CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2018 1 Vehicle Mass Reduction Roadmap Study 2025-2035 Carla Bailo Shashank Modi Michael Schultz Terni Fiorelli Brett Smith Nicklaus Snell November 2020 CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 2 Table of Contents Table of Contents.2 Acknowledgments.4 Background and Objective.6 Research Approach.7 Estimating Baseline Material Technology.7 Automaker Interview Summary.10 Opportunities for Steel.13 Opportunities for Aluminum.14 Opportunities for Polymer Composites.15 Opportunities for Magnesium.16 Material Mass Reduction Percentages used in this Study.17 Secondary Mass Reduction.17 Understanding the Cost of Lightweighting.18 Cost of Materials and Manufacturing.18 Factors Affecting Automaker Lightweighting Targets.25 Method for Estimating Material Distribution.26 Material Roadmap and Incremental Cost($/kg)Unibody Vehicles.28 Material Roadmap and Incremental Cost($/kg)Body-on-Frame Vehicles.33 Real-World Challenges.37 Bibliography.39 Appendix A:Curb Weight and Footprint Comparison.43 CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 3 List of Figures Figure 1:Generic Mass-Reduction Cost Curve.18 Figure 2:Hot-Rolled Steel Price Trend.19 Figure 3:Aluminum Price Trend.20 Figure 4:Factors affecting CF and CFRP Cost or Price.21 Figure 5:2020 Baseline vehicle material distribution-Unibody.27 Figure 6:2020 Baseline vehicle material distribution-Body-on-Frame.27 Figure 7:Material Penetration for each Scenario-Unibody Vehicles.29 Figure 8:Technology Pathway and Relative Cost for Unibody Cars and SUVs.31 Figure 9:Technology Pathway and Relative Cost for Body-on-Frame Vehicles.36 List of Tables Table 1:Vehicles studied for baseline material analysis.7 Table 2:Materials in MY2020 versus MY2016.8 Table 3:Curb weight and Footprint Comparison:current model year 2020 vs previous model year 2016 9 Table 4:Drivers that will govern the importance of ligthweighting in the 2025-2035 timeframe.10 Table 5:Mass Reduction Potential of Materials.17 Table 6:Mass Reduction percentages of each material used for this project.17 Table 7:High and Low-Cost Scenarios for Materials 2025-2035.23 Table 8:Manufacturing cost and learning.24 Table 9:Manufacturing Cost with Learning($/kg)for key years.24 Table 10:LOW Total Cost$/kg range(material processing).24 Table 11:HIGH Total Cost$/kg range(material processing).25 Table 12:High and Low Definitions for Selected Variables.26 Table 13:Expected Variable Value for Select Years.26 Table 14:Scenarios for Unibody Vehicles.28 Table 15:Cost and Mass Reduction Analysis for Unibody Vehicle Scenarios.30 Table 16:Scenarios for Body-on-Frame vehicles.33 Table 17:Cost and Mass Reduction Analysis for Body-on-Frame Vehicle Scenarios.35 CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 4 Glossary Steel Grades Category Acronym Description Ultimate Tensile Strength(MPa)Range Low Strength(LSS)Mild Mild Steel Less than 270 High Strength Steels(HSS)IF Intersitial Free 410-420 BH Bake Hardenable 340-400 HSLA High-Strength Low Alloy 450-780 Advanced High Strength Steels(AHSS)DP Dual Phase 440-1270 FB Ferritic-bainitic(SF-stretch flangeable)450-600 CP Complex Phase 800-1470 MS Martensitic 1200-1500 Ultra High Strength Steels(UHSS)TRIP Transformation-induced plasticity 600-980 HF Hot-formed(boron)480-1900 TWIP Twinning-induced plasticity 900-1200 Aluminum Grades Category Series Acronym Commercially Pure Aluminum 1xxx Al Heat-Treatable Alloys 2xxx,6xxx,7xxx Al Non Heat-Treatable Alloys 3xxx,4xxx,5xxx Al CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 5 Acknowledgments The authors of this report thank the industry experts from various companies that provided data for this research.Our special thanks to the National Academies of Sciences,Engineering,and Medicine(NASEM)Committee to entrust CAR to conduct this research.Companies which contributed data to this study include:American Chemistry Council American Iron and Steel Institute ArcelorMittal Automotive Aluminum Advisors BASF Ducker Worldwide Fiat Chrysler Automobiles Ford Motor Company General Motors Hexion Nissan Novelis The Aluminum Association U.S.Steel Sincerely Bailo,Modi,Schultz,Fiorelli,Smith,Snell For citations and reference to this publication,please use the following:Bailo,C.,Modi,S.,Schultz,M.,Fiorelli,T.,Smith,B.,&Snell,N.(2020).(publication).Vehicle Mass Reduction Roadmap Study 2025-2035.Ann Arbor,MI:Center for Automotive Research.3005 Boardwalk,Suite 200 Ann Arbor,MI 48108 www.cargroup.org CARCAR s mission is to conduct independent s mission is to conduct independent r research and analysis to educate,inform and advise esearch and analysis to educate,inform and advise stakeholders,stakeholders,policymakerspolicymakers,and the general public on critical issues facing the automotive,and the general public on critical issues facing the automotive industry,and the industryindustry,and the industry s impact on the U.S.economy and society.s impact on the U.S.economy and society.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 6 Background and Objective The National Academies of Sciences,Engineering,and Medicine(NASEM)Committee on Assessment of Technologies for Improving Fuel Economy of Light-Duty Vehicles,Phase 3 is tasked by The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration(NHTSA)with providing estimates of the potential cost,fuel economy improvements,and barriers to deployment of technologies for improving fuel economy in 2025-2035 light-duty vehicles.The National Academies Committee is currently investigating the state of vehicle mass reduction technology readiness and the impact of mass reduction on fuel economy while maintaining vehicle performance and safety requirements.The reduction of in-use GHG emissions from light-duty passenger vehicles presents a vital opportunity to minimize motor vehicles environmental impact.Vehicle mass reduction is one pathway to reduce vehicle emissions while improving performance.Considerable resources have been expended by the regulators trying to estimate the lowest cost feasible for the mass reduction of light-duty vehicles.Detailed teardown and cost studies performed by reputable engineering firms have aggressively approached lightweighting on a handful of vehicles,producing several innovative ideas.However,automakers respond by pointing out that there are risks,business constraints,and customer requirements that these studies do not address.Further,extrapolating the results from one or a few teardown studies to over 1,000 vehicle models for sale in the U.S.market is inappropriate.The task of assessing mass reduction trends is critical and challenging.The Center for Automotive Research(CAR)was hired under contract by NASEM to study vehicle mass reduction for model years 2025-2035.Over the past decade,CAR has been a leader in light-duty vehicle mass reduction research.CAR has done work on assessing the real-world barriers to implementing mass reduction technologies(J.Baron,2016).CAR also worked with nine global vehicle manufacturers to examine material trends over the next decade(Baron&Modi,2016).The project still stands as one of the most cooperative and thorough analyses done to date.CAR collected data on 42 vehicles from 4 segments representing 50 percent of the U.S.light-duty fleet.Most recently,CAR has published a Materials and Manufacturing Technology Roadmap(Modi&Vadhavkar,2019)that examined the likely penetration of materials for the automotive body-in-white.The objective of this Study is as below:Describe the available opportunities for shifts in vehicle body-in-white and closure material application in vehicle model years(MY)2025-2035.Estimate mass-reduction opportunity by each segment in MY2025,MY2030,MY2035,keeping in mind technology readiness,automaker development plans,SME opinion,and CAFE/GHG regulations.Based on mass reduction opportunities,create scenarios for possible material penetration by each vehicle type.Use the scenarios to estimate the incremental costs for mass reduction opportunities.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 7 Research Approach The projects research relies on CAR material and manufacturing roadmaps,publications by other organizations,and information collected through several automaker and supplier interviews.Data sources include,but are not limited to:Vehicle repair manuals Conference presentations NHTSA and EPA sponsored vehicle lighweighting studies SAFE Rule:Final Regulatory Impact Analysis Automaker and supplier interviews The research focuses on vehicle body-in-white and closures for primary mass reduction opportunities.Powertrain mass-reduction is considered only for calculating mass decompounding opportunities.The baseline for this project is the U.S.MY2020 light-duty vehicle fleet.Estimating Baseline Material Technology The baseline model year for this research is 2020.There are hundreds of different vehicles(nameplates)in the U.S.fleet.Studying the material technology of every vehicle is not practical.Moreover,material information is not readily available in public databases.Therefore,CAR researchers decided to investigate the top-selling vehicles in the U.S.fleet.Table 1 lists the vehicles studied to establish the baseline material technology.The segments are the same as defined by NHTSA.1 These 33 vehicles represent greater than 50 percent of the U.S.vehicle sales in 2019.This reports refer to these vehicles as the baseline fleet.Table 1:Vehicles studied for baseline material analysis Small Car Mid-Size Car Small SUV Mid-Size SUV Pickup Honda Civic Honda Accord Hyundai Elantra Nissan Altima Nissan Sentra Toyota Camry Toyota Corolla Ford Fusion Tesla Model 3 Jeep Wrangler Chevy Equinox Ford Escape Edge CR-V Tucson Cherokee Compass CX-5 Rogue Outback Forester Rav4 Traverse Pacifica Explorer Pilot Grand Cherokee Highlander Silverado Ram Pickup F Series Sierra Tacoma 1 NHTSA further categorizes vehicles in mass market and performance for each segment.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 8 Analysis of the baseline fleet(the 33 vehicles)revealed that 73 percent of the vehicles were redesigned(generation change)after MY2016.According to vehicle production forecasts by IHS Markit Inc.,40 percent of the baseline fleet vehicles are expected to be redesigned by MY2025.CAR researchers referred to the vehicle repair manuals to study the materials used in the baseline fleet.The repair manuals are published for the collision repair shops to inform them about the vehicles materials used in the critical structural components.Most repair manuals contain information on safety-critical body-in-white(BIW)and closure parts.In a 2016 CAR study(Baron&Modi,2016),the researchers identified key components essential to understand mass-reduction(M.R.)initiatives.The research team studied the materials used in these components for the baseline fleet vehicles(using repair manuals).Table 2 shows the materials used in the MY2020 baseline fleet versus the materials identified for the same components for the five percent mass-reduction level in the 2016 CAR study.2 Table 2:Materials in MY2020 versus MY2016 Components MY2020 baseline fleet 2016 study:5%M.R.level Fender BH Steel and Aluminum(50:50)HSS/BH Steel A-pillar UHSS 1500 Hot Formed UHSS HF Steel Floor HSS 440-590 with UHSS Reinforce.Mild with AHSS Front Bumper Structure Mostly Aluminum with some Steel Aluminum Roof Panel Mild/B.H.Steel Mild Steel Door Outer LSS And Aluminum B.H.Steel and Aluminum Hood 95%Aluminum Aluminum Decklid LSS,Al,Mag,Comp.B.H.Steel and Aluminum Engine Cradle/Front frame LSS 400-600 HSLA Steering Knuckle HSS 400-500 And Aluminum Aluminum IP Beam HSS And Two Magnesium AHSS Source:CAR Research,Vehicle repair manuals Material analysis suggests that the MY2020 fleet has advanced material technologies that should result in around five percent lighter curb weight than the MY2016 baseline.However,this does not tell the entire story.CAR researchers compared the actual curb weights and footprints of the MY2020 to the MY2016 vehicles(see Appendix A).As shown in Table 3,the finding confirms that the real world curb weight reduction is much lower than five percent.Also,the average footprint has increased for all vehicle segments.2 The 2016 study asked automakers the material roadmap(for key components)for 5%,10%,and 15%target curb weight reduction over the 2016 fleet.