that want to relocate,stay,or grow in California.Advanced Transportation and Manufacturing Sales and Use Tax Exemption:This tax exemption provides a full sale and use tax exclusion to manufacturers that promote alternative energy and advanced transportation.Research&Development Tax Credit:This tax credit offers businesses an income tax credit if it paid for or incurred qualified research expenses(including wages,supplies,and contract research costs)while conducting qualified research activity in California.ZEV Funding Opportunities:California and many local governments offer a variety of incentives,financing options,and grants to help property owners,businesses,and California residents to acquire zero-emission vehicles(ZEVs)and infrastructure.Although most of these are currently limited to light-Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)21 duty ground vehicles,California could consider extending these programs to light and general aviation and/or establishing similar programs to encourage the growth of electric aviation.Economic Development Rate Program:This program gives special utility discounts for businesses that require high-energy loads to operate or continue operating in California.The state could extend this program or establish a new program to provide utility discounts for airside charging at California airports,heliports,and vertiports.The state could also consider supporting the development of training/retraining programs that provide the job skills and technical expertise to enter AAM career fields.California has the Employment Training Panel(ETP)which provides funding to employers for training that upgrades the skills of their workers.Some counties(e.g.,Santa Cruz)have established accelerator programs designed to foster entrepreneurship,mentorship,and strategic business support.These accelerators can also provide financial backing,legal support,marketing,and help connecting entrepreneurs to venture capital.To foster diversity and inclusion,many of these programs are available free of charge to participants.Other programs are designed to provide training and certifications.California could consider establishing workforce development grants modeled after similar FAA programs.These grants could support the development and expansion of aviation programs across the state to expand the number of pilots,ground crew,maintenance technicians,and other specialties required to support the growth of AAM.2.8 Social Equity While limited published research exists on the potential equity impacts of AAM,the effect of AAM on vulnerable populations and historically disadvantaged communities present notable challenges.Broadly,fair treatment of all people regardless of race,color,national origin,or income with respect to the planning and implementation of AAM services,policies,and regulations means no group should bear a disproportionate share of the negative environmental consequences resulting from public or private sector operations or policies(Environmental Protection Agency n.d.).With respect to potential AAM passenger services,current services using helicopters are premium offerings that have,in recent years,typically averaged$149300 US per seat.eVTOLs could reduce total operating cost per seat mile by about 26 percent compared to helicopters currently in use(Duffy,Wakayama,and Hupp 2017).On-demand air taxis could cost from$8 to$18 USD per minute(Porsche Consulting 2018).McKinsey and Company estimate that an“air metro”type service will cost$30 USD per trip in 2030,while air taxis will remain pricier,ranging from$131 to$1,912 USD per trip(depending on vertiport density)(Hasan 2019).There are concerns that AAM may not be an affordable transportation option for lower-and middle-income households,and that AAM may be used by upper income households to avoid traffic congestion.While proponents compare AAM to early commercial aviation and foresee the eventual democratization of air travel,it took decades for commercial aviation to achieve mass market affordability(Cohen,Shaheen,and Farrar 2021).Additionally,the business models of intraurban,small aircraft operations are quite different.While electrification and automation have the potential to reduce costs,it is unclear if AAM can be affordable for a mass market.Similar affordability concerns could also be raised with regard to some emergency response services,such as medical transport for people without any or sufficient levels of medical insurance coverage who may not be able to afford aeromedical transport and/or be left with unaffordable medical transportation bills after using the service(Goyal and Cohen 2022).There are also concerns that low-income,minority,and other vulnerable populations may bear a disproportionate share of the negative environmental impacts of AAM(Cohen and Shaheen 2021).While not Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)22 an exhaustive list,examples include noise impacts on low-income and minority neighborhoods,and concerns about gentrification and displacement around vertiports.State agencies and local governments may consider adopting anti-gentrification and anti-displacement policies to help mitigate these potential effects in the vicinity of vertiports.Caltrans could also consider conducting an environmental justice analysis of proposed vertiports when reviewing permit applications for new facilities.Caltrans and local agencies may also consider whether public sector investments in AAM may be diverting funding from other services with broader availability(e.g.,public transportation).Caltrans can play a key role guiding equitable outcomes by ensuring full and fair participation in AAM decisions by protected groups that may be impacted,and by applying environmental justice principles to the review and approval of vertiport locations.State agencies should also consult with the FAA on how to mitigate the impacts of AAM flight paths and corridors on vulnerable communities.California could also support equitable outcomes through subsidies and programs that expand AAM access to low-income communities.Ensuring accessibility for people with disabilities is also another important social equity concern.In summary,there is much uncertainty about how much AAM will ultimately cost,how long it will take to become affordable(if ever),what type of public investment(if any)should support AAM,and what will be the impacts of AAM users on non-users(e.g.,noise,aesthetics,vertiport siting,foregone public sector resources that could be spent on other initiatives,etc.).Ensuring meaningful involvement and fair treatment of all people in AAM planning and implementation will be critical.2.9 Community Engagement and Social Acceptance AAM presents many new challenges that could affect the public.Historically,aviation planning has focused on aviation stakeholders and the communities around airports.Since AAM could potentially affect areas beyond the immediate vicinity of airport facilities,AAM will require a greater degree of engagement with community and aviation stakeholders that may have limited experience working together(Cohen,Shaheen,and Wulff 2024).While environmental processes,such as the California Environmental Quality Act(CEQA)could provide tools for assessing the technical viability of vertiport and operational concepts,early engagement is important to understanding and addressing potential community concerns.Community engagement will be an essential part of understanding and mitigating the adverse impacts of AAM on underrepresented populations and communities(Cohen,Shaheen,and Wulff 2024).Additionally,negative community perceptions could pose challenges to the adoption of AAM,as well as presenting a variety of institutional,public relations,and political risks for California agencies(Cohen,Shaheen,and Farrar 2021).As previously noted,a few notable concerns that will likely contribute to public acceptance include safety,security,noise,visual pollution,privacy,equity,and other social and environmental impacts.While a number of exploratory surveys have attempted to understand barriers to community acceptance,the lack of public experience with AAM aircraft and operations represents notable limitations of these studies as it is difficult for respondents to accurately comment on something they have no direct experience with(Yedavalli and Mooberry 2019;Shaheen,Cohen,and Farrar 2018;Holden and Goel 2016;Fu,Rothfeld and Antoniou 2019).In November 2019,the non-profit Community Air Mobility Initiative(CAMI)was established to educate and provide resources to the public and local and state decisionmakers.Ongoing education,outreach,community engagement,and research are needed to advance understanding of potential barriers to community acceptance and policies that will be able to guide safe,sustainable,and equitable outcomes.Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)23 Section 3:Potential State Role in AAM While the roles and responsibilities of state agencies in aviation issues are largely defined in the State Aeronautics Act,California could also play a key role in AAM in four key areas:1)institutional readiness;2)funding and infrastructure readiness;3)workforce readiness;and 4)equity and vertiport planning.Each of these are summarized in the subsections below.Institutional Readiness:Capacity Building and Engagement on AAM Issues Caltrans should consider developing resources to educate local and regional entities on their roles and responsibilities with respect to AAM and aviation-related issues.To this end,the California State Transportation Agency and Caltrans should consider convening state and local stakeholders as part of working groups and other outreach efforts to engage and provide stakeholders with AAM information.SB800(2023)requires the states transportation agencies in coordination with the Governors Office of Planning and Research and the Air Resources Board establish an Advanced Air Mobility,Zero-Emission,and Electrification Aviation Advisory Panel.This committee will be developing a report for the Legislature to examine issues such as electrification goals in the aviation industry,consideration of aircraft fuel into the Low Carbon Fuel Standard,potential legislation and regulatory changes needed to support the development of AAM,and equitable access to AAM infrastructure.The California State Transportation Agency and Caltrans could also consider additional outreach and engagement efforts to solicit public and private sector input,and develop a statewide AAM strategic plan that addresses emerging issues and assess the strengths,weaknesses,opportunities,and threats.These agencies should also consider scenario planning to help inform the planned deployment and evolution of AAM in California.In addition to state-level engagement on AAM issues,Caltrans should consider developing tools that provide local and regional governments resource materials to engage community stakeholders and the public on issues related to AAM.These resource materials could include a“quick-start”guide to provide early foundational resource material to local/regional governments and airports on AAM and a toolkit for local and regional governments and recommend steps to successfully engage communities on AAM-related topics.Funding and Infrastructure Readiness:State Tax Credits and Incentives to Support AAM Energy,Take-off and Landing,and Digital Infrastructure The Governors Office of Business and Economic Development(GO-Biz)could consider tax credits,incentives,and other policies to support AAM economic development in the state(e.g.,aircraft manufacturing job creation,infrastructure development,etc.).California may also be able to expand a number of business incentives and tax credits to AAM,such as California Competes Tax Credit,Advanced Transportation and Manufacturing Sales and Use Tax Exemption,Research&Development