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 9 Table 3:Curb weight and Footprint Comparison:current model year 2020 vs previous model year 20163 SmallCar SmallSUV MidSUV Pickup Avg.Curb Weight Decrease 0%2%1%4%Avg.Footprint Increase 2%1%4%6%Unibody Body on Frame Avg.Curb Weight Decrease 1%3%Avg.Footprint Increase 2%6%Source:CAR Research The real-world mass reduction achievements do NOT match the mass reduction potential of the material technologies already implemented in the baseline MY2020 fleet.CAR research found two primary reasons for this discrepancy:Q1.Mass Add-Back:automakers often need to add weight to improve vehicles safety,performance,and customer expectations.Mass for safety is required for crashworthiness and electronic devices such as cameras,sensors,computers,etc.Mass for performance might be added for attributes such as improvements in stiffness,the quietness of the ride,lowering the center of gravity,equalizing the load distribution,unsprung mass reduction,etc.Automakers also add mass to satisfy customer demand for better comfort.In the 2016 CAR study,automakers indicated that the total mass add-back(safety plus performance)expected for cars today averaged 4.9 percent for cars and 4.6 percent for light-duty trucks.Q2.Footprint Increase:vehicles,in general,have increased in size because of customer demands.The baseline fleet has a 2-6 percent larger footprint than the MY2016 fleet.This increase takes away the real-world curb weight reduction.Therefore,we conclude that the MY2020 baseline fleet has advanced material technology but is not significantly lighter than the MY2016 fleet.3 Analysis includes only the top selling baseline fleet vehicles(33 nameplates).Analysis of the entire US fleet might produce different results.MidCar segment has only two vehicles in top selling 1)Ford Fusion 2)Tesla Model 3.Ford Fusion footprint increased by 6%and mass increased by 4%.Tesla Model 3 has no previous generation for comparison.To avoid model year and production year confusion,the comparisons were made for two model years before and after the latest generation change model year.For example,Ford F150 redesign in MY2015 MR=(MY2013 CW)(MY2017 CW),MR is positive if the vehicle got lighter.Jeep Cherokee redesign in MY2020 Delta footprint=(MY2020 CW)(MY2018 CW)since 2022 does not exist)Footprint is positive if the vehicle got bigger.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 10 Automaker Interview Summary CAR researchers interviewed several automakers to understand future mass-reduction opportunities.Below are the questions and key points from the conversations.Q1.Is lightweighting an important decision factor for material selection in MY2025-2035 vehicles?What factors will affect its increase or decrease in importance?Almost all interviewees said lightweighting would be an essential factor for material selection in MY2025-2035 vehicles.However,the importance will depend on multiple variables such as cost,system integration,supply base/chain,sustainability,vehicle program targets and timing,and production volume.Vehicle performance requirements must be met regardless of lightweighting importance.Table 4 lists positive,negative,and uncertain drivers that will govern lightweightings importance in the 2025-2035 timeframe.Table 4:Drivers that will govern the importance of ligthweighting in the 2025-2035 timeframe Source:CAR Research Q2.Are the criteria for lightweighting different for battery electric vehicles than internal combustion vehicles?Will increases in energy density and battery cost reduction alter the selection criterion for lightweighting of the electric vehicles?Most respondents said that the primary purpose of mass-reduction for fossil fuel vehicles is controlling fuel economy and greenhouse gas emissions.For electric vehicles,the primary goal is to increase the range.However,the material strategies for lightweighting may not differ much for BEVs versus ICE once batteries are lightweight and inexpensive.Both battery energy density and battery costs are critical decision factors in the mass-reduction targets and materials qualification criterias to achieve the targets.Energy density,if it drives a lighter battery pack(as opposed to,for example,driving up consumer range expectations),will lower the lightweighting targets.Also,as the cost of battery storage decreases,the value of lightweighting decreases because the automakers can put a less expensive,bigger battery to match the range,compared to more expensive lightweighting.An opposing argument is that lower battery costs may free up material cost budgets to spend on lightweighting.However,respondents indicate that the former scenario is more likely than the latter.Thus,CAR researchers assume that higher battery energy density Positive DriversIncrease in on-board technology(customer facing,sensors,control modules,etc.)Increase of vehicle electrificationVehicle redesign cyclesAutomaker sustainability targetsImprovements in dissimilar material joiningNegative DriversSignificant increase in battery energy density and reduction in battery costSignificant improvements in powertrain technology for conventional ICEInvestments shifting towards ADASUncertainCAFE and GHG regulationsA potential shift in the regulatory narrative towards full life vehicle emissions CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 11 and lower battery cost will lower lightweighting targets and automakers appetite to pay for material technology for this analysis.Q3.What are the critical material and manufacturing technologies on which the committee should focus its attention for MY2025-2035?Comment on cost,supply chain,design optimization,capital investment,after-sales service,etc.An overwhelming response to this question was that the committee should focus on low cost,high volume material,and manufacturing technologies.The primary reason for such a response is that the automotive industry is very cost-sensitive and produces large volumes of vehicles.As automakers are stressed to develop many new technologies based on global demand,there are limited resources to develop unless the production volume is large.New-age technologies frequently mentioned in the interviews include:Materials Systems:novel low-cost,high-performance composite sandwich construction with honeycomb cores,next-generation low-cost carbon fibers,7xxx series aluminum,gen-3 steels,graphene,and nano-based composites.Manufacturing:significantly lower-cost high-volume fully-automated polymeric composite manufacturing methods(e.g.,HP-RTM,Spray Transfer Molding(STM),straight and curved pultrusion,toolless manufacturing,and high-volume additive manufacturing.Enablers:multi-material(dissimilar material)joining for assembly and disassembly,and predictive computational and design optimization tools.CAR research found ongoing research and development efforts in the technologies mentioned above.The timeline for high-volume commercial production varies significantly by technology,and the uncertainty is high.Since most automakers are global companies with standard vehicle platforms that share parts,the supply chain is critical in the material selection decision process.Experts admitted that the supply base is limited for carbon fiber and natural fibers.Q4.How important is sustainability in material qualification?What role does life cycle assessment(LCA)play in material qualification?All automakers and suppliers said that sustainability is becoming increasingly important in their companies.Many automakers have specific sustainability goals,the progress of which they report annually to the investors.Suppliers are getting a greater push from the automakers to have a more sustainable supply chain.Life cycle analysis(LCA)was also frequently mentioned in the interviews.LCA is an important tool for selecting sustainable materials;However,quantifiable metrics and long-term targets are not well defined.Also,there is a lack of standardization for LCA in the automotive industry.Q5.With regard to lightweighting,what is fundamentally important for the NAS committee to understand and consider when writing the report?Automakers said that the market forces value per kilogram,as driven by the consumers(price point)and regulatory requirements(additional heavy content).It is paramount for the committee to understand the dollar value consumers put on higher performance,higher range,and more features.Furthermore,the effects of the market forces on the amount of lightweighting automakers can do.Another factor is manufacturing costs,especially for complex designs(geometry and/or materials).Manufacturing costs can be higher than material costs.In such a situation,focusing on low-cost raw materials does not significantly impact the overall cost(or piece cost).Therefore,because of the CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 12 manufacturing process(not material costs),a lightweighting concept or lightweighting innovation may not be considered until the industry develops a lower-cost manufacturing method.Q6.What vehicle systems do you target for lightweighting?CAR researchers found that closures are the top priority because they are mostly large,flat panels which can be a bolt-on to the body-in-white.The body-in-white(BIW)is the second priority as it adds significant weight to the vehicle.Next in line is unsprung mass,interior components,and powertrain.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 13 Opportunities for Steel Steel is a known commodity and has been utilized and continues to be optimized.Therefore,automakers are familiar with the material for high-volume production.With economies of scale and a millennium of efficiency improvements,steel costs are lower than other materials.The steel industry is continuously improving and launching better grades of steel.Push for higher lightweighting targets will take few vehicle parts away from steel,but steel will remain a dominant material for BIW at least till 2035 for mass-market vehicles.Current AdvantageBroad UTS range:200 Mpa to 2000 Mpa in the last 20 yearsLow CostReasonable weight savings using UHSS,Gen-3 Familiarity Global supply chainFuture OpportunitiesSteel industry is focusing on improving formability while increasing strength All steel makers are actively updating infrastructure to lower their carbon footprint.Example:Nucor,Big River and others moving heavily to EAF(electric arc furnaces)Significant increase in battery energy density and reduction in battery cost might drive automakers to reassess their priorities for lightweighting for shifting investments to other technologies like ADAS.Expected to be 50%-55%of the BIW closuresNegativesAluminum and polymer composites provide 30%-60%MR and actively investing in cost reduction.Mass add-back due to autonomous technology can force automakers to lightweight further by switching to other materials.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 14 Opportunities for Aluminum Aluminum is the prime competitor of steel.It provides a 35-40 percent mass reduction over lower grade steels.Like steel,aluminum is a known commodity with a well-established global supply chain.CAR research found aluminum to become a prime material for use in closures and outer body panels.Aluminum will increase from the current 10-13 percent to 20-22 percent of the BIW and closures subsystem.Current AdvantageAluminum provides 35-40%mass reduction over mild steel.Aluminum content has increased from 200/lbs per vehicles in 2000 to over 400 lbs/vehicles in 2020.This growth is driven by use of aluminum in hoods and other closures Aluminum claims to be the most recycled material in the world,70-80%Global supply chainFuture OpportunitiesDoors and other bolt-on components will continue to be an opportunity for Aluminum.Industry is working on new 6xxx and 7xxx grades(gen-2 and gen-3)Continuous casting has potential to reduce conversion cost of aluminum sheet products.Few premium brands such as Audi,Jaguar prefer aluminumExpected to be 20-25%of the BIW closuresNegativesThe manufacturing plant is totally disrupted by AL alloys and the usage of adhesives.This really explodes the cost,so high volume,totally new platform vehicles are the best applications.BIW shift to aluminum has not picked up after Ford F-series trucks and Tesla Model S.In-fact,other automakers have chosen a AHSS strategy for high-volume vehicles(for example,Chevy Silverado,Tesla Model 3).Significant increase in battery density and shift of investment to ADAS can limit lightweighting initiatives CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 15 Opportunities for Polymer Composites Polymer composites offer significant lightweighting over steel and aluminum.They also simplify the design and reduce the number of parts.Polymers will play a significant role in achieving higher lightweighting requirements.For premium,performance-driven vehicles,they might be a dominant material.Since polymer composites are application-specific and not a commodity product,the cost will remain a challenge for high-volume production.With the increasing push towards sustainability,recyclability and reusability of polymers also remain a concern.Interviews with experts reveal that suppliers are diligently working to find sustainable plastics and polymer composites.Current AdvantagePolymer composites like CFRP,GFRP,SMC offer potential for 60-70%lightweightingPart consolidation and low tooling cost lowers overall cost.Future OpportunitiesOpportunities in liftgate,door inner,fender,roof panel,front bulkhead,floor reinforcement,A/B pillar reinforcement,truck bed,seatsExpected to be 8-12%of the BIW ClosuresNegativesIn terms of$/lbs,polymer composites will remain expensive over metals.Major barriersHigh raw material costDifferent tooling than metalsPaint shop for BIW applicationsJoiningDesign CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 16 Opportunities for Magnesium Magnesium is at par with polymer composites in mass reduction opportunities.However,magnesium suffers from galvanic corrosion issues when used with other materials,and the supply chain is not well established.Also,there are issues with forming and brittleness in magnesium parts.Therefore,magnesium will have limited use in the non-exposed parts of BIW and closures.Current AdvantageMagnesium provides 60-70%mass reduction over mild steel.Future OpportunitiesLimited opportunities in vehicle front end components and powertrain castingsExpected to be 3-6%of the BIW closuresNegativesUse of magnesium remains low(1%)and is limited to inner body parts.Examples,liftgate inner,IP beam,seatsMajor barriers:High cost and limited supply chainLow formabilityCorrosion issuesJoining CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 17 Material Mass Reduction Percentages used in this Study The weight reduction opportunity for materials depends on the design of the part and the manufacturing processes.However,there is a general understanding of the expected range of mass reduction each material can provide.Table 5 from the U.S.Department of Energy lists the range of mass-reduction estimates for each material.Table 5:Mass Reduction Potential of Materials Lightweight Material Mass Reduction Opportunity Magnesium 30-70rbon fiber composites 50-70%Aluminum and Al matrix composites 30-60%Titanium 40-55%Glass fiber composites 25-35vanced high strength steel 15-25%High strength steel 10-28%Source:U.S.Department of Energy Based on the interviews conducted for this project and the literature survey,the authors decided to use the mass reduction percentages listed in Table 6.Table 6:Mass Reduction percentages of each material used for this project Material MR%(relative to mild steel)AHSS 10%UHSS 25%Aluminum 45%Magnesium 50%Polymer Composite 60%Source:CAR Research Secondary Mass Reduction The 2015 NASEM report suggested that a powertrain downsizing opportunity exists when the glider mass is lightweighted by at least 10 percent(Cost,Effectiveness,and Deployment of Fuel Economy Technologies for Light-Duty Vehicles,2015).The committee found that a reduced mass vehicle would allow an additional 40 percent of the primary mass removed from cars(unibody)and an additional 25 percent of the primary mass removed for trucks(body-on-frame).Automakers interviews confirmed the NASEM committee findings.Therefore,we have used the same approach to calculate secondary mass reduction opportunities in this report.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 18 Understanding the Cost of Lightweighting The cost of lightweighting may seem like a simple material replacement cost.However,many factors influence the real-world lightweighting cost,including part complexity,part size,manufacturing process,annual volume,capital investment,additional labor,factory location,and reengineering effort.Moreover,mass add-back takes away a large portion of the mass-reduction achieved.Figure 1 shows a generic mass-reduction cost curve for an automaker.Please note:The model year 2020 baseline vehicle has advanced material technology and,therefore,already ahead in the curve.There is a distribution of material technology in the U.S.fleet with vehicles more and less advanced than the average vehicle.Mass reduction becomes expensive with real-world constraints(curve shifts upwards).Mass add-back reduces the actual curb weight reduction even after implementing lightweight material technology.Figure 1:Generic Mass-Reduction Cost Curve Source:CAR Research Cost of Materials and Manufacturing For understanding the cost of lightweighting,it is vital to understand the raw material and manufacturing costs.Vehicle teardown studies sponsored by the NHTSA and EPA have used detailed cost models to account for raw material,equipment,labor,energy,scrap,engineering,overhead,etc.Creating such a model is out-of-scope of this project.To arrive at a reasonable range of estimates for different levels of mass-reduction,CAR researchers performed an extensive literature survey and interviewed material suppliers to understand the raw material and manufacturing costs.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 19 Raw Material Prices Below is the discussion on individual raw material prices.The information presented below refers to multiple sources.Please refer to the bibliography for citations.Statistical forecasting models performance degrades rapidly as the forecast horizon expands.A review of the commodity price forecasting literature indicates that forecasts are,at best,accurate to a time horizon of three months.Given a fifteen-year forecast horizon,statistical methods are inappropriate.Thus,we rely on long-term historical patterns in the data for steel and aluminum prices.Steel Prices For steels,long-run inflation-adjusted(using the implicit GDP deflator,base year 2019)prices are relatively constant,with deviations driven by demand shocks and geopolitical events(collapse of the USSR,the industrialization of China).Given this stability of real prices,we assume steel will remain at roughly its long-term real price throughout the forecast period.The United States Geological Survey(USGS)historical data on steel prices,which uses hot-rolled special bar quality carbon steel as its benchmark,has averaged$0.85 per kg since the late 1950s.At current cost deltas across steel grades,this implies a long-run,inflation-adjusted average price between$0.70 and$0.75 per kg for cold-rolled mild steel.Discussion with industry participants and available data indicate that cold-rolled steel is almost always more expensive than hot-rolled special bar quality(SBQ).The$0.70 per kg figure is definitively a lower bound and may result from idiosyncrasies in the limited data available for translating the USGS SBQ data to cold-rolled prices.To account for uncertainties,we use a range of$0.70-$1.00 per kg for cold-rolled mild steel.Figure 2:Hot-Rolled Steel Price Trend Source:United States Geological Survey 02004006008001,0001,2001,40019291933193719411945194919531957196119651969197319771981198519891993199720012005200920132017USGS Hot-Rolled SBQ SteelNominal Price per Metric TonReal Price per Metric TonAverage 1957-2019 CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 20 Aluminum Prices Inflation-adjusted aluminum prices are less stable than steel prices,with a pronounced and rapid decline in the pre-WWII period.Since 1990,real prices for aluminum ingot have averaged and remained relatively steady near$2.44 per kg.To reflect uncertainty,we report a high and low around this figure,based upon the price volatility since 1990.Our low-cost aluminum scenario sees the real price per kg at$2.135,while the high real price scenario indicates prices at$2.745 per kg.Figure 3:Aluminum Price Trend Source:United States Geological Survey 02,0004,0006,0008,00010,00019291933193719411945194919531957196119651969197319771981198519891993199720012005200920132017USGS Aluminum IngotNominal Price per Metric TonReal Price per Metric TonAverage 1945-1989Average 1990-2019 CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 21 Carbon Fiber Prices Little information is available for the cost of carbon fiber(C.F.),whether C.F.itself or for carbon fiber composites(CFC).Those documents and reports that are available are inconsistent as to materials discussed and often do not clearly specify what is being referenced.4 As baselines are inconsistent and seldom fully defined,we focus on each documents anticipated percent change from its own baseline.Overall,documents discussing cost-reduction pathways for C.F.and CFC expect that the development of alternative precursors will lower the cost of approximately 35 percent for CFC.Process improvements and fully-scaled production are anticipated to each provide a further 20 percent cost reduction.These cost reductions are multiplicative,not additive.The expected combined effect of full-scale production wholly implemented process improvements,and an alternative precursor is approximately a 50 percent cost reduction for CFC.Figure 4:Factors affecting CF and CFRP Cost or Price 4 Documents and reports are inconsistent with the materials discussed and often do not specify what is being referenced.Critical information missing includes:Differing tow sizes(large tow size CF is significantly lower cost than low tow size CF)Inconsistent performance characteristics/material qualities Does carbon fiber refer to o Carbon Fiber(CF),o Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer/Carbon Fiber Composite(CFRP/CFC),or o A product manufactured from CFRP(e.g.,CFRP-based door inner)?Are figures the direct cost of material manufacture or the price paid by a purchaser of the material?CF price roughly=CF Production Cost x 1.45*As a result,even reports citing similar data and time periods provide meaningfully different cost figures for CF,CFRP,and parts made from CFRP Quoted baseline costs/prices vary dramatically across sources,even for consistent materials,e.g.50k tow CF(roughly$12-$24/kg)0 0%Lignin Precursor,Full-Scale CF Production,Process ImprovementsAlternative Precursors,Process ImprovementsTextile Precursor,Full-Scale CF Production,Process ImprovementsTextile Precursor,Full-Scale CF ProductionLignin Precursor,Full-Scale CF ProductionPAN Precursor,Full-Scale CF Production,Process ImprovementsTextile PrecursorPolyethylene PrecursorPAN Precursor,Full-Scale CF ProductionAnticipated Reduction in CF Cost or Price from Precursor,Scale,and Process Improvements CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 22 Source:Warren,2011;Ennis et