Tax Credit,ZEV Funding Opportunities,and the Economic Development Rate Program.Broadly,many these existing initiatives are intended to support the research and development of clean transportation options but have historically focused on surface modes.Because of the recent loss of multiple AAM manufacturing initiatives to other states,GO-Biz should quickly review potential economic development incentives required to attract and retain AAM original equipment manufacturers(OEMs)and ancillary industries in the state.Caltrans,the California Public Utilities Commission,and the California Air Resources Board should consider conducing a gap analysis of hydrogen,grid and charging Infrastructure for AAM to produce a base level understanding of the energy needs to operationalize AAM in California and to identify what infrastructure upgrades and potential funding sources are available to meet these needs.This gap analysis should be Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)24 completed over the next one to two years to guide AAM energy investments over the next decade.Additionally,these agencies could consider establishing new grant programs to support AAM electrification,hydrogen,and other infrastructure,consistent with safety and other requirements established by federal partners.Workforce Readiness:Training and Retraining Programs California can play a critical role supporting the development of training and retraining programs that provide the job skills and technical expertise to enter AAM career fields.To ensure a ready workforce by the end of the decade,the Employment Development Department(EDD)should work with trade schools,colleges,and universities today to develop curriculums that help prepare students for careers in AAM.Additionally,EDD should develop training programs for AAM career paths for unemployed and early career personnel and members of underserved communities.Additionally,GO-Biz and EDD could consider establishing workforce development grants modeled after similar FAA programs.These grants could support the development and expansion of aviation programs across the state to expand the number of pilots,ground crew,maintenance technicians,and other specialties required to support the growth of AAM as well as other aviation careers in California.Equity and Vertiport Planning:Land Use Compatibility and the Environmental Justice Analysis of Proposed Vertiports Caltrans can play a key role guiding equitable outcomes by ensuring full and fair participation in AAM decisions by protected groups that may be impacted,and by applying environmental justice principles to the review and approval of vertiport locations.To aid local governments on AAM vertiport planning,Caltrans should consider developing a toolkit to support compatible land use planning in the vicinity of existing and new vertiports for AAM(e.g.,an assessment of various types of land uses that would be supportive or hazardous surrounding vertiports in urban areas).This toolkit should be ready for local agencies within the next two years to aid in the planning of vertiports over the next decade.As new vertiport permit requests are submitted to the state,Caltrans should consider conducting an environmental justice analysis of proposed vertiports when the state reviews permit applications for new vertiports.State agencies should also consult with the FAA on how to mitigate the impacts of AAM flight paths and corridors on vulnerable communities.California could also support equitable outcomes through subsidies and programs that expand AAM access to low-income communities.Over the next decade,the California Department of Housing and Community Development(HCD)may consider developing model anti-gentrification and anti-displacement policies that could be implemented at the local level to help mitigate the potential effects of gentrification and displacement in the vicinity of vertiports.While not an exhaustive list,potential policies could include requiring outreach with community groups to identify concerns;conducting technical analyzes to help identify locations at-risk of gentrification and displacement;developing funding programs and policies that help prevent and mitigate gentrification and displacement around vertiports.(e.g.,inclusionary zoning which requires a share of residential and commercial development to be dedicated to low-to-moderate income households and small businesses,respectively).Advanced Air Mobility:Opportunities,Challenges,and Research Needs for the State of California(2023-2030)25 Glossary Advanced Air Mobility(AAM)-A broad concept focusing on emerging aviation markets and activities for on-demand aviation in urban,suburban,and rural communities.AAM includes local use cases of about a 50-mile radius in rural or urban areas and intraregional use cases of up to a few hundred miles that occur within or between urban and rural areas.National Airspace System(NAS)-A network of both controlled and uncontrolled airspace,both domestic and oceanic.The NAS includes air navigation facilities,equipment,and services;airports and landing areas;aeronautical charts,information and services;rules and regulations;procedures and technical information;and manpower and material.Regional Air Mobility(RAM)-Envisions a safe,sustainable,affordable,and accessible air transportation system for passenger mobility,goods delivery,and emergency services for intra-and interregional trips of about 50500 miles(e.g.,from one metropolitan region or urban area to another).RAM includes scheduled and on-demand flights,typically between smaller airports,using small aircraft with less than 20 passengers(or an equivalent weight in cargo).Rural Air Mobility-Envisions a safe,sustainable,affordable,and accessible air transportation system for passenger mobility,goods delivery,emergency services,and other applications within or traversing rural and exurban areas(e.g.,delivery of healthcare and other critical services in rural communities,agriculture crop dusting using unmanned aircraft,etc.).Rural air mobility may overlap with Urban Air Mobility(below)in cases where a flight traverses an urban area and at an altitude low enough to impact communities on the ground.Short Takeoff and Land(STOL)An aircraft that can use a short runway for takeoff and landing.Small Uncrewed/Unmanned Aircraft Systems(sUAS)A drone that weighs less than 55 pounds on takeoff,including everything that is on board or otherwise attached.Uncrewed/Unmanned Aircraft(UAS)An aircraft that operates without the possibility of direct human intervention from within or on the aircraft(i.e.,no on-board pilot).Urban Air Mobility(UAM)-Envisions a safe,sustainable,affordable,and accessible air transportation system for passenger mobility,goods delivery,and emergency services within or traversing metropolitan areas.UAM typically includes services within or between edge cities and urban,suburban,and exurban areas.Vertical Takeoff and Land(VTOL)An aircraft that can take off,hover,and land vertically.The terms electric VTOL or eVTOL are also commonly used to refer to electric aircraft that can take off and land 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Aggregating demand for zero-emission shipping fuels|Pathways for action1ANNUAL PROGRESS REPORT ON GREEN SHIPPING CORRIDORS2024 editionAnnual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition2Executive SummaryGreen shipping corridors specific trade routes where the feasibility of zero-emission shipping is catalysed by public and private action are becoming increasingly mature,but risk hitting a“feasibility wall”if economic challenges are not resolved.The third edition of the Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors provides an overview of progress within green corridors in the three years since their emergence at COP26.62244 18initiativesstakeholderssince the previous editionPublic-privateIndustry/third sectorPortGovernment18171413LEADERSHIPSHIPPING SEGMENTSRoro and ferry211584220ContainerBulkTankerCruiseTBDTYPES AND NUMBER OF ENERGY SOURCESMethanolElectricAmmoniaMethaneHydrogenAdvanced biofuelOther sources1815984415*Low-or zero-emission variants of the fuels onlyGEOGRAPHIC SCOPE217431314It reveals that the green corridor movement has continued to grow,with 18 new initiatives emerging since last years edition.There are now 62 ongoing initiatives worldwide in various stages of development.These now cover all regions,almost all ocean-going shipping segments,scalable zero-emission fuel pathways,and just under 245 stakeholders from across the shipping and energy value chains.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition3This group of front-runners,which are the focus of this edition,have now completed feasibility studies and cost assessments.The major shared emphasis among these corridors is on fuel supply and economics,as evidenced by their efforts to aggregate demand for zero-emission fuel,identify cost and risk-sharing mechanisms,and map available policy enablers.These efforts have begun to yield results and show signs of innovation,such as signalling collective demand for zero-emission fuels,aligning on preferred carbon intensities for zero-emission fuel,and policy papers that identify key supporting policies.Crucially,while customer demand and voluntary action are expected to support the corridors economics,it has become increasingly clear that national governments have a central role in breaking through the“feasibility wall”and unlocking the business case.The lack of national policy incentives to bridge fuel costs has emerged as a key bottleneck and will soon place a limit on how far these initiatives can reach.At the same time,there is an emerging split among front-runners.While some are positioned as projects,with a defined set of participants attempting to jointly deliver investments,others instead resemble programmes,with a broader set of participants who coordinate activities informally and collaborate to remove barriers to investments that may be taken independently of the initiative.These two governance approaches both come with their own set of challenges,and the difference will become even more relevant as the green corridors move closer to realisation.INITIATIONEXPLORATIONEARLYEstablishing an initiativeAligning on what the opportunity looks likeUnderstanding what needs to happen to realise the opportunityRemoving shared barriers to realisationTaking the actions needed for realisationVessels,infrastructure,and/or fuel plant builtZero-emission shipping begins on corridor-ADVANCEDPRE-COMMERCIALCOMMERCIALCONSTRUCTIONOPERATIONPREPARATIONREALISATION951671Existing efforts have made healthy progress,with two-fifths advancing to a new phase of development over the past year.In a milestone for the movement,at least six initiatives have now progressed beyond mere exploration towards enabling real-world implementation.