al.,2019;Bregar,2014;Vehicles Technology Office,2013;Heuss et al.,2012 Our future cost scenarios for CFC follow the same technology pathway,but at different time horizons.The low-cost CFC scenario assumes that,by 2025,sufficient scale and/or sufficient process improvements will be implemented to achieve a 20 percent reduction in CFC cost.Further improvements will occur sufficient for an additional 20 percent cost reduction by 2030,and an alternative precursor will be available and in-use by 2035.In the high-cost scenario,we did not consider any improvements to scale or process until 2030,and the experts do not expect an alternate precursor until after 2035.Available information on C.F.and CFC costs and prices suggest that per kg nominal costs have remained roughly constant over the past decade;thus,real costs have fallen.We assume this will continue,and the effects of general inflation will further reduce CFCs real cost throughout the 15-year forecast horizon.Given the full range of baseline cost estimates and anticipated cost reduction pathways,the range of costs per kg for C.F.and CFRP achievable after full implementation of fully-scaled production,process improvements,and alternate precursors are:CF:$5 11 per kg(typical$7 per kg)CFC:$9 15 per kg(typical$12 per kg)These figures do not incorporate general inflation.Incorporating inflation and assuming all cost reduction possibilities are implemented by 2035,CAR estimates CFRP prices could be$8.74 in 2035.Magnesium Prices Magnesium is the eighth-most abundant element in the earths crust,but raw magnesiums price instability inhibits broader use.The magnesium price is impacted by the demand for aluminum,titanium,and steel because magnesium is used to make these metals.The Platts Metals Week U.S.spot Western magnesium price range was$2.10 to$2.20 per pound($4.62 to$4.85 per kg)throughout the entire year for an annual average price of$2.15 per pound in 2017,unchanged from the average price since the beginning of 2014.Global consumption of magnesium is expected to increase by a compound annual growth rate of about five percent per year from 2017 through 2027(2017 Minerals Yearbook,2017).The price of magnesium is unstable and depends on geopolitical factors.For this research,we have assumed magnesium prices to reduce going forward.0 00%of Feedstock is Recycled MaterialAlternative Precursor and Resin,Process ImprovementsLignin PrecursorTextile Precursor,Full-Scale CF ProductionAnticipated Reduction in CFRP Cost or Price CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 23 Material Costs used for this research For this analysis,CAR researchers created high and low-cost scenarios for 2025-2035.Based on the research described above,steel prices are kept constant.Aluminum,CFRP,and Magnesium costs are assumed to decrease over the years.Table 7 shows the cost in dollars per kilogram for each material.Table 7:High and Low-Cost Scenarios for Materials 2025-2035 LOW Material Cost$/kg range Material 2020 2025 2030 2035 Mild 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.70 HSS 0.83 0.83 0.83 0.83 AHSS 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 UHSS 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.15 Al 2.13 2.13 2.13 2.13 Mag 4.50 4.00 3.50 3.00 CFRP 24.00 19.71 16.41 8.74 HIGH Material Cost$/kg range Material 2020 2025 2030 2035 Mild 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 HSS 1.13 1.13 1.13 1.13 AHSS 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.40 UHSS 1.45 1.45 1.45 1.45 Al 2.74 2.74 2.74 2.74 Mag 4.80 4.30 4.00 3.50 CFRP 24.00 24.00 19.71 16.41 Source:CAR Research Manufacturing Cost Manufacturing cost is more difficult to estimate since it depends on many factors such as part complexity,part size,manufacturing process,the volume of production,and manufacturers tribal knowledge.CAR researchers interviewed material suppliers and consortiums to understand the manufacturing cost part of the total part cost.Most respondents gave CAR a range of estimates.To control the complexity of manufacturing cost,we used averages of the estimates provided to CAR.In a 2016 CAR study(Baron&Modi,2016),the authors estimated manufacturing cost reduction due to time and volume-based learning for different materials5.These learning percentages are used in this analysis to estimate manufacturing cost reduction through 2035.See Table 8 and Table 9.5 There are two different types of learning curves:Time-Based Over time,plant operations adapt to using new material and new techniques for processing and handling of these materials.This enables the procedure to increase process speed and efficiency,resulting in lower overall cost.Volume-Based Higher volume bring opportunities for economies of scale.It can lead to a reduction in the cost of production per part.Higher volume demands drive more rigorous processing,which can create additional opportunities to improve overall process times.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 24 Table 8:Manufacturing cost and learning Material Manufacturing cost as part of total cost%Manufacturing cost%Reduction/year(learning)Mild 47%0.00%HSS 41%0.00%AHSS 41%0.56%UHSS(HF)41%0.56%AL 40%1.26%Mag 24%0.88%Comp 58%2.36%Source:CAR Research Table 9:Manufacturing Cost with Learning($/kg)for key years Material 2020 2025 2030 2035 Mild 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 HSS 0.68 0.68 0.68 0.68 AHSS 0.87 0.84 0.82 0.80 UHSS 0.90 0.88 0.85 0.83 Al 1.63 1.53 1.43 1.34 Mag 1.47 1.40 1.34 1.29 Comp 33.14 29.41 26.10 23.16 Source:CAR Research Total Cost To calculate the total cost for material changes,the team added the low and high material costs and each materials manufacturing cost.This exercise resulted in Table 10 and Table 11.Table 10:LOW Total Cost$/kg range(material processing)Material 2020 2025 2030 2035 Mild 1.45 1.45 1.45 1.45 HSS 1.51 1.51 1.51 1.51 AHSS 1.97 1.94 1.92 1.90 UHSS 2.05 2.03 2.00 1.98 Al 3.76 3.66 3.57 3.48 Mag 5.97 5.40 4.84 4.29 Comp 57.14 49.13 42.51 31.90 Source:CAR Research CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 25 Table 11:HIGH Total Cost$/kg range(material processing)Material 2020 2025 2030 2035 Mild 1.75 1.75 1.75 1.75 HSS 1.81 1.81 1.81 1.81 AHSS 2.27 2.24 2.22 2.20 UHSS 2.35 2.33 2.30 2.28 Al 4.37 4.27 4.18 4.09 Mag 6.27 5.70 5.34 4.79 Comp 57.14 53.41 45.81 39.57 Source:CAR Research Factors Affecting Automaker Lightweighting Targets Automaker interviews revealed that lightweighting targets would depend on four primary factors 1)fuel economy and GHG regulations,2)electrification volume,3)battery cell energy density(weight of the battery pack)and,4)battery pack cost.Fuel Economy and GHG regulations the government regulations on fuel economy and greenhouse gases affect automakers mass-reduction target the most.Since most automakers sell in multiple countries and have common vehicle platforms,worldwide government regulations affect material strategies,not just the U.S.regulations.An industry estimate is that a 10 percent reduction in vehicles mass will produce approximately six to seven percent reduction in fuel consumption for passenger cars and four to five percent reduction for light-duty trucks(Cost,Effectiveness,and Deployment of Fuel Economy Technologies for Light-Duty Vehicles,2015).Therefore,lightweighting is an essential tool for automakers to achieve fleet fuel economy targets.Fuel economy and GHG regulations also affect electrification volume in the fleet.Since electric vehicles fuel economy(miles per gallon equivalent)is higher than internal combustion engines,automakers can positively impact their CAFE targets by adding electric vehicles to the fleet.For this research,we have assumed electrification volume as a proxy variable for fuel economy and GHG regulations.Battery Cell Energy Density Assuming similar performance,a battery-electric vehicle usually has a higher curb weight than an internal combustion engine vehicle.The primary reason for the weight difference is because the current batteries have lower energy density than gasoline.A vehicle with 10 gallons of onboard fuel(337 kWh energy)weighs an additional 27-30 kg,and the vehicle gradually drops that weight as the fuel is combusted.On the other hand,a battery-electric vehicles(BEV)battery pack may contain 100 kWh of energy but weigh 385-544 kg.Automakers need a higher battery capacity to meet range targets,which means adding significant weight to the vehicle with the current battery density.Therefore,battery weight is an essential factor affecting lightweighting targets.Battery Pack Cost Achieving long-range is paramount for selling electric vehicles in high volume.The range can be increased by adding battery capacity or reducing the weight of the vehicle.Since batteries are expensive,adding battery capacity adds a high cost to the vehicle.However,if the battery packs cost decreases significantly,adding battery capacity becomes a cheaper option than lightweighting.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 26 Automaker interview reveals that decreasing battery pack cost might negatively impact lightweighting targets.For each of the above variables,high and low values were defined(see Table 12).Table 13 shows the expected values of the selected variables for the study years.Table 12:High and Low Definitions for Selected Variables Variables High Low Electrification Volume(CAFE/GHG proxy)25V,30-50%Hybrids 15V,20-25%Hybrids Battery Pack cost$145-$160 per kWh$100 per kWh(2030 projected)Battery Cell Energy Density 900 Wh/Liter 700 Wh/Liter Source:CAR Research Table 13:Expected Variable Value for Select Years Year/Variable Electrification Volume Battery Pack Cost Battery Cell Energy Density 2020-2025 Low High Low 2025-2030 Mass Market:Low Premium-High High Low 2030-2035 High Low Low Source:CAR Research Method for Estimating Material Distribution Generalizing material penetration in the U.S.fleet is challenging because of the wide distribution of technology and vehicle-specific lightweighting targets.Furthermore,the data on vehicles material,weight,and manufacturing technology is not public information.CAR research shows that material choices heavily depend on the vehicles price than the vehicles segment.Therefore,material distribution in future vehicles will differ more for premium versus mass-market vehicles.However,there are structural differences between unibody and body-on-frame vehicles,which affects material choices.Body-on-frame vehicles are also,in general,more expensive than unibody vehicles.After considering these points and in the spirit of using publicly available information,CAR researchers decided to use the vehicles studied by the regulating agencies the 2011 Honda Accord as a reference for unibody vehicles,and the 2014 Chevy Silverado for body-on-frame vehicles.The two vehicles were updated to represent a generic mass-produced unibody and body-on-frame vehicles based on the data collected from 2020 repair manuals,the material forecast information from the 2016 CAR study,and engineering judgment.6 Figure 5 and Figure 6 show the material distribution in the original and updated vehicles.6 The analysis considers the two vehicles updated to MY2020 materials to represent the unibody and body-on-frame vehicles in the current US fleet.In reality,vehicle material technology has a wide distribution in a given model year.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 27 Figure 5:2020 Baseline vehicle material distribution-Unibody Figure 6:2020 Baseline vehicle material distribution-Body-on-Frame Source:CAR Research As discussed in the previous section,future vehicle material distribution will depend in part on electrification volume,battery pack cost,and battery cell energy density.CAR researchers created scenarios using the three variables for the study years 2020-2025,2025-2030,and 2030-2035.For each scenario,we created a material roadmap for unibody and body-on-frame vehicles.The following sections will discuss these scenarios and corresponding material trends.0 0Pp0 11 Accord2020 BaselineCars and Unibody SUVsMildHSSAHSSUHSSAlMagComp0 0Pp0 14 Silverado2020 BaselinePickups(Body-on-Frame)MildHSSAHSSUHSSAlMagComp CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 28 Material Roadmap and Incremental Cost($/kg)Unibody Vehicles The updated Honda Accord was used to study material distribution scenarios for unibody vehicles.Table 14 lists the unibody scenarios,expected material trends,and the expected year range.We have based these estimates on the information collected through automaker interviews and literature surveys,including the 2019 CAR technology roadmaps(Modi&Vadhavkar,2019).Table 14:Scenarios for Unibody Vehicles Scenario Electrification Volume(CAFE/GHG proxy)Battery Pack cost Battery Density Expected Material Trend Expected Year Baseline 2020 Low High Low Body:HSS,AHSS,UHSS Closures:HSS,low Al NA Scenario One Low High Low Body:HSS,AHSS,UHSS Closures:HSS,Al Mass Market 2025-2030 Scenario Two High High Low Body:Aluminum,AHSS,UHSS Closures:Al,comp,Mag Premium Vehicles 2025-2030 Scenario Three High Low Low Body:AHSS,UHSS,low Al Closures:Al Mass Market 2030-35 Scenario Four High Low High AHSS intensive Low Source:CAR Research Scenario one is where electrification volume remains low,and battery technology and cost remain at 2020 levels.In this case,automakers may continue to use predominantly high strength steel BIW and a mix of steel and aluminum in the closures.This scenario may apply for the 2025-2030 timeframe.In scenario two,electrification volume becomes high for performance and customer demand,but the battery technology does not progress.In this case,automakers will likely have higher lightweighting targets.They may use aluminum and high strength steel in BIW and a mix of aluminum,magnesium,and polymer composites in the closures.Scenario two may apply for premium vehicles in the 2025-2030 timeframe.In scenario three,the electrification volume is high,and the battery pack cost has come down significantly to support mass-market electric vehicles.In this case,there is medium pressure for lightweighting since automakers can increase vehicle range at lower costs by adding batteries.Thus,in scenario three,automakers will likely use high strength steel and aluminum in BIW,and aluminum for closures.Scenario four is unlikely in the timeframe because experts do not expect battery density to fall into the high-value range before 2035.Based on the material trends for unibody vehicles listed in Table 14,CAR researchers upgraded the materials for each of the BIW and closure component in a spreadsheet.The team upgraded each components material based on CARs internal material databases and the research teams collective engineering judgment.The spreadsheet automatically calculates the components new weights using the data from Table 6 when the materials are changed,thereby giving the expected mass reduction for each scenario.The team repeated the exercise for the three unibody scenarios from Table 14.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 29 Once the materials and weights of BIW and closure components were known,it became possible to create a graph of each scenarios material distribution(see Figure 7).Figure 7:Material Penetration for each Scenario-Unibody Vehicles Source:CAR Research To understand the cost penalty for ligthweighting,the team multiplied each component mass with the high and low cost of material change from Table 10 and Table 11 to understand the incremental cost range.We then divided these costs by each scenarios mass reduction(in kilograms)to get to the dollars per kilogram figure.Wherever the cost penalty range was too broad,we consulted with subject-matter-experts to narrow down the range.Table 15 shows the cost penalty and expected mass reduction for each of the unibody scenarios.Figure 8 is the expected material roadmap for unibody vehicles with cost penalties.0 0Pp0 20 BaselineScenario 1Mass Market2025-2030Scenario 2Premium2025-2030Scenario 3Mass Market2030-352020 BaselineScenario 1Mass Market2025-2030Scenario 2Premium2025-2030Scenario 3Mass Market2030-35Mild10%0%0%0%HSS445%0%AHSS40RI%UHSS2%7%6%Al4%6e%Mag0%0%3%0%Comp0%0%4%0%Material Penetration-Cars and Unibody SUVs CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2018 30 Table 15:Cost and Mass Reduction Analysis for Unibody Vehicle Scenarios Scenario Electrification Volume(CAFE/GHG proxy)Battery Pack cost Battery Density Cost penalty per kg of weight saved Expected Material Trend BIW Closures Weight Reduction(2020 baseline)Curb Weight Reduction(2020 baseline)Expected Year Baseline Low High Low NA Body:HSS,AHSS,UHSS Closures:HSS,low Al NA NA NA Scenario One Low High Low$0.5-$1.5 CY:2030 Body:HSS,AHSS,UHSS Closures:HSS,Al 4%1.0%-1.5%Mass Market 2025-2030 Scenario Two High High Low$4.0-$6.0 C.Y.:2030 Body:Aluminum,AHSS,UHSS Closures:Al,CFRP,Mag 37-14%(with secondary)Premium Vehicles 2025-2030 Scenario Three High Low Low$1.5-$3.5 CY:2035 Body:AHSS,UHSS,low Al Closures:Al 12%4-6%Mass Market 2030-35 Scenario Four High Low High*-AHSS intensive not in scope Low Source:CAR Research Real-world mass reduction might be less due to mass add-back*High battery density is unlikely in the timeframe 2020 baseline costs used for incremental cost calculations are shown in Table 10:LOW Total Cost$/kg range(material processing).CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 31 Figure 8:Technology Pathway and Relative Cost for Unibody Cars and SUVs Source:CAR Research MMU Mass Market Unibody PU Premium Unibody Cost Year projected material and manufacturing cost for analysis in the year*with secondary mass reduction Real world cost curve will be higher than the shown curve due to real-world constraints and mass add-back.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2018 32 Unibody Cost Curve Discussion Most of the unibody vehicles in the MY2020 fleet use advanced steels for the BIW and a mix of steel and aluminum for the closures.Examples of aluminum use in closures include hoods,door inner,liftgate,and roof panel.Polymer composites find some use in the BIW,mostly in higher priced vehicles such as the Audi A8,Cadillac CT6,and BMW 7 series.However,polymer composites can be found in closure applications for mass-market vehicles,for example,the Nissan Rogue liftgate.Automaker interviews reveal a strategy to use mixed-material solutions for lightweighting.Future vehicle structures might use a mix of materials,including high-strength steel,high-strength aluminum,magnesium,plastics,and polymer composites.There will be an increase in the number of steel grades with new generation steels replacing lower grade steels.Aluminum is the primary candidate to replace mild steel closures(doors,hoods,liftgate,and fenders),roof panels,and bodysides.The cost penalty increases exponentially for achieving higher levels of mass reduction.In general,carbon fiber composites use makes lightweighting very expensive because of the high raw material and manufacturing cost.Therefore,new generation steels and aluminum will remain the material of choice for lightweighting of unibody vehicles until polymer composites become affordable for high-volume vehicles.However,for premium performance-oriented vehicles,like the Chevy Corvette,polymer composites could remain the material of choice.As shown in Figure 1,mass reductions real cost is much higher than a simple material replacement.The roadmap showed in Figure 8 is the general trend identified through CAR research.In the real world,the lightweighting targets,choice of materials,and cost penalty depends on the specific vehicle program and the advancements in materials,battery technology,and government regulations.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 33 Material Roadmap and Incremental Cost($/kg)Body-on-Frame Vehicles For studying body-on-frame(BoF)vehicles,the team updated the 2014 Chevy Silverado to represent a generic MY2020 body-on-frame vehicle.Silverado is a good representation of BoF vehicles since most BoF vehicles in the U.S.fleet are pickups.In general,SUVs in the 2020 fleet have unibody construction,except for a few like the Jeep Wrangler.Table 16 lists the scenarios,material trends,and the year range for BoF vehicles.Similar to the unibody scenarios,the estimates for BoF vehicles are based on automaker interviews and literature surveys.Table 16:Scenarios for Body-on-Frame vehicles Scenario Electrification Volume(CAFE/GHG proxy)Battery Pack cost Battery Density Expected Material Trend Expected Year Baseline 2020 Low High Low Body:AHSS,UHSS Frame:AHSS,UHSS Closures:HSS,Al NA Scenario One Low High Low Body:AHSS,UHSS,Al Frame:AHSS,UHSS Closures:Al Mass Market 2025-2030 Scenario Two High High Low Body:Aluminum Frame:AHSS,UHSS Closures:Al OR Body:Aluminum,CFRP Frame:AHSS,UHSS Closures:Al,CFRP,Mag Premium Vehicles 2025-2030 Scenario Three High Low Low Body:AHSS,UHSS,Al Frame:AHSS,UHSS Closures:Al Mass Market 2030-35 Source:CAR Research The baseline MY2020 BoF vehicles use more advanced materials than mass-market unibody vehicles.The primary reason for this difference is the higher price of pickups and performance loving customers,which allow automakers to pay a higher dollar per kg penalties for lightweighting of pickups.In the past,automakers have used lightweighting primarily to improve the pickups performance and increase the footprint to satisfy customer demand.However,pickups are very high volume vehicles that affect automakers fleet average CAFE and GHG significantly.Therefore,small improvements in the pickup fuel economy can have an enormous impact on the fleet average.The paragraphs below discuss future material scenarios for BoF vehicles.In scenario one,electrification volume remains low,and battery technology and cost remain at 2020 levels.In this case,automakers might continue using advanced steels for BIW and frame with higher aluminum use in the closures due to lower lightweighting targets.Scenario one may apply to mass-market BoF vehicles in the 2025-2030 timeframe.In scenario two,where electrification is high,but battery technology and cost are not low enough,interesting material decisions may happen.Due to range anxiety in electric vehicles and heavy battery,automakers will need to increase their lightweighting targets.To achieve these,vehicle manufacturers may use aluminum for the BIW,advanced steels for the frame,and aluminum for the closures.Another CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 34 option is to use carbon fiber composites to achieve higher mass-reduction;however,this will substantially increase the cost penalty.Scenario two may apply to premium vehicles in the 2025-2030 timeframe.Scenario three,where electrification is high,but battery costs have come down below the$100 per kWh,mass-reduction may not be a priority for automakers because they can increase the range by adding low-cost batteries.Thus,material choices for scenario three will be similar to scenario one.Scenario three may apply to the mass-market vehicles in the 2030-2035 timeframe.CAR researchers upgraded the materials for each BIW,frame,and closure component as per the identified material trends.We divided the costs of each scenario to its mass reduction opportunity(in kilograms)to get to the dollars per kilogram figure.Wherever the cost penalty range was too broad,we consulted with subject-matter-experts to narrow down the range.Table 17 shows the cost penalty range and mass reduction for each of the BoF scenarios.Figure 9 is the material roadmap for BoF vehicles with cost penalties.