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition4With this in mind,this report concludes that:1.Timely,accessible public support to bridge the fuel cost gap must be the immediate priority for governments committed to making green corridors a success.Coalescing around green market-maker schemes,such as H2Global,may be the most cost-effective and timely option.Indeed,there is an immediate opportunity around the front-runners.These efforts alone could require over 2 million tonnes of hydrogen-based fuel per year by 2030.They centre on ten countries,of which six have already committed funding to demand-side support for hydrogen.By coming together to offer shipping auctions under the H2Global mechanism or an equivalent,these governments could create a watershed moment not only for green corridors but shipping decarbonisation more broadly.2.Stakeholders must take advantage of corridors as protected spaces for exploring innovative commercial arrangements.Given the challenging economics of zero-emission solutions,green corridor initiatives must put business-as-usual thinking aside and prioritise commercial innovation around fuel procurement and chartering/cargo.3.Initiatives need to adopt a more flexible,programmatic approach to governance.By allowing for wider participation and a variety of collaborative mechanisms in fuel purchasing and chartering,these approaches may be better equipped to handle experimentation,achieve scale,and share risks.4.There is a need to explore what policies and sources of finance can support the realisation of green corridors and zero-emission fuel supply chains in the Global South.Corridors based in the Global South,as well as those that intend to import fuel from the South,face specific challenges that will need to be addressed in a bespoke fashion.Closer engagement with multilateral development banks can help identify solutions.5.Rallying behind the existing initiatives and leveraging the growing body of best practices may be the best strategy to maximise the potential of the global green corridor portfolio.The steadily growing number of initiatives shows that there is continued interest in establishing green corridors.However,given limited public and private resources and narrowing timelines,supporting existing efforts should be the main priority going forward.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition5Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors 2024November 2024AuthorsJoe BoylandElena Talalasova Data collectionAninda AnnisaLayoutTrine Kirketerp-MllerEditorJustin CremerThis report has been produced by the Global Maritime Forum on behalf of the Getting to Zero Coalition.The views expressed are the authors alone.AcknowledgementsThe Global Maritime Forum would like to thank the representatives of green shipping corridor initiatives and Clydebank Declaration signatories for their support in the preparation of this report.We are especially grateful to the following interview participants for their valuable insights:Sweden-Belgium Green Shipping Corridor:Therese Jllbrink,Lau Blaxekjr The Silk Alliance:Carlo Raucci,Charlie McKinlay,Dana Rodriguez Maersk Mc-Kinney Mller Center for Zero-Carbon Shipping:Johan Byskov Svendsen Australia-East Asia Iron Ore Green Corridor:Anna Rosenberg Singapore-Rotterdam Green and Digital Shipping Corridor:Eleanor Criswell,Naomi van den Berg,Patrick Walison,Minerva Lim Stockholm-Turku green corridor:Lotta Andersson,Mika Laurilehto C40 Cities:Yana Prokofyeva,Maggie Messerschmidt The Nordic Roadmap:Eirill Bachmann MehammerTable of contentsExecutive Summary 2Introduction 7How do we assess progress?7Data collection and validation 8Overview of initiatives 9Segment and geography 11Fuel pathway 12Policy and stakeholders 13Progress 16State of advanced initiatives 16Progress against the timeline 17Determining the fuel pathway 19Mobilising customer demand 20Enabling policy environment 21Cross-value chain collaboration 24Knowledge development and exchange 25Conclusions and recommendations 27Appendix:Best practices for early-stage initiatives 33Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition7IntroductionIt has been three years since green corridors routes where the feasibility of zero-emission shipping is catalysed by public and private action-entered shippings vocabulary with the launch of the Clydebank Declaration for Green Shipping Corridors at COP26.Many green corridor initiatives have emerged since then,along with a plethora of definitions and approaches to developing them.In the meantime,the wider shipping decarbonisation landscape has evolved significantly,moving from isolated technology pilots and demonstration projects to zero-emission vessel orders and increasingly stringent regulation.In the face of these changes,green corridors remain as important as ever in helping the sector reach its 5%tipping point.1 Indeed,with several key pieces of the shipping transition falling into place,the role green corridors can play in the sectors decarbonisation is becoming clearer.As shipping nudges closer to a mass market transition,green corridors can be seen as vehicles for enabling the deployment of zero-emission assets,rather than mere demonstration projects.This is because of their potential to:provide the necessary scale and coordination to support investments in zero-emission fuel production and infrastructure,making zero-emission fuel available,de-risk the use of zero-emission fuels by encouraging commercial innovation and public-private collaboration,making zero-emission fuel acceptable and affordable,and maximise the likelihood and impact of policy incentives by targeting efforts on the most favourable routes for early action.The previous edition of the Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors concluded that“if green corridors are to hit their targets and fulfil their function,2024 must be a breakthrough year in which front-running initiatives begin to execute their plans and others are primed to quickly follow”.As such,in addition to tracing the state of the movement,this year we zoom in on progress within these front-runners to understand to what extent they are leveraging their potential to act as enablers for zero-emission asset deployment.How do we assess progress?A 2022 Getting to Zero Coalition discussion paper highlighted two emergent approaches to governing green corridors a programme model and a project model.In the project model,members of the corridor act together to realise defined deliverables towards a shared business goal.In the programme model,the corridor initiative provides a platform for collaborative action alongside independent action by members.This distinction has shown to have major implications for assessing the progress of green corridors.As they advance,it is becoming clear that commercial project development frameworks,against which corridor progress has previously been measured,do not always accurately capture the 1 The 5%tipping point refers to an estimated share of scalable zero-emission fuels required to unlock the diffusion phase of the transition,first suggested by the Getting to Zero Coalition in 2021.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition8state of programmatic corridors.In addition,these project-centric frameworks do not always adequately value the benefits of green corridors as protected spaces for exploration and innovation.In parallel,with the continued maturation of the movement,there is growing clarity around the steps that must be taken to make a green corridor a reality.To better accommodate the diversity of approaches to corridor development and reflect these learnings,this years report adopts an updated approach to measuring corridor progress.INITIATIONEXPLORATIONEARLYEstablishing an initiativeAligning on what the opportunity looks likeUnderstanding what needs to happen to realise the opportunityRemoving shared barriers to realisationTaking the actions needed for realisationKey assets builtZero-emission shipping begins on corridorExample activities Stakeholder workshops Country-level assessment Formation of core stakeholder group Governance agreedExample activities Fleet baselining Fuel selection Pre-feasibility studyExample activities Feasibility study Gap analyses Implementation roadmap Target setting Cost modellingExample activities Policy dialogue Policy paper Discussions on commercial innovation Technical studies and working groupsExample activities Design and engineering Commercial vehicles established Policy incentives accessed Regulatory updates and approvals Tenders issued Contracts signedExample activities Vessels built/retrofitted Bunkering infrastructure built/expanded Fuel plant built/convertedExample activities Pilots and demonstrations Additional vessel orders and offtakes-ADVANCEDPRE-COMMERCIALCOMMERCIALCONSTRUCTIONOPERATIONPREPARATIONREALISATIONFigure 1:Corridor progress framework used in this reportWe outline four stages of corridor development-Initiation,Exploration,Preparation,and Realisation2-which are split into more granular phases,each characterised by a core challenge.Notably,a distinction is made between a Pre-commercial and Commercial Preparation phase,which allows for a better assessment of a corridors investment readiness.The progress phases are in turn marked by characteristic activities actions undertaken to tackle the core challenge in each phase.While this list of activities is not exhaustive,they act as helpful indicators of progress.For the purposes of this report,“advanced initiatives”are defined as those which have successfully completed the Advanced Exploration phase and progressed to the Preparation stage.In practice,this means completing feasibility studies,cost assessments,and establishing workstreams tackling specific barriers to realisation.Data collection and validationThough a diversity of approaches to green corridor development is generally encouraged,well-defined boundaries for what constitutes a green corridor are essential for maximising the movements potential,minimising conceptual confusion,and avoiding accusations of greenwashing.2 The Initiation stage remains unchanged,while Exploration,Preparation,and Realisation correspond to the Planning,Execution,and Operation stages in last years report.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition9To be counted as a green corridor,an initiative must meet the Getting to Zero Coalition definition of being“a route on which the feasibility of zero-emission shipping is catalysed by public and private action”.Specifically,it must:work toward the use of zero-emission fuel or energy for primary ship propulsion,3 support the commercialisation of non-commercial fuels or energy sources in shipping,and feature a high level of cross-value chain collaboration,including close engagement and input from national/regional governments.It must also meet two new criteria,introduced for this edition:To avoid organisations repackaging activities as green corridors,an initiative must call itself a green corridor from the point of initiation.To reflect the nature of green corridors as a specific tool for decarbonising the shipping sector,and their tight link with the 5%tipping point,only initiatives with a focus on zero-emission ocean-going vessels are counted towards progress.4 Efforts focused on zero-emission harbour craft,offshore vessels,inland barges and other smaller,non-ocean-going vessels are treated as parallel to,but separate from,green corridors.Based on these criteria,eight initiatives announced between 2022 and 2024 were excluded from this edition.Progress data was collected via a combination of desktop research,a survey of the involved organisation,and interviews with representatives from the advanced initiatives.Information for over two-thirds of all the initiatives was validated by initiative representatives.Information was extracted from public sources for the rest.Overview of initiativesAs of 30 October 2024,62 green corridor initiatives have been announced,of which 18 are new.This represents a third consecutive year of steady growth in the number of green corridor efforts,suggesting continued interest in the concept.3 Defined as fuels with the potential to achieve zero-or near-zero greenhouse gas emissions on a lifecycle basis.See the Getting to Zero Coalitions definition of zero carbon energy sources for further clarification.4 Encompassing container ships,bulk carriers,general cargo ships,passenger ships,tankers,cruise ships,and vehicle/roll-on roll-off vessels.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition1011595834392915351319172357Government leadershipIndustry/third sector leadershipPort leadershipPublic-private leadership1255043444948364591416182021242526272830313233374054605556322424147515253108738403637386164124662Illustrative-ports and routing not necessarily representative1.Australia Bauxite2.Australia-East Asia Iron Ore3.Australia-New Zealand4.Hamburg-Shanghai5.Philippines Corridors6.Rotterdam-Singapore GDSC7.Singapore-Australia GDSC8.Singapore-Japan GDSC9.Singapore-Shandong10.Singapore-Tianjin GDSC 11.The Silk Alliance12.UK-Singapore-ASEAN13.land Mega Green Port14.Dover-Calais/Dunkirk Ferry15.Dublin-Holyhead16.Esbjerg-Immingham17.FIN-EST18.Gothenburg-Frederikshavn Pilot Study19.Gothenburg-Rotterdam20.Larne-Liverpool21.Liverpool Belfast22.Northwestern England-Ireland23.Oslo-Rotterdam Pilot Study24.St Helier-St Malo25.Stockholm-bo26.SwedenBelgium27.Trelleborg-Lbeck28.Tyne-Ijmuiden29.UK-Belgium30.UK-Denmark31.UK-Norway32.Vaasa-Umea33.West Mediterranean Cruise34.Great Lakes Iron Ore35.Gulf of Mexico Green Shipping Corridor36.Halifax-Hamburg37.Ireland-to-Indiana container38.Port of Houston-Port of Antwerp-Bruges39.US Green Bulk40.US-UK Green Shipping Corridors Taskforce41.Hueneme-Pyeongtaek Green Automotive42.Hueneme-Yokohama Green Automotive43.LA-Nagoya44.LA-Yokohama45.Los Angeles/Long Beach-Singapore GDSC46.North Pacific Green Corridor Consortium47.Pacific Northwest to Alaska Green Corridor 48.LA-Guangzhou49.Port of Los Angeles-Port of Long Beach-Port of Shanghai 50.Port of Oakland-Yokohama51.Seattle and Tacoma-Busan52.Seattle and Tacoma-Korea PCTC53.US and Pacific Blue Shipping Partnership Green Corridors54.US and Panama Green Corridors55.Namibia Corridors56.South Africa-Europe Iron Ore Corridor57.The Caribbean Green Shipping Corridor Initiative 58.Chile Piscicultura59.Chile Sulfuric Acid60.Chile-Japan/Korea copper concentrate61.Taurange-Zeebrugge62.West Green Shipping CorridorAnnual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition11Segment and geographyMixed or TBDDeep seaShort sea42H%Figure 2:Scope of the corridors(left,%of initiatives)and indicative geography(right,number of initiatives)While the movement encompasses multiple opportunities across all continents,clear geographic hotspots can be observed.Europe alone accounts for a third of all activity,with the North Pacific and Asia Pacific each representing roughly one-fifth of activity.Initiatives cover 21 of the 27 Clydebank Declaration signatory countries and various non-signatory countries,such as China,South Africa,Namibia,Panama,and Estonia.Both deep-sea corridors and short-sea corridors are well-represented.Short-sea activity is relatively concentrated in Northern Europe,while the global picture shows more emphasis on deep-sea opportunities.472131314Roro and ferry211584220ContainerBulkTankerCruiseTBDFigure 3:Representation of different shipping segments within the corridor portfolioThe global portfolio shows good representation of shippings different segments,with all major segments except oil and gas tankers now covered.This has been aided by the announcement of three initiatives focused on car carriers,which had not previously been represented.The roll-on/roll-off(ro-ro)and ferry segment is now the most active.At the other end of the scale,the cruise segment now has two initiatives with the addition of one since the last report.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition12Fuel pathwayMethanolElectricAmmoniaMethaneHydrogenAdvanced biofuelOther sources1815984415*Low-or zero-emission variants of the fuels onlyFigure 4:Representation of different fuels/energy sources in the green corridor movement(left)and proportion of initiatives opting for one fuel,multiple,or TBD(right)There has been limited change in the number of fuel pathway decisions since the last edition.Overall,14 new and 17 existing initiatives are yet to commit to a fuel pathway.Given that these are disproportionately led by governments and ports,this lack of progress could potentially reflect their struggle to attract key stakeholders or insufficient mandates to make fuel decisions.The share of initiatives opting to focus on one fuel versus multiple fuels also remains largely unchanged.For some,pursuing a multi-fuel pathway signifies continued uncertainty.For others,it reflects a conscious decision to enable a multi-fuel future or is indicative of a focus on hybrid technology solutions or plans for co-production of multiple fuels.Among the initiatives that have selected a fuel pathway,methanol,ammonia,and electric are the most popular options.Methanol is the focus of 18 initiatives,making it the best-represented fuel overall.This includes corridors across all segments,but particularly container,ferry,and cruise.In the container segment,methanols popularity likely reflects mounting methanol dual-fuel vessel orders and a relatively high technology readiness level.Both cruise initiatives in the portfolio also focus on methanol,which is a frontier technology for that segment.Ammonia is featured in 15 initiatives.It is the most common fuel among bulk carriers,while it is also considered an option in a handful of fuel-agnostic initiatives,including as a frontier technology for container ships.Of the 15 initiatives focusing on battery electric,12 foresee it as primary propulsion and three as a hybrid solution,using electric to reduce consumption of zero-emission fuel.These overwhelmingly focus on short-sea routes,most commonly in Northern Europe.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition13A lower but rising level of interest in methane can be observed,with nine corridors across the container and ferry segments considering this fuel.Notably,all but one of these corridors are connected to Europe,potentially due to upcoming EU compliance requirements and greater accessibility of the fuel in this region.In contrast to ammonia,which is often considered as a single fuel,methane only features as part of a portfolio of fuels.Hydrogen enjoys a similar level of continuing interest,featuring in eight initiatives.There remains limited representation of advanced biofuels,with just four corridors focusing on this pathway.Policy and stakeholdersPublic-privateIndustry/third sectorPortGovernment18171413Figure 5:Number of green corridor initiatives by leadership typeThirty-one initiatives feature at least some involvement from the public sector.Thirteen are a mix of efforts managed by governments and bilateral framework agreements,almost all of which feature the United States,the United Kingdom,or Singapore.Nine are public-private collaborations,while nine are led by industry but have received government funding for conducting feasibility or pre-feasibility studies.Beyond action by the United Kingdom,the United States,and Singapore,there has been a broadening of government participation.In total,20 national governments and 22 regional or local governments are now participating in green corridors in some capacity.Several countries stand out for an intensification in their engagement over the past year:Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition14Emerging government leaders in green corridorsAustralia Green corridors are to feature in Australias forthcoming Maritime Emissions Reduction National Action Plan,supported by an industry consultation to gather inputs on how best to support the movement.The government has established the bilateral Australia-Singapore Initiative on Low Emissions Technologies(ASLET)programme,providing$20m AUD/SGD of joint funding to support research,pilots,and demonstration projects linked to Singapore and Australia green and digital shipping corridors.The government is in discussions about establishing public-private programmes,with defined deliverables and roles for industry and government,to support the implementation of ongoing green corridors initiatives from the country.Republic of Korea A first-of-a kind Special Act for Supporting the Establishment of Green Shipping Corridors bill has been tabled at Koreas National Assembly.The bill would see the Korean government outline expectations for corridor development,including a definition of green corridors in the Korean context,5 and take measures including:creating five-year plans for progressing green corridors,establishing a Green Shipping Corridor Support Council to facilitate corridor development,signing international memoranda of understanding to promote the establishment and expansion of corridors,and putting in place policies to upskill the workforce,support research and development projects,and offer financial support for green corridors.Germany Green corridors are to feature as one of several action areas in Germanys forthcoming National Action Plan for Climate-Friendly Shipping,announced in May 2024.The Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport Affairs and NOW have partnered with UMAS and the Global Maritime Forum to identify favourable green corridors and support the formation of potential green corridor consortia through public-private workshops.5“Green Shipping Corridor”refers to a route designated and notified by the Minister of Maritime Oceans and Fisheries in accordance with Article 6 as a route in which green ships operate between two or more eco-friendly ports using carbon-free fuels and eco-friendly technologies and do not emit carbon in the entire process of maritime transportation”(translated from Korean)Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition15Governments are part of the more than 240 stakeholders involved in green corridors(compared to 171 in the previous edition).Similar to last year,the stakeholder numbers reveal strong participation by port authorities and shipping companies.Port authority5546453520136618Public and government agencyKnowledge,research,third sectorVessel owner/operatorFuel producerCustomer/cargo ownerClassification societyFinancial institutionOtherFigure 6:Number of stakeholders represented in the green corridor movement by type6Including charterers,the vessel owners and operators involved in the movement account for just under half of the existing and ordered ammonia and methanol fleet.7 They comprise six of the ten companies with the biggest methanol-capable fleets and key early movers in ammonia-powered shipping,including CMB,Exmar,NYK,Fortescue,and DFDS.45 organisations across the knowledge,research,and third sector are involved.NGOs,universities,and consultants account for over half of this group,with additional participation from various networks and innovation platforms,industry associations,and regional development organisations.Fuel producer involvement has improved and now includes around 20 companies,both energy incumbents and dedicated renewable/hydrogen project developers.In contrast,direct cargo owner involvement remains relatively weak,with just 13 organisations.Most of these are bulk cargo owners across chemicals,mining,and agricultural goods,participating as charterers/vessel operators,but companies across the food and automotive sectors are also represented.The number of participating financial institutions also remains low,with just two multilateral development banks the Asian Development Bank and World Bank-and four traditional financial institutions involved in green corridors.6“Knowledge,research,third sector”category includes universities,NGOs,industry associations,innovation platforms and hubs,consultants,regional cooperation and development organisations,research and business intelligence organisations.“Other”category includes port and terminal operators,shipbuilders,ship brokers,ship managers,engine manufacturers.7 17 of 34 ammonia-capable vessels and 151 of 345 methanol-capable vessels recorded by Clarksons World Fleet Register as of October 2024.