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2018 35 Table 17:Cost and Mass Reduction Analysis for Body-on-Frame Vehicle Scenarios Scenario Electrification Volume(CAFE/GHG proxy)Battery Pack cost Battery Density Cost penalty per kg of weight saved Expected Material Trend Body Frame Weight Reduction(2020 baseline)Curb Weight Reduction(2020 baseline)Baseline Low High Low NA Body:AHSS,UHSS Frame:AHSS,UHSS Closures:HSS,Al NA NA Scenario One Low High Low$0.5-$1.5 CY:2030 Body:AHSS,UHSS,Al Frame:AHSS,UHSS Closures:Al 5%2-3%Scenario Two High High Low$1.5-$2.5 C.Y.:2030 Body:Aluminum Frame:AHSS,UHSS Closures:Al 21%8-10%(with secondary)Scenario Two(alternative)High High Low$6.0-$8.0 CY:2035 Body:Aluminum,CFRP Frame:AHSS,UHSS Closures:Al,CFRP,Mag 23-12%(with secondary)Scenario Three High Low Low$0.0-$1.0 CY:2035 Body:AHSS,UHSS,Al Frame:AHSS,UHSS Closures:Al 5%2-3%Source:CAR Research Real world mass reduction might be less due to mass add-back For scenario two alternative,CFRP is used for Fender,Pickup box floor,and tailgate.Magnesium for I.P.beam and Radiator Scenario one and three have similar materials but have different cost penalties due to different cost years.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 36 Figure 9:Technology Pathway and Relative Cost for Body-on-Frame Vehicles Source:CAR Research MMP Mass Market Pickup P.P.Premium Pickups,for example GMC Sierra Denali Cost Year projected material and manufacturing cost year for analysis*with secondary mass-reduction Real world cost curve will be higher than the shown curve due to real-world constraints and mass add-back.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2018 37 Body-on-Frame Cost Curve Discussion Body-on-frame vehicles,which mostly comprise of pickups,currently use advanced material and manufacturing technologies.Two good examples are the Chevy Silverado,which primarily uses advanced steel grades to achieve lightweighting and performance targets,and the Ford F-150,which has an all-aluminum body with a high strength steel frame.Polymer composites are also currently used for applications such as pickup beds.Pickups in the U.S.are high volume,high price,performance-driven vehicles,which allow automakers to use advanced lightweight materials.Similar to unibody vehicles,automakers may use a mixed-material strategy for BoF lightweighting.BIW likely be a mix of steel and aluminum.The frame will continue to use advanced steels with further design optimization.Aluminum will also play a key role in mass-reduction of closures.Polymer composites will see limited use in truck beds,tailgates,and inner closure components.The cost penalty for using advanced materials increases when switching parts from steel or aluminum,but it increases exponentially when carbon fiber composites are introduced.Since the industry is very cost-sensitive,automakers will likely choose steel or aluminum as primary materials for high-volume pickups.The roadmap showed in Figure 9 is the general trend identified through CAR research.The lightweighting targets,choice of materials,and cost penalty will depend on the specific vehicle program and the advancements in materials,battery technology,and government regulations.Real-World Challenges There are several real-world constraints and manufacturing challenges that automakers face when looking to include a new material into production.Examples of some of these challenges include the following(J.Baron,2016):Global Platforms Automakers develop common parts for use across global platforms to share engineering costs.The part sharing inhibits the individual design and mass optimization of vehicle models due to the use of these parts across various locations worldwide.Material availability Vehicle manufacturing requires assembling thousands of parts built around the world.The sales volumes are very high.Therefore,automakers look for materials with a robust supply chain.Preference is given to materials with at least two suppliers to manage risks.Supply chains for new materials are not well established,making them difficult to use in high-volume vehicles.Material Qualification When automakers redesign parts to optimize mass,they test them virtually and physically to ensure performance.Every automaker designs cars and trucks using internal design standards and best practices.The time and development process to qualify new materials and derive appropriate product specifications is extensive.The process can take as long as 3 to 4 years(Modi,n.d.).Manufacturing Technologies manufacturing technology is different for almost every new material used in the automotive industry.Different materials also require different equipment and tooling.The assembly and handling processes also differ in few cases;for example,magnesium requires special handling and care to avoid chipping and the special care taken to avoid sanding and grinding,which produce potentially flammable dust.Mixed material vehicles can require mechanical fasteners,adhesives,and welding,all in the same assembly.Mixing materials involves isolation of the various materials to avoid corrosion.CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 38 Cost versus Benefit-A material change may improve the products performance,but the cost may far exceed the real-life benefits.The car companies are constrained by cost and are forced to make practical decisions on material choices to make sure that the vehicles cost does not increase by an unprecedented amount.For example,carbon fiber composite materials provide strength to the vehicles structure while reducing weight by almost 50-60 percent compared to mild steel but are very expensive.On the other hand,aluminum can provide 20-30 percent mass-reduction at less cost than carbon fiber composites.Automakers balance cost versus benefit depending on vehicle programs.Stranded Capital The established infrastructure with its sunk costs limits the speed of introducing new materials.For example,equipment for metal parts production is very different from equipment for polymer composites.Automakers often invest and commit to technologies for at least two redesign cycles before investing in equipment.Risk of part failure:New materials used in new ways can behave in unexpected ways.Part failure is constant risk companies have when new materials are introduced into the vehicles.These disruptions can drive recall costs or increase incidents of rework.Consumer Demand-Ride and handling quality are highly competitive differentiators in the market.While lighter cars generally handle better,other tradeoffs arise from lightweighting,such as transmitted noise and vibrations introduced by lightweight materials.Solving these issues adds weight back,taking away some of the lightweighting achieved.As discussed in the previous sections,automakers strive to continuously improve performance and safety driven by regulations and the competitive market.These improvements often add mass to the vehicles.Sustainability Sustainability is becoming a crucial factor in the automotive industry.Many automakers and 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Report,116.Das,S.,Warren,J.,West,D.,&Schexnayder,S.M.(2016).Global Carbon Fiber Composites Supply Chain Competitiveness Analysis.Clean Energy Manufacturing Analysis Center.https:/www.nrel.gov/docs/fy16osti/66071.pdf DuckerFrontier North American Light Vehicle Aluminum Content and Outlook(August 2020).(n.d.).Retrieved September 29,2020,from https:/www.drivealuminum.org/research-resources/duckerfrontier-north-american-light-vehicle-aluminum-content-and-outlook-august-2020/CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 40 Ennis,B.L.,Kelley,C.L.,Naughton,B.T.,Norris,R.E.,Das,S.,Lee,D.,&Miller,D.A.(2019).Optimized Carbon Fiber Composites in Wind Turbine Blade Design.Sandia National Laboratories.https:/www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2019/12/f69/SAND2019-14173-Optimized.pdf Fuchs,E.R.H.,Field,F.R.,Roth,R.,&Kirchain,R.E.(2008).Strategic materials selection in the automobile body:Economic opportunities for polymer composite design.Composites Science and Technology,68(9),19892002.https:/doi.org/10.1016/pscitech.2008.01.015 Gargano,A.,&Timmermann,A.(2014).Forecasting commodity price indexes using macroeconomic and financial predictors.International Journal of Forecasting,30(3),825843.https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.ijforecast.2013.09.003 Groen,J.J.J.,&Pesenti,P.(2011,June 27).How Easy Is It to Forecast Commodity Prices?-Liberty Street Economics.Federal Reserve Bank of New York,Liberty Street Economics.https:/libertystreeteconomics.newyorkfed.org/2011/06/how-easy-is-it-to-forecast-commodity-prices.html Groen,J.J.J.,&Pesenti,P.A.(2010).Commodity prices,commodity currencies,and global economic developments(Working Paper No.15743;Working Paper Series).National Bureau of Economic Research.https:/doi.org/10.3386/w15743 Harper International.(2020,April 13).How to Turn Pitch into Carbon Fiber for Automotive Applications.AZO Materials.https:/ Heuss,R.,Mller,N.,van Sintern,W.,Starke,A.,&Tschiesner,A.(2012).Lightweight,heavy 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Institute.https:/rmi.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/RMI_Document_Repository_Public-Reprts_2013-01_AutocompositesFinalReport.pdf Singh,H.(2016).Draft Final Report Mass Reduction for Light-Duty Vehicles for Model Years 2017-2025.EDAG,Inc.https:/www.nhtsa.gov/staticfiles/rulemaking/pdf/cafe/Mass-Reduction-Feasibility-2014-Silverado.zip Sloan,J.(2017).Autocomposites and the myth of$5/lb carbon fiber.CompositesWorld.https:/ United Nations.(2020,August).U.N.Comtrade Database.https:/comtrade.un.org/data U.S.Bureau of Economic Analysis.(2020a).Gross domestic product(implicit price deflator)A191RD3A086NBEA(Annual,1929-2019).retrieved from FRED,Federal Reserve Bank of St.Louis.https:/fred.stlouisfed.org/series/A191RD3A086NBEA U.S.Bureau of Economic Analysis.(2020b).Gross Domestic Product:Implicit Price Deflator GDPDEF(Quarterly,1947-2020:Q2).retrieved from FRED,Federal Reserve Bank of St.Louis.https:/fred.stlouisfed.org/series/GDPDEF U.S.Bureau of Labor Statistics.(2020).Producer Price Index by Commodity for Metals and Metal Products:Iron and Steel WPU101.retrieved from FRED,Federal Reserve Bank of St.Louis.https:/fred.stlouisfed.org/series/WPU101 CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 42 U.S.Geological Survey.(2012).Mineral Commodity Summaries:Aluminum.U.S.Geological Survey.https:/s3-us-west- U.S.Geological Survey.(2013).Metal Prices in the United States Through 2010.U.S.Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 20125188.https:/pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2012/5188/U.S.Geological Survey.(2016).Mineral Commodity Summaries:Aluminum.U.S.Geological Survey.https:/s3-us-west- U.S.Geological Survey.(2020).Mineral Commodity Summaries:Aluminum.U.S.Geological Survey.https:/pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-aluminum.pdf Vehicle Technologies Office.(2013).WORKSHOP REPORT:Trucks and Heavy-Duty Vehicles Technical Requirements and Gaps for Lightweight and Propulsion Materials.Department of Energy,Energy Efficiency&Renewable Energy.https:/www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f13/wr_trucks_hdvehicles.pdf Vehicle Technologies Office.(2019).Vehicle Lightweighting Program Progress Status 2019.U.S.Department of Energy.https:/www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2020/06/f75/DOR_Vehicle_Lightweighting_FINAL_DRAFT.pdf Vehicles Technology Office.(2013).WORKSHOP REPORT:Light-Duty Vehicles Technical Requirements and Gaps for Lightweight and Propulsion Materials.Department of Energy,Energy Efficiency&Renewable Energy.https:/www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f13/wr_ldvehicles.pdf Warren,C.D.(2011).Lower Cost,Higher Performance Carbon Fiber.Oak Ridge National Laboratory.https:/www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/03/f11/compressed_hydrogen2011_4_warren.pdf Winter,D.(n.d.).Lightweighting vs.Bigger Batteries in Electric Vehicles.23.WorldAutoSteel.(n.d.).Advanced High-Strength Steel(AHSS)Definitions.WorldAutoSteel.https:/www.worldautosteel.org/steel-basics/automotive-advanced-high-strength-steel-ahss-definitions/CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 43 Appendix A:Curb Weight and Footprint Comparison The charts below compare the baseline fleets(33 top-selling vehicles in the MY2020 fleet)curb weight and footprints of vehicles with their previous generation.-6%-4%-2%0%2%4%6%CIVICACCORDELANTRAALTIMASENTRACAMRY LECOROLLASmallCarMRlta Footprint-10%-5%0%5%EQUINOXFWDESCAPEEDGECR-VTUCSONWRANGLERCHEROKEECOMPASSCX-5ROGUEOUTBACKFORESTERRAV4SmallSUVMRlta Footprint-6%-4%-2%0%2%4%6%8%TRAVERSEPacificaEXPLORERPILOTGRAND CHEROKEEHIGHLANDERMedSUVMRlta Footprint CENTER FOR AUTOMOTIVE RESEARCH|2020 44 -15%-10%-5%0%5 %SILVERADORAM PICKUPF SERIESSIERRATACOMAPickupMRlta Footprint-10%-5%0%5%Unibody VehiclesMRlta Footprint-15%-10%-5%0%5 %SILVERADORAM PICKUPF SERIESSIERRATACOMAWRANGLERBody on Frame VehiclesMRlta Footprint
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USING THE FUEL ECONOMY GUIDEiCONTENTSiUsing the Fuel Economy Guide1How the Guide is Organized1Why Some Vehicles Are NotListed1Vehicle Classes Used in this Guide2Understanding the Guide Listings3Tax Incentives and Disincentives4Fueling Options5Alternative Fueling StationLocator6Improve Your Fuel Economy7Advanced Vehicle Technologies8Annual Fuel Cost Ranges forVehicle Classes9Most Efficient Vehicles102025 Model Year Vehicles32All-Electric Vehicles41Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles45Diesel Vehicles47Ethanol Flexible Fuel Vehicles48Fuel Cell Vehicles49IndexThe U.S.Environmental Protection Agency(EPA)andU.S.Department of Energy(DOE)produce the FuelEconomy Guide to help car buyers choose the mostfuel-efficient vehicle that meets their needs.The Guideis available on the Web at fueleconomy.gov.Fuel Economy EstimatesThe purpose of EPAs fuel economy estimates is toprovide a reliable basis for comparing vehicles.Most vehicles in this guide(other than plug-in hybrids)have three fuel economy estimates:A city estimate that represents urban driving,inwhich a vehicle is started in the morning(after beingparked all night)and driven in stop-and-go trafficA highway estimate that represents a mixture ofrural and interstate highway driving in a warmed-upvehicle,typical of longer trips in free-owing trafficA combined estimate that represents acombination of city driving(55%)and highwaydriving(45%)Estimates for all vehicles are based on laboratorytesting under standardized conditions to allow for faircomparisons.Flexible fuel vehicles(FFVs),which can use gasolineand E85,have estimates for both fuels.Plug-in hybridelectric vehicles(PHEVs)have estimates for(1)electric-only or blended electric and gasoline operation and(2)gasoline-only operation.PHEVs are discussed inmore detail on page 41.For answers to frequentlyasked questions about fuel economy estimates,visitfueleconomy.gov.Annual Fuel Cost EstimatesThis guide provides annual fuel cost estimates,rounded to the nearest$50,for each vehicle.Theestimates are based on the assumptions that youtravel 15,000 miles per year(55%under city drivingconditions and 45%under highway conditions)andthat fuel costs$3.15/gallon for regular unleadedgasoline,$3.72/gallon for mid-grade unleadedgasoline,and$4.09/gallon for premium.Cost-per-gallon assumptions for vehicles that use other fueltypes are discussed at the beginning of those vehiclesections.Visit fueleconomy.gov to personalize fuel costs basedon current fuel prices and your driving habits.Your Fuel Economy Will VaryEPAs fuel economy values are good estimates ofthe fuel economy a typical driver will achieve underaverage driving conditions and provide a goodbasis to compare one vehicle to another.Still,yourfuel economy may be slightly higher or lower thanEPAs estimates.Fuel economy varies,sometimessignicantly,based on driving conditions,driving style,and other factors.To ensure that estimates are consistent acrossdifferent makes and models,the EPA estimatesare based on a standardized,repeatable testingprocedure.These tests model an average driversenvironment and behavior based on real-worldconditions,such as stop-and-go traffic.However,it is impossible for a single test topredict fuel economy precisely for all drivers in allenvironments.For example,the following factors canlower your vehicles fuel economy:Aggressive driving(speeding and hard accelerationand hard braking)Excessive idling,accelerating,and braking in stop-and-go trafficCold weather(engines are more efficient whenwarmed up).The impact is greater for short trips.Driving with a heavy load or with the air conditionerrunningImproperly tuned engine or under-inated tiresDriving on mountainous or hilly terrainHigh-performance or snow tiresUse of remote startersIn addition,small variations in vehicle manufacturingcan cause fuel economy variations in the same makeand model,and some vehicles dont attain maximumfuel economy until they are broken in(around 3,0005,000 miles).With fuel-efficient driving techniques,drivers may alsoachieve better fuel economy than the EPA estimates.See Improve Your Fuel Economy on page 6 for tipson maximizing your fuel economy.The EPA ratings are a useful tool for comparingvehicles because they are always done in preciselythe same way under the same set of conditions.However,they may not accurately predict the fueleconomy you will get.This is also true for annual fuelcost estimates.For more information on fuel economyratings and factors that affect fuel economy,visitfueleconomy.gov.FUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 20251HOW THE GUIDE IS ORGANIZEDFuel economy estimates for all vehicles begin with the 2025 ModelYear Vehicles section on page 10.Vehicles are organized by EPAvehicle class and,for trucks and vans,drive type(two-or four-wheeldrive).Additional sections are dedicated to specic vehicle technology or fueltypes for consumers looking for advanced vehicles or alternatives togasoline vehiclesdiesels,plug-in hybrids,all-electric vehicles,ex-fuel vehicles,and fuel cell vehicles.WHY SOME VEHICLES ARE NOT LISTEDLight-duty fuel economy regulations do not apply toSport utility vehicles(SUVs)and passenger vans with a gross vehicleweight rating(GVWR)of more than 10,000 poundsGVWR is thevehicle weight plus carrying capacityOther vehicles with a GVWR of 8,500 pounds or moreTherefore,manufacturers do not have to estimate their fuel economy,and fuel economy labels are not posted on their windows.Also,fueleconomy information on some vehicles was not available in time to beincluded in this guide.More up-to-date information can be found atfueleconomy.gov.VEHICLE CLASSES USED IN THIS GUIDECARSTRUCKSClassPassenger&Cargo Volume(cu.ft.)TWO-SEATER CARSAnySEDANSMinicompactUnder 85Subcompact85 to 99Compact100 to 109Midsize110 to 119Large120 or moreSTATION WAGONSSmallUnder 130Midsize130 to 159Large160 or moreClassGross Vehicle Weight Rating*(pounds)PICKUP TRUCKSSmallUnder 6,000Standard6,000 to 8,500VANSPassengerUnder 10,000CargoUnder 8,500MINIVANSUnder 8,500SPORT UTILITY VEHICLESSmallUnder 6,000Standard6,000 to 9,999SPECIAL PURPOSE VEHICLESUnder 8,500*Gross vehicle weight rating is vehicle weight plus carrying capacity.UNDERSTANDING THE GUIDE LISTINGS2We hope you nd the Fuel Economy Guide easy to use!Fuel economyand annual fuel cost data are organized by vehicle class(see page 1for a list of classes).Within each class,vehicles are listed alphabeticallyby manufacturer and model.Vehicle models with different features,such as engine size ortransmission type,are listed separately.Engine and transmissionattributes are shown in the rst column under the model name.Additional attributes needed to distinguish among vehicles(e.g.,fuel type or suggested fuel grade)are listed in the“Notes”column.Alegend for abbreviations is provided on page 10.A P in the Notes column indicates that the manufacturer recommends that the vehicle be fueled with premium-grade gasoline,and a PR indicates that the manufacturer requires premium.Thehigher price of premium fuel is reected in the annual fuel cost ofthese vehicles.The most fuel-efficient vehicles in each class and alternative fuelvehicles are indicated with special markings(see the diagram below).Vehicles that can use more than one kind of fuel have an entry foreach fuel type.Interior passenger and cargo volumes are located inthe index at the back of the Guide.Each vehicle listing includes a greenhouse gas(GHG)rating on a scaleof 1(worst)to 10(best).This rating is a comparison of the tailpipeGHG emissions of the vehicle to those of other vehicles of the samemodel year.Highway vehicles account for about 23%(1.5 billion metric tons)ofU.S.greenhouse gas emissions each year.The average recent-modelvehicle causes the release of 5 to 9 tons of GHGs each year.Switchingfrom a vehicle that gets 20 miles per gallon(MPG)to one that gets 25MPG can reduce GHG emissions by 1.7 tons per year.Switching to anelectric vehicle could reduce your GHG emissions even more.Checkout EPA and DOEs Beyond Tailpipe Emissions Calculator to estimatethe GHG emissions from owning a plug-in electric vehicle where youlive(fueleconomy.gov/feg/Find.do?action=bt2).Annual Greenhouse Gas Emissionsby Vehicle MPG(gasoline vehicles)*Includes both tailpipe and upstream emissionsTAX INCENTIVES AND DISINCENTIVESFUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 20253Federal Tax CreditsYou may be eligible for a federal income tax credit of up to$7,500 ifyou purchase a qualifying all-electric vehicle(EV),plug-in hybrid,orfuel cell vehicle in 2025.Qualifying EVs and plug-in hybrids have been eligible for a federalincome tax credit for over a decade,but the Ination Reduction Actof 2023 changed the eligibility requirements signicantly.The newlegislation also extends the tax credits to qualifying fuel cell vehicles.Tax credits and eligible vehicles can vary greatly depending on severalfactors,including when the vehicle is purchased and put into service.Visit fueleconomy.gov for more information on qualifying models,credit amounts,and vehicle and buyer requirements.Gas Guzzler TaxThe Energy Tax Act of 1978 requires auto companies to pay a gasguzzler tax on the sale of cars with exceptionally low fuel economy.Such vehicles are identied in the Guide by the word Tax in theNotes column.In the dealer showroom,the words Gas Guzzler andthe tax amount are listed on the vehicles fuel economy label.The taxdoes not apply to light trucks.Fuel Economy Saves You MoneyThe average household spends about one-fth of its total familyexpenditures on transportation,making it the second most expensivecategory after housing.You could save as much as$1,000(or more)in fuel costs each year by choosing the most fuel-efficient vehicle in aparticular class.This can add up to thousands of dollars over a vehicleslifetime.Fuel-efficient models come in all shapes and sizes,so youneed not sacrice utility or size.Each vehicle listing in the Fuel Economy Guide provides an estimatedannual fuel cost(see page i).The Find and Compare Cars tool atfueleconomy.gov features an annual fuel cost calculator that allowsyou to insert your local gasoline prices and typical driving conditions(percentage of city and highway driving)to obtain more accurate fuelcost information for your vehicle.FUELING OPTIONS4Ethanol BlendsE85,E15,and E10Ethanol is a domestically produced,renewable fuel made primarilyfrom corn and sugar cane.The use of ethanol as a vehicle fuel canreduce greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions.E10 is a blend of 10%ethanol and 90%gasoline and is legal for usein any gasoline-powered vehicle.Most of the gasoline sold in theU.S.contains up to 10%ethanol to boost octane,meet air qualityrequirements,or satisfy the federal Renewable Fuel Standard.As of2011,EPA began allowing the use of E15 in model year 2001 andnewer gasoline vehicles.Ethanol contains about one-third less energythan gasoline.So,vehicles will typically go 3%4wer miles pergallon on E10 and 4%5wer miles per gallon on E15 than on 100%gasoline.While E10 is available everywhere,E15 is currently availableat more than 1,300 stations in the United States.E85(or ex fuel)is a high-level ethanol-gasoline blend containing51%ethanol,depending on the season and geographic location.Drivers can use E85 in exible fuel vehicles(FFVs),which are speciallydesigned to run on gasoline,E85,or any mixture of the two.FFVsare offered by several vehicle manufacturers.To determine whetheryour vehicle is an FFV,check the inside of your cars fuel ller doorfor an identication sticker or consult your owners manual.Morethan 4,400 lling stations in the United States currently sell E85.Visitafdc.energy.gov/locator/stations to nd stations near you.FFVs typically experience a 15%drop in fuel economy whenoperating on E85 instead of regular gasoline due to ethanols lowerenergy content and other factors,assuming gasoline typicallycontains about 10%ethanol.Drivers should notice no degradationin performance.In fact,some FFVs produce more torque andhorsepower when fueled with higher-level ethanol blends.BiodieselBiodiesel is a domestically produced renewable fuel manufacturedfrom vegetable oils or animal fats for use in diesel vehicles.Usingbiodiesel in place of petroleum diesel can reduce GHG emissions.Biodiesel can be blended with petroleum diesel at any percentage.B20 is a common biodiesel blend that contains 20%biodiesel and80%petroleum diesel.B5(5%biodiesel and 95%petroleum diesel)is another common blend.All vehicle manufacturers have approvedbiodiesel blends up to and including B5 for use in all diesel engines,and some have approved the use of blends up to B20 in a few recentmodel year vehicles.Keep in mind that using higher-level biodieselblends may affect your vehicle warranty.Check your owners manualor check with your vehicle manufacturer to determine the right blendfor your vehicle.Purchase commercial-grade biodiesel from a reputable dealer.Neverrefuel with recycled grease or vegetable oil that has not been converted tobiodiesel.It will damage your engine.More than 1,440 stations currently dispense B20.Visit afdc.energy.gov/locator/stations to nd service stations selling biodiesel near you.Premium-vs Regular-Grade GasolineRegular unleaded(87 octane)is the recommended fuel for mostgasoline vehicles.Using a higher-octane gasoline than recommendedby the owners manual does not improve performance or fuelefficiency under normal conditions.Check your owners manualfor the recommended grade of fuel for your vehicle,and visitfueleconomy.gov for more information about selecting the rightoctane for your vehicle.FUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 20255Charging Your Electric or Plug-in Hybrid VehicleElectric vehicle(EV)and plug-in hybrid owners have several chargingoptions.Many owners will do most of their charging at home.Someworkplaces,businesses,and multi-unit dwellings(condos/apartments)provide charging,and more than 65,000 public charging stations withover 177,000 charging ports are available across the country.There are three basic types of charging:Level 1 charging:You can plug into a regular 120-volt(V)outletthe kind found in your home.This is the slowest type of chargingabout 2 to 5 miles of range per hour of chargingbut requires nospecial charger or outlet type.Most,if not all,plug-in vehicles areequipped with a cord to allow this type of charging.Level 2 charging:These chargers supply current at 208 to 240 V andprovide 10 to 20 miles of range per hour of charging.Most publicchargers are Level 2 chargers.You can also have a Level 2 chargerinstalled at home.Most public chargers use a standard plug typethat is compatible with all vehicles from major manufacturers.Teslacharging stations use a different plug type that cannot be used byother vehicles.However,Tesla provides an adaptor that allows itsvehicles to use both Tesla and standard Level 2 charging stations.Fast charging:Also called DC fast charging or DC quick charging,this is the fastest kind of charging,providing 60 to 80 miles of range(or more)to the battery in 20 minutes.Not all vehicles can acceptfast charging,nor do all vehicles use the same type of plug forDC fast charging,so check your owners manual.Quick chargingstations are usually located along heavy traffic corridors.Due toexpense and electric current requirements,they are not practical forhome installation.Note:Charge rate can vary based on vehicle model.So,check theowners manual for estimated charge time.Charge rate also dependson other factors,such as the batterys state of charge and the ambienttemperature.Visit afdc.energy.gov/fuels/electricity_infrastructure.htmlfor more information.ALTERNATIVE FUELING STATION LOCATORWondering where you can fuel up your alternative fuel vehicle?TheAlternative Fueling Station Locator can help you nd a station nearyou or within a given distance from a planned route.The StationLocator shows fueling locations for ethanol,electricity,biodiesel,propane,natural gas,and hydrogen.Check it out at afdc.energy.gov/stations.IMPROVE YOUR FUEL ECONOMY6Drive More EfficientlyAggressive driving(speeding and rapid acceleration/braking)canlower your gas mileage by roughly 150%at highway speedsand 10%in stop-and-go traffic.Driver feedback devices can help you drive more efficiently,improving fuel economy by up to 10%.Observe the speed limit.Each 5 MPH you drive over 60 MPH canreduce your fuel economy by 7%.For a personalized estimate of theeffect of speeding on your fuel economy,visit fueleconomy.gov.Avoid idling.Idling gets 0 miles per gallon and costs as much as$0.02 per minute.Using cruise control on the highway helps you maintain a constantspeed and,in most cases,will save fuel.Keep Your Car in ShapeAddress engine problems promptly.If the check engine light comeson,have your vehicle inspected by a mechanic.It could save youfuel and money down the road.Keeping tires inated to the recommended pressure can typicallyimprove fuel economy by 0.6%.The manufacturers recommended tire pressure can be foundon the tire information placard and/or vehicle certication labellocated on the vehicle door edge,doorpost,glove-box door,orinside the trunk lid.Using the recommended grade of motor oil can improve your fueleconomy by 1%2%if youve been using the wrong grade.Keep your tires aligned and balanced.Replacing a clogged air lter can improve gas mileage on older carswith carbureted engines.Plan and Combine TripsA warmed-up engine is more fuel-efficient than a cold one.Manyshort trips taken from a cold start can use twice as much fuel as onemultipurpose trip covering the same distance.Note:Letting your car idle to warm up doesnt help your fueleconomy:it actually uses more fuel and creates more pollution.Other SolutionsAvoid carrying unneeded items.An extra 100 pounds can decreasefuel economy by about 1%.Avoid carrying cargo on your roof.A large,blunt rooftop cargo box,for example,can reduce fuel economy by 2%8%in city driving,6%on the highway,and 10%at interstate speeds(65 to75 MPH).Rear-mount cargo boxes or trays reduce fuel economy by much less(1%2%in city driving and 1%5%on the highway).Use the“economy mode”feature if your vehicle has one.For more tips on improving fuel economy,such as cold-weather tips;hot-weather tips;and tips for hybrids,plug-in hybrids,and all-electricvehicles,visit fueleconomy.gov.Tips for Electric and Hybrid VehiclesMost of the driving tips for conventional vehicles will also helpincrease the range of electric vehicles and hybrids.In addition to thedriving tips above,the tips below will help you get the most out ofyour electric or hybrid vehicle.1.Read your owners manual.The automaker knows how to operateand maintain your vehicle to maximize fuel economy,drivingrange,and battery life.So,consult the owners manual for tipsspecic to your vehicle.2.Use the economy(Eco)mode.Many of these vehicles come withan economy mode or similar feature to improve fuel economy.You can often turn on this feature by just pressing a button.3.Avoid hard braking.Anticipate stops and brake gently ormoderately.This allows the regenerative braking system torecover energy from the vehicles forward motion and store it aselectricity.Hard braking causes the vehicle to use its conventionalfriction brakes,which do not recover energy.4.Keep the battery charged.Keeping your plug-in hybrids batterycharged helps you use as much electricity and as little gasoline aspossible,saving you fuel and money and extending the vehiclesrange.For EVs,it helps maximize your driving range.5.Use accessories wisely.Using accessories such as heating,airconditioning,and entertainment systems can lower fuel economymore for electric vehicles and hybrids than for conventionalvehicles.So,keep that in mind when trying to maximize fueleconomy or electric range.Pre-heating or pre-cooling the cabinof a plug-in hybrid or EV while its plugged in,for example,canextend its electric range.ADVANCED VEHICLE TECHNOLOGIESFUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 20257Manufacturers are using advanced technologies to improve fueleconomy in many of their vehicles.Along with plug-in hybrids,all-electric vehicles,and fuel cell vehicles,new technologies are alsobeing used to make conventional vehicles more efficient.Someof these fuel-saving technologies are described below.For moreinformation,visit fueleconomy.gov.Hybrid VehiclesHybrids combine the best features of the internal combustion enginewith an electric motor and can signicantly improve fuel economy.They are primarily propelled by an internal combustion engine,just like conventional vehicles.However,they also use regenerativebraking to convert energy normally wasted during coasting andbraking into electricity.The recovered electricity is stored in a batteryuntil needed by the electric motor.The electric motor assists theengine when accelerating or hill climbing and at low speeds,whereinternal combustion engines are least efficient.Fuel efficiency can vary signicantly among different hybrid modelsdue to battery and electric motor size.Hybrids with larger batteriesand electric motors,sometimes called full or strong hybrids,canstore more electricity and provide more power to assist the gasolineengine.Some can even run on the electric motor alone for shortdistances.Hybrids with smaller batteries and electric motors are oftenreferred to as mild hybrids.Mild hybrid systems have a smaller effecton fuel economy.In the Guide listings,full hybrids are indicated byHEV in the Notes column,while mild hybrids are indicated byMHEV.Note:Unlike plug-in hybrids(described on page 41),conventional hybridscannot be plugged into an external source of electricity to be rechargedor run on electricity for any substantial distance.Instead,gasoline andregenerative braking provide all of the vehicles energy.Stop-Start SystemsStop-start systems(sometimes called idle-stop,smart start,or othermanufacturer-specic names)save fuel by turning off the enginewhen the vehicle comes to a stop and automatically starting it backup when you step on the accelerator.Stop-start can improve fueleconomy by up to 5%and provides the biggest benet in conditionswhere the engine would otherwise be idling,such as stop-and-go citydriving.These systems are currently available on all hybrids and onhundreds of conventional vehicle models.Cylinder DeactivationCylinder deactivation turns off some of the engines cylinders whenthey are not needed.This temporarily and seamlessly turns an 8-or 6-cylinder engine into a more efficient 4-or 3-cylinder engine.TurbochargingTurbocharging increases engine power,allowing a smaller,more fuel-efficient engine to be used in place of a larger one.Replacing an 8-cylinder engine with a turbocharged 6-cylinder or a 6-cylinder enginewith a turbocharged 4-cylinder can save fuel and still provide extrapower when needed.Advanced TransmissionsThe advanced electronics in todays vehicles can optimize gear shiftingfor improved fuel efficiency.Eight-speed automatic transmissionsare most common,and some have even more gears.Continuouslyvariable transmissions(CVTs)can change seamlessly through aninnite number of gears.Transmissions with more gears allow theengine to run at its most efficient speed more often,improving fueleconomy