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition16ProgressINITIATIONEXPLORATIONEARLYEstablishing an initiativeAligning on what the opportunity looks likeUnderstanding what needs to happen to realise the opportunityRemoving shared barriers to realisationTaking the actions needed for realisationVessels,infrastructure,and/or fuel plant builtZero-emission shipping begins on corridor-ADVANCEDPRE-COMMERCIALCOMMERCIALCONSTRUCTIONOPERATIONPREPARATIONREALISATION951671Figure 7:Number of initiatives at each progress stageThe green corridor portfolio has shown steady progress,with 17 existing initiatives completing key activities or advancing to a new timeline phase since the last edition.This represents two-fifths of the initiatives recorded last year.There is ample evidence that early-stage initiatives are becoming more concrete.Nine of the initiatives in the Initiation or Early Exploration phases in last years report have shown measurable progress.Indeed,while the single biggest progress phase in the last edition was Initiation,this year it is Advanced Exploration.8 Government framework agreements,which proliferated at the Sharm El-Sheikh and Dubai COPs,have also begun to advance through funding studies or enlisting support from third parties.At the other end of the spectrum,a major milestone has been reached by the front-runners.At least six initiatives have made it to the Preparation stage,where there were none last year.At the same time,we see the first green corridors being put on hold.These partly consist of initiatives that have been reorganised and streamlined into core consortia,such as the Nordic Roadmap,US-Republic of Korea corridors,and the Decatrip project.Four have been discontinued,for reasons ranging from refocusing on more immediate commercial opportunities to not being able to attract key stakeholders.State of advanced initiativesAs noted,at least six initiatives globally have successfully completed the Advanced Exploration phase and progressed to Preparation,with several more stand on the cusp of doing the same.8 2023 data updated and adapted to reflect new progress categories.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition17Figure 8:Initiatives known to have progressed to the Preparation stage(as of October 2024)While they differ in many respects,this section summarises common developments and challenges facing these efforts,while also highlighting notable innovations coming from the movement.Progress against the timelineThese initiatives have ambitious targets for introducing zero-emission vessels,in some cases backed by an implementation roadmap or plan detailing the actions needed to get there.For ammonia,the relevant efforts are collectively aiming to deploy up to 35 vessels between 2027 and 2030,equivalent to the total number of ammonia vessels on order today.For methanol and methane,timelines are generally earlier,with ambitions to have methanol dual-fuel vessels on the water between 2026 and 2030 and earlier still for methane.There is less clarity on vessel numbers for these two fuels,likely due to sensitivities stemming from the multifuel pathways of the corridors where they are represented.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition18THE SILK ALLIANCEAUSTRALIA-EAST ASIA IRON ORESINGAPORE-ROTTERDAM GDSCSWEDEN-BELGIUM RO-ROPACIFIC NORTHWEST-SOUTH KOREA CAR CARRIERCHILE-JAPAN/SOUTH KOREA COPPER CONCENTRATE2-4 MeOH vesselsFirst NH3 vessel4-8 MeOH vessels2 NH3 vessels9 NH3 vesselsPilot MeOH vesselsPilot bio-CH4vesselsScaled MeOH supply and deployment8 NH3 vesselsPilot NH3 vessels20-30 zero-emission vessels20 NH3 vesselsScaled NH3 supply and deployment2024 HIGHLIGHTS202520262027202820292030SCALE-UPFuel carbon intensity alignment,fuel demand signallingExploring innovative chartering and demand aggregation,forming public-private programme,adjacent activityPolicy paper,demand potential publication,Hapag-Lloyd ZEMBA winAbsorbing cost while exploring grant funding options such as Innovation FundAligning fuel choice across the ports different green corridor initiativesClose engagement with government in the Global South2 NH3 vesselsFigure 9:Progress highlights and near-term deployment targets for the advanced initiatives(as of October 2024)Overall,2024 marked a move to action.Feasibility studies have now been completed and working groups set up to cover a variety of identified barriers,priorities,and knowledge gaps have witnessed steady progress.This has resulted in several publications,and multiple meetings and engagements.Meanwhile,there is evidence of commercial and piloting action adjacent to the initiatives.This trend,noted last year(and exemplified by NYK Bulk,Oshima Shipbuilding,and Sumitomos collaboration to design a fleet of up to 15 ammonia-powered bulk carriers connected to the Chilean Green Corridors Network)has intensified this year,with several further examples surfacing:9 The Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation conducting a ship-to-ship ammonia transfer pilot in the Pilbara region,on the Australia-East Asia iron ore route Fortescue and COSCO collaborating to explore jointly building and deploying green ammonia-fuelled vessels on the Australia-China iron ore route Hapag Lloyd winning the Zero-Emission Buyers Alliances(ZEMBA)first tender,with plans to operate a biomethane vessel on the Singapore-Rotterdam container route BHP shortlisting companies to build,operate,and supply fuel for an ammonia-powered vessel on the Australia-East Asia iron ore route DFDS exploring grant funding options such as the EU Innovation Fund and the Hydrogen Bank,for support to build and operate up to four ammonia-powered ferries,including between Sweden and Belgium Pilbara Ports initiating zero-emission bunkering plans9 Further examples from the previous edition included:(1)Port of Rotterdam announcing a port dues reduction for container vessels bunkering alternative fuels on its premises as part of ZEMBA;(2)Yara Clean Ammonia and the Pilbara Ports Authority completing a study on the feasibility of clean ammonia bunkering in the Pilbara;(3)DFDS working on the design and approvals for an ammonia-powered roll on/roll-off(ro-ro)vessel;(4)CMA acquiring freight and passenger company La Mridionale with an ambition of using its lines to create green corridors in the Mediterranean Sea.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition19 The Northwest Seaport Alliance,Port of Seattle,and Port of Tacoma initiating programmes to enhance port readiness for alternatively fuelled vessel calls and bunkering in the Puget Sound Wasaline conducting zero-emission pilot voyages on the Vaasa-Ume corridor Fortescue conducting ammonia bunkering and operational trials in SingaporeWhile it is impossible to ascribe this progress to the corridors alone,and some instances probably reflect correlation rather than causation,several of the involved stakeholders attributed their efforts to engagement with green corridors.This reinforces the emergent view of green corridors as vehicles for accelerating the deployment of assets and the associated business models.Notwithstanding this progress,the front-runner initiatives are increasingly hitting a so-called“feasibility wall”.Virtually all feel they can only progress so far before the cost gap inevitably pushes their timeline back or forces a downscaling of ambition.One exception is the Sweden-Belgium corridor,which has managed to push through this wall by committing to deploy two ammonia-powered vessels despite the cost gap.This may not,however,be replicable across the board,due to different regulatory environments and scales.Determining the fuel pathwayConsistent with the green corridor value proposition,the chicken-and-egg problem of enabling investments in the zero-emission supply chain has emerged as a key focus area,with most initiatives either having a dedicated workstream or an indirect lens on the issue.These activities have already yielded initial outputs,including signals around the potential near-term zero-emission fuel demand on the corridors,and,in one case,an alignment on the desired carbon intensity reductions from the fuel used on the corridor.Discussions about structures for aggregating zero-emission fuel demand are shaping up to be the next frontier of these efforts.In some cases,the focus is being placed on connecting multiple corridor efforts into would-be fuel hubs.Others are exploring whether participating ports can play a matchmaking role in bringing together sources of supply and demand for the fuels.10SUPPLY-LEDDEMAND-LEDTHIRD PARTY-LEDOfftake portfolioTime stackingJoint procurementGreen joint ventureZE fuel procurement vehicleZE shipping buyers allianceHydrogen hubMatch-makingZE fuel tradingMarket-makingDemand signal initiativeFigure 10:Number of advanced initiatives considering each of the fuel demand aggregation options identified by the Getting to Zero Coalition10 Matchmaking efforts involve a third party connecting potential buyers and sellers of zero-emission fuel.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition20Some initiatives,often port-led,have placed an emphasis on the technical elements of providing an enabling environment for the fuels,including harmonising new bunkering standards,fuel certification,and bunkering modality and risk assessments.These efforts are usually bilateral,focused on the ports at either end of the corridor route,but sometimes stretch to benefit other green corridors and the broader shipping ecosystem.While these efforts are generally seen as helpful,some front-runners see the issues as“teething problems”.Mobilising customer demandAll the initiatives report engaging cargo owners as part of their activities,suggesting they have recognised the importance of premium customers in realising their objectives.This has taken several different forms,from dialogues and surveys to structured workstreams,and even pilots in the case of the Vaasa-Ume corridor,which ran vessels on biomethane one day a week for one month last year to test whether cargo owners on the route would direct their cargo to these voyages to reduce emissions.The outcomes of this engagement suggest that cargo owners on the corridors will not be able to fully close the cost gap by 2030.In some cases,the willingness of charterers or cargo owners has been found to stretch to a handful of ships,but it is not able to absorb cost beyond this point.This mirrors sentiment in the sector at large,with recent industry-wide surveys revealing that while a relatively high number of cargo owners are willing to pay a premium for green shipping,this willingness is uneven,generally at a small level,and subject to conditions.0102030405060708090100%of respondentsnot willing to pay green premiumpotentially willing to pay green premium in the futurewilling to pay green premium182834135205101520253035400%0-2%2-5%5-10-20 % %of respondentsLevel of green premium the respondents are willing to pay todayBoston Consulting Group Shipping Decarbonisation SurveyGreen Shipping Programme SurveyFigure 11:Results of industry-wide cargo owner green premium surveysSources:2023 survey conducted by the Boston Consulting Group(left)and 2024 survey conducted under the Green Shipping Programme(right)“More than 80%of shipping customers are prepared to pay a premium for green shipping,with the average premium currently at 4%.The projected growth rates fall short of the levels required for significant decarbonization.”“The most important barrier was the availability of green alternatives,followed by regulations facilitating green investments while preserving fair competition.”Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition21In the absence of widespread customer interest,several of the shipowners/operators in the initiatives are stepping up to absorb the cost of a limited number of vessels.Others are exploring innovative ways to leverage the fragmented willingness to pay that does exist.These attempts are reflected in the rise of corridor-adjacent joint ventures and efforts to position corridors as marketable Scope 3 offerings.For example,the Decatrip project on the Stockholm-Turku corridor examined the feasibility of several mechanisms that could enable extra costs to be passed through to customers.This included an option for passengers to pay an extra 4 per trip to offset emissions using biofuel and a certificate system to market green conferencing onboard the vessel.Meanwhile,cargo owner alliances,such as ZEMBA,are advancing adjacent to the corridors.ZEMBAs first tender was notably won by Hapag Lloyd,with a vessel intended to run on the Singapore-Rotterdam route.The bid was independent of the corridor initiative but the overlap between the two is suggestive of the potential to leverage ZEMBA to advance corridor goals.Enabling policy environmentThis year has seen convergence among the most advanced initiatives on the central role of national and regional governments in bridging the fuel cost gap.Cost analyses performed by the initiatives have consistently revealed a large premium for meeting corridor targets.The use of zero-emission fuels,which are expected to be multiple times more expensive than conventional fuel,is identified as the overwhelming driver of this gap.Due to the uncertain outcome from MEPC 83 and similar meetings in 2025,developments at the International Maritime Organization(IMO)have not yet been integrated into most of these analyses,however EU regulations have.They have been found to positively affect the business case for those corridors touching on the EU,albeit not sufficiently to fully close the cost gap.Investment in new dual-fuel ships has generally not been found to be a major roadblock.Green corridors in a changing regulatory landscapeA forthcoming study by UMAS for the Global Maritime Forum examines the business case for green corridors in three shipping segments:ammonia carriers,container shipping,and dry bulk.To understand how future regulation could affect the outlook for green corridors,it compares the cost of establishing corridors with other pathways for meeting a global fuel standard aligned with the IMOs 2023 GHG Strategy targets.1111 Global fuel standard assumed to come into effect in 2027.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition22 152025303540202720282029203020312032203320342035203620372038203920402041204220432044204520462047204820492050Total cost of ownership($m pa)Ammonia dual fuel ship;green shipping corridorAmmonia dual fuel ship;e-ammonia offtake complianceConventional ship;biodiesel complianceAmmonia dual fuel ship;cheapest complianceSwitch from blue ammonia to market price e-ammoniaSwitch from biodiesel to blue ammoniaFigure 12:Total cost of ownership(TCO)for a green shipping corridor versus alternative compliance pathways for potential global fuel standardSource:Building a Business Case for Green Shipping Corridors,UMAS for Global Maritime Forum(forthcoming)In the case of the ammonia carrier,four compliance pathways were assessed:1.The cost of a dual-fuel ammonia gas carrier fully running on e-ammonia(representing the green corridor)2.A conventional gas carrier running on an increasing biodiesel blend3.A dual fuel ammonia gas carrier running on the lowest cost mix of low sulphur fuel oil,biodiesel,blue ammonia,or e-ammonia over time4.A dual-fuel ammonia gas carrier running on just enough e-ammonia to meet compliance over timeThe green corridor was found to face a premium of$64-72m per year during the five years between 2027 and 2031.While this gap narrows over time,the cost of the corridor does not converge with the other pathways until 2046.Although the nature of the mid-term measures at IMO is still to be decided and may not fully match the scenario in the analysis,the study demonstrates the importance of ambitious IMO policy in securing the long-term business case for scalable zero-emission fuels.At the same time,it highlights the magnitude of the challenge in the near term,and urgency of introducing additional measures to close the pre-2030 cost gap.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition23Among the several initiatives that have conducted policy mapping exercises,the dominant perception is that there are currently no fit-for-purpose schemes for closing the fuel cost gap.A partial exception is the EU Innovation Fund,which offers funding for additional capital and operational costs,with dedicated funding for zero-emission shipping.However,initiatives note the Fund has very high barriers to entry,with a 500-page application process and low success rate.Indeed,only a handful of Clydebank Declaration signatory governments have made support of any form available to derisk the realisation of green corridors.One example is the United Kingdom,which has provided 77m through the Zero-Emission Vessels and Infrastructure competition,including a dedicated green corridor theme.At the opposite end of the Atlantic,the Canadian Green Shipping Corridor Programs Clean Ports Stream has offered$127m CAD of funding.Meanwhile,Norway continues to offer relevant support for zero-emission vessel projects through its Enova programme,with,for example,nine hydrogen and six ammonia vessels being supported in its most recent round of funding.However,these programmes are all limited to capital expenditures.COUNTRYCORRIDOR-RELATED FUNDINGAMOUNT AVAILABLEAustraliaR&D$6.7m CanadaR&D,CAPEX$110m DenmarkPre-feasibility studies,feasibility studiesUndisclosedFinlandFeasibility studiesUndisclosedNorwayFeasibility studiesUndisclosedSwedenFeasibility studiesUndisclosedSingaporePre-feasibility studies,R&D$7.7m United KingdomPre-feasibility studies,feasibility studies,CAPEX$249m United StatesPre-feasibility studies$1.5m NetherlandsFeasibility studies$0.6m IrelandFeasibility studies$0.5m Figure 13:Clydebank Declaration signatories that have provided funding related to green corridors,defined as funding that mentions or explicitly targets green corridors(non-exhaustive)Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition24Many of the advanced initiatives have,therefore,placed a focus on developing and making policy asks targeted at the national governments on one or both ends of their route.In several cases,this ask has been codified in a dedicated policy paper.While differing in detail,the efforts are coalescing around the potential of green market-making,demand-side hydrogen incentives,and demand aggregation measures.Consortia are now in discussions with policymakers(and funding schemes)about next steps,either on an ad hoc or more structured basis,with a few corridors establishing public-private programmes to facilitate further dialogue.This engagement has generally been with single governments;few of the initiatives have engaged the governments on both ends of the corridor together at this stage.In general,the initiatives note a gap between their expectations and the willingness of the Clydebank signatory governments to deliver targeted support.Multiple stakeholders reported confusion and frustration about the Clydebank signatory governments role and what their pledge to create an enabling policy environment for the corridors means in practice.In parallel,a gap can be observed between the growing funding for hydrogen and the funds available for green corridors,which,given the ir potential to act as an early source of demand for hydrogen,may be rooted in coordination issues between energy and shipping ministries.Cross-value chain collaborationThe composition of the front-runner initiatives has remained relatively stable,with limited changes to their membership.Exceptions are the Sweden-Belgium green corridor,which expanded to encompass the Port of Antwerp-Bruges,and the Singapore-Rotterdam Green and Digital Shipping Corridor,which added Hapag Lloyd as a fifth liner member,the A*STAR Centre for Maritime Digitalisation,SLNG,and Gate Terminal.In general,the initiatives cover either the full value chain or most of the value chain,indicating limited gaps in stakeholder participation.In a new frontier for green corridors,the Sweden-Belgium and Los Angeles-Shanghai corridors are working on strategies for engaging civil society and local stakeholders on their routes,which may help create community acceptance of new fuels.Engaging existing stakeholders is where initiatives often diverge and have sometimes struggled.Two different governance structures have emerged.Some efforts have the characteristics of projects,with a defined set of participants attempting to jointly deliver investments,while others can be seen as programmes,with a broader set of participants who coordinate activities informally to identify and remove barriers to investments that may be taken independently of the initiative.In most cases,this has not been the product of an active decision but rather reflects the nature of the underlying route.Efforts on smaller-scale of the Clydebank governments have hydrogen funding schemes in place.The United States,Germany,and Japan have announced the most funding.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition25routes,which have fewer shipping companies operating on them,may naturally coalesce into a project,while large-scale routes,which are an ecosystem of different shipping companies,see a more natural niche for pre-commercial collaboration.While there is no clear evidence of differences in real-world deployment readiness between project and programme-based corridors at this point,the two modes of governance have affected their approaches to the Preparation stage.In general terms,the project-based initiatives,with a non-competitive consortium and high specificity,have been able to navigate this stage more easily.The narrower scope of these efforts has allowed for a calculation of the green premium and the funding needed for a corridor of this type and size.In contrast,representatives of programmatic corridors report taking several months to outline work areas and witnessing a decrease in the level of participation once defined.Indeed,a growing concern among these initiatives is an unwillingness to share among partners,with frustration about the disconnect between the inside-corridor discussion and the outside-corridor corporate action.Several strategies have been attempted to improve the connection,including bringing external presenters to talk about latest developments and doing more regular one-on-one meetings with partners.At the same time,these corridors have seen more progress in the areas of policy engagement and commercial innovation.Knowledge development and exchangeThe increasing maturity of the wider zero-emission shipping landscape and foregrounding of programme governance models has resulted in an increased focus on“out-in”knowledge sharing bringing knowledge into the corridors,such as findings from external studies and projects.This has taken place alongside continued“in-out”knowledge sharing,with the corridors extending their learnings to the wider shipping community.For some,this has involved publishing key conclusions from their working groups,while others have provided input to IMO regulatory development.For example,the Singapore and Rotterdam ammonia working group is developing a framework to assess the life cycle greenhouse gas intensity of green ammonia fuel.This is intended to support ongoing efforts by the IMO to develop the Life Cycle GHG Assessment framework and guidelines for alternative marine fuels.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition26Maybe the most relevant development is the perceived dip in knowledge sharing between the advanced initiatives.Despite grappling with similar issues,common nondisclosure agreements(established to support internal freedom of sharing)and a lack of platforms that encompass the advanced initiatives appear to be narrowing the scope of possibilities.Global Centre for Maritime Decarbonisation ammonia bunkering studies Global Maritime Forum zero-emission fuel demand aggregation insights briefs H2Global Foundation engagement Green Shipping Programme willingness to pay survey results Nordic Roadmap input to IMO ammonia and hydrogen standards Singapore-Rotterdam Green and Digital Shipping Corridor ammonia working group input to IMO LCAOUT-ININ-OUTACROSS Getting to Zero Coalition Green Corridors Advisory Group C40 Green Shipping Corridor Leaders Summit Maersk Mc-Kinney Moller Center methodologiesFigure 14:Examples of bringing knowledge into the corridors(out-in knowledge sharing),corridors sharing learnings with the wider shipping community(in-out),and knowledge exchange across the initiatives.Box colours indicate our evaluation of the trajectory;green positive,yellow mixed,red negative.Finally,new topics are emerging on the green corridor agenda that may merit action by knowledge institutions.With increased geographic diversity of the global portfolio,and shippings just and equitable transition high on the agenda,special challenges around projects in the Global South are becoming apparent.These include a higher cost of capital,an inability to compete with subsidies in the North,geographic remoteness and the associated trade cost sensitivity,water stress,and competition for resources with domestic applications.Despite these challenges,it is paramount that the transition not only taking place in rich countries,but embraces all regions,ensuring sustainable decarbonisation of the global maritime industry.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition27Conclusions and recommendationsLast years report stated that“If green corridors are to hit their targets and fulfil their function,2024 must be a breakthrough year in which front-running initiatives begin to execute their plans and others are primed to quickly follow.”In many regards,2024 has lived up to this challenge,with several key breakthroughs among the most advanced initiatives and growing maturity within the wider movement.At the same time,remaining bottlenecks are starting to become existential barriers,requiring a concerted and urgent effort.Looking ahead,as the demands of near-term compliance become more pressing and company bandwidths tighten,it is essential that green corridors remain true frontrunners.Critically,the initiatives must not get locked into a waiting posture in advance of the adoption of the IMO measures in early 2025,with green corridors remaining needed to demonstrate and scale solutions that will enable the compliance to come.To ensure progress in this context,this report offers five recommendations:1.Take advantage of corridors as protected spaces for exploring innovative commercial arrangementsGiven the challenging economics of zero-emission solutions,green corridor initiatives must put business-as-usual thinking aside and prioritise commercial innovation.This includes new operational models,contracts,and business arrangements that spread costs,risks,and rewards,and collaborative mechanisms to aggregate demand and unlock supply chain investments.Many options are available in these areas,with the best choices likely to differ for different corridors.An overview of some of these options is provided below.Introduced in last years report,it has been updated to reflect the latest areas of discussion in the front-running initiatives:Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition28COMMERCIAL CHALLENGE AREACOMMERCIAL INNOVATION OPPORTUNITIESCHARTERING AND CARGO Aggregation of demand for and forward procurement of zero-emission shipping services by cargo owners,e.g.,through initiatives like ZEMBA Joint ventures between corridor participants to share risks and rewards in zero-emission investments Positioning green corridor action as a voluntary zero-emission shipping offering Employing cargo logistics optimisation and portfolios of small-scale contracts of affreightment to lower the threshold for commitment by charterers Aligning Incoterms and credit for emissions reductions with willingness to payFUEL PURCHASING Forming zero-emission vessel pools or a dedicated fuel procurement vehicle to jointly purchase zero-emission fuel Governments and/or ports connecting buyers and sellers of zero-emission fuel,including across land-based sectors and different shipping segments Trading companies and governments acting as intermediaries in buying and reselling zero-emission fuel Direct investment in fuel production or offtake structuring to stimulate the availability and secure access to fuelsFigure 15:Commercial innovation opportunities identified by the advanced initiativesThe advanced initiatives are now in the early stages of this process,and it will be essential that the rest follow suit.All initiatives should take advantage of the protected space offered by green corridors to explore and test the most interesting options openly,ready for either implementation or sharing the reasons for failure.As the IMO adopts its mid-term measures,this can help the involved companies pre-empt and/or go beyond compliance with current and future regulations.Concerns that commercial innovation,particularly collaboration among competitors,violates competition law are often based on perceptions rather than legal assessments.Engaging lawyers early on may help clarify the true boundaries and provide the platform necessary for innovation.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition292.Adopt a more flexible,programmatic approach to governance to scale purchasing and investments Green corridors are well-suited to enable the early deployment of zero-emission assets due to their potential to provide scale and coordination,unlock commercial innovation and public-private collaboration,and maximise the likelihood of policy incentives.There is reason to believe that more flexible,programmatic approaches may ultimately prove more effective in realising that potential.By allowing for wider participation and a variety of collaborative mechanisms in fuel purchasing and chartering,these approaches may be better equipped to handle experimentation,achieve scale,and share risks broadly.Indeed,it is possible that limited fuel demand may eventually force project-based initiatives to attract new stakeholders and adopt a more layered approach to participation.While programmatic approaches are likely to present immediate trade-offs in the quality of engagement and managing commercial sensitivities,they may be better positioned overall,provided these challenges are suitably navigated.3.National and regional governments should provide clear strategies and take urgent action on the fuel cost gapTo manage the growing expectation gap with the industry,and address calls for clarity,governments should lay out strategies for how they plan to support the realisation of green corridors and the scope of their commitments under the Clydebank Declaration.In particular,lessons from the front-runners clearly show that a lack of government support to close the cost gap for scalable zero-emission fuels is the main limiting factor to further progress.This means timely,accessible public support for funding the fuel cost gap must be the immediate priority for governments committed to making green corridors a success.To ease the administrative burden and accelerate timelines,it may make sense to focus on existing measures.In this regard,several advanced initiatives have demonstrated interest in green market-makers.The flagship scheme in the hydrogen space is H2Global;as an auction platform with a global reach,and one that is built to enable bilateral commitments from multiple governments,it fits green corridors well both conceptually and in terms of scale.As such,it provides a mechanism that could be ideally suited to make such funding available.Providing this support be it through H2Global or another means-will require greater coordination both domestically and internationally.Domestically,priority should be given to dialogue with the energy ministries,which have the greater means and,arguably,incentives to support the corridors.Internationally,bilateral policy action should be prioritised to reduce the cost burden of incentives on individual governments.Thus,governments should collaborate across energy,transportation,and foreign ministries to explore how this can be done.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition30Indeed,there is an immediate opportunity around the front-running corridors.These corridors alone could require over 2 million tonnes of hydrogen-based fuel per year by 2030 to meet their goals.The cost gap for this fuel estimated to be around$2 billion per year.12 However,with IMO and EU policy intensifying and green corridors potential to share costs and risks,the true gap should be substantially smaller.For comparison,a recent estimate suggests that meeting EU and UK ambitions in the aviation sector would require around 660kt of e-SAF by 2030,at an annual cost gap of$3 to 5 billion.These initiatives centre on ten countries,six of which have committed funding for existing H2Global auction windows or hydrogen demand incentives.13 By coming together and expanding their action to offer shipping auctions,these governments could create a watershed moment not only for green corridors but shipping decarbonisation more broadly.COUNTRYLINK TO H2GLOBALOTHER H2 SUPPORTAustraliaFunding commitmentsYesNetherlandsFunding commitmentsYesChileOutreachYesJapanOutreachYesRepublic of KoreaOutreachYesBelgiumActive discussionsN/AUnited StatesOutreachYesSwedenN/AN/AChinaN/AN/ASingaporeN/AN/AFigure 16:Status of H2Global engagement and allocated hydrogen funding among the countries hosting advanced corridor initiativesTo support this process,green corridor initiatives will need to provide clear policy asks that link to specific national priorities,including those of the energy departments,and offer evidence-based opportunity narratives.12 Global Maritime Forum estimates.Fuel demand is based on initiative 2030 targets,where available.Where fuel demand is not stated in initiative targets,it is extrapolated using IMO 4th Greenhouse Gas Study fuel consumption assumptions.Where 2030 targets are not available,expected dual-fuel vessel replacements on the route are used.Cost gap is indicative only.Estimated based on VLSFO price of$600 per tonne,delivered green ammonia costs of$1000 per tonne,and delivered green methanol costs of$1200 per tonne.The impacts of policy and industry cost sharing are not included.13 Includes the Netherlands which has allocated$330 million and Australia which has allocated$220m to H2Global auctions to-date.In both cases,this has been matched by funding from the German government.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition314.Explore what policies and sources of finance can support the realisation of green corridors-and zero-emission fuel supply chains-in the Global SouthCorridors based in the Global South,as well as those that intend to import fuel from the South,have unique challenges that will need to be addressed in a bespoke fashion.They include a higher cost of capital,scarcity of bankable offtakes,and greater sensitivity to the design of the IMO mid-term measures,with equity considerations having a direct effect on initiatives economics.With less capacity for national government incentives,these corridors will need to develop tailored policy approaches and leverage additional sources of finance to enable investments.Engaging multilateral development banks and the global climate finance community could be a positive first step in this direction.For this engagement to be effective,demonstrating how decarbonising shipping can contribute to the economic development of the geography in question is required,as well as investments in training and reskilling of the workforce.5.Maximise the potential of the global green corridor portfolio by rallying behind the existing initiatives and leveraging the growing body of best practicesThe steadily growing number of green corridor initiatives shows that interest in establishing new green corridors has not yet been exhausted.Indeed,an analysis of the global portfolio reveals a few remaining gaps in geographic coverage.With Indias fuel production potential,favourable policy landscape,and ambitions across both the energy and shipbuilding spaces,the countrys absence from the global green corridor map is striking.In turn,while already part of the movement,Chinas potential for both inland shipping decarbonisation and large-scale trade flows signifies an opportunity to dial up the countrys green corridor activity.Yet,with all continents and most Clydebank signatories covered,and given limited public and private resources and narrowing timelines,rallying behind the existing initiatives should be a greater priority overall.Initiatives should build on the now substantial best practices generated within the movement.Early-stage green corridors should leverage learnings from the more advanced ones(see Appendix).This should be complemented by a ramp-up in information sharing and a renewed emphasis on publishing the status,outputs,and findings of the individual corridors to support momentum.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition32Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition33Appendix:Best practices for early-stage initiatives Involve key stakeholders early in the processBuilding a core of critical stakeholders within a green corridor initiative ensures a foundation for genuine action.Ambitious vessel owners and operators are particularly crucial;without their active commitment in the form of time,resources,and direction it is not possible for the corridor to progress.This is especially relevant for port-led and,to some extent,government-led initiatives,where bilateral memoranda of understanding provide an expedient way to engage with green corridors.In their case,onboarding ambitious vessel owners or operators first may save time and reduce the risk of the initiative stalling later.Meanwhile,active participation from fuel producers/suppliers and cargo owners grows in importance as initiatives mature.Indirect engagement through existing networks marks a good first step to both familiarise these actors with the concept of green corridors and gather initial information related to these parts of the value chain.However,by the Advanced Exploration phase,a structure to facilitate deeper engagement by these stakeholders is generally needed.Focus on the technology transitionWhile reducing the sectors emissions is the end goal of shipping decarbonisation,the logic of green corridors and the goal to have at least 5%zero-emission fuel use by 2030 is to help the industry reach a tipping point that will allow it to enter a period of rapid diffusion of zero-emission technologies after 2030.This makes emissions reductions a result of green corridors,rather than their main objective.A one-sided focus on emissions reduction is likely to lead to the prioritisation of low-hanging fruit and,therefore,fail to deliver the technologies needed for the broader transition.While setting goals that stretch beyond 2030 and consider emissions reductions can be important for making the economic case and attracting stakeholders,setting goals related to the operation of zero-emission vessels in the period to 2030 is recommended.This could include targets for vessel numbers,fuel amounts,and intermediate milestones related to the readiness level of infrastructure and technology.These targets are more valuable if they are an output of analysis and discussion as a corridor progresses,rather than pre-defined at its outset.Think critically about which route(s)to pursueThe location of the existing green corridors has in many cases been determined organically,based on stakeholder interest.While this has helped the movement gain a critical mass,a more robust approach to deciding which route(s)to focus on can pay dividends later in a corridors development.In general,a favourable route should significantly contribute to global shippings energy transition,while still being comparatively feasible from an implementation standpoint and within a reasonable timeframe.This makes prioritising routes a multicriteria decision problem,which can be assessed through a combination of qualitative and quantitative indicators,such as:Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition34Figure 17:Suggested green corridor prioritisation criteriaStrive for specificity on fuelAlthough the overall diversity of fuels in the global green corridor portfolio is positive,at the level of individual corridors,decisiveness on fuels has been shown to separate successful initiatives from stalling ones.As such,initiatives should strive to identify and focus on a specific fuel pathway.The two approaches available multi-and mono-fuel have their distinctive advantages and disadvantages.The choice of which approach to adopt should,therefore,be based on a careful examination of the context and a thorough consideration of the trade-offs,which may include:IMPACTCARBON INTENSITYCargo volume on the route,expected future growth in the sector(s),energy demand on the routeCarbon intensity and current emissions on the routeAvailability and cost of the supply of zero-emission fuel on the routeTraded goods,relative price increase and scope 3 importance within the sectorAge of the fleet;Number of ports of call and cargo owners;RegularityAlignment of national policies of the participating countries Ease of the stakeholder environment on the routeSCALEFUEL POTENTIALTYPE OF CARGOOTHER ROUTE CHARACTERISTICSPOLICIESSTAKEHOLDERSFEASIBILITYMore manageable in development and operation;likely to move fasterMay aggregate higher levels of demand for each fuel and achieve cost advantagesMay be easier to design a specific and clear policy ask -May preclude the involvement of important stakeholdersMay increase immediate technology and operational riskPolicy advocacy may be harder due to policymakers preference for technology neutralityMay enable earlier impact,depending on the combination of zero-emission fuel pathwaysMay help hedge immediate technology and operational riskPolicy ask is in line with policymakers preference for technology neutrality -Resource intensiveMay fragment first-mover fuel demandPolicy ask may be more complex Unlikely to be best way to hedge technology and operational risks at fleet levelLikely to be impractical on many smaller routesPROSMONO-FUELMULTI-FUELCONSFigure 18:Example pros and cons associated with mono-fuel and multi-fuel strategies in green corridors Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition35In the Initiation and Early Exploration phases,considering multiple fuel options will be beneficial in many cases.From the Advanced Exploration phase,however,a mono-fuel approach will generally offer more advantages,support more targeted efforts,reduce complexity,and strengthen the investment case for fuel production and infrastructure.The involved fuel buyers/users should have the greatest influence over this decision.This is especially important in port-led initiatives,where the needs of those who will make the largest commercial decisions related to fuels need to be considered alongside port-centric activities and port-to-port collaboration.The availability,affordability,and acceptability of the different fuels on the specific route in question should also be given due consideration,as some routes will provide comparatively better conditions for early demonstration and scaling of certain fuels than others.Appropriate governance structures can accelerate progressAs cross-sectoral,multi-stakeholder initiatives,green corridors are complex,and governance issues have stalled progress in many cases.Good corridor governance can be thought of as the ability to piece individual stakeholder activities together into a whole that is greater than the sum of its parts.In the early phases of development,these activities will define the corridor opportunity.As the initiative matures,they generate implementation plans.The task is to find an effective way to do so that responds to their individual circumstances.In general,an emphasis should be placed on:Stakeholder alignment:Have a clear understanding of the purpose of the corridor and what it is trying to achieve from the start.Participation in the initiative should be predicated on sharing this vision;this is generally more important than breadth of representation.Co-creation and co-ownership:Spend the time required to build consensus and commitment.Regular,open workshops between partners and participatory/stakeholder-led planning are among best practices.The engagement of senior executives and organisational decision-makers is often beneficial for similar reasons.Multi-level participation:While some actions and decisions require a whole green corridor initiative,many do not.To help manage complexity without sacrificing impact,a multi-level governance approach can be considered.This could include a strategic level,in which required actions are defined and advocacy takes place,and a working level made up of smaller groups that advance specific pieces of research and/or actions.Annual Progress Report on Green Shipping Corridors|2024 edition36Prioritise learning by doing rather than standardised templates for actionSupport frameworks for different aspects of green corridor development have been in high demand and have proliferated in line with the growth of the movement.In practice,many aspects of green corridor development are too context-specific to be able to fully rely on standardised methodologies.Many challenges can be traced to the specificities of the involved segments,included geographies,and sometimes all the way down to the individual organisations.Against this background,initiatives should be prepared to lean more towards learning by doing rather than relying on a standardised path.Sharing best practices and discussing challenges is a good way to make sure an initiative gains the necessary confidence and knowledge to progress while tailoring its approach to its unique situation.Against this background,initiatives should be prepared to lean more towards learning by doing rather than relying on a standardised path.Sharing best practices and discussing challenges is a good way to make sure an initiative gains the necessary confidence and knowledge to progress while tailoring its approach to its unique situation.About the Global Maritime ForumThe Global Maritime Forum is an international not-for-profit organisation committed to shaping the future of global seaborne trade.It works by bringing together visionary leaders and experts who,through collaboration and collective action,strive to increase sustainable long-term economic development and human well-being.Established in 2017,the Global Maritime Forum is funded through a combination of grants and partner contributions.It operates independently of any outside influence and does not support individual technologies or companies.Most of its roughly 45-person staff is based in the organisations headquarters in Copenhagen,Denmark.About the Getting to Zero CoalitionThe Getting to Zero Coalition is a powerful alliance of more than 200 organisations(including over 180 private companies)within the maritime,energy,infrastructure,and finance sectors.The Coalition is committed to getting commercially viable zero-emission vessels powered by zero-emission fuels into operation by 2030.Hitting this milestone is essential if we are to achieve maritime shippings moon-shot ambition of full decarbonisation by 2050.
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Oliver Wyman 1 Oliver Wyman 2 Oliver Wyman 3 FOREWORD Oliver Wymans Global Fleet and MRO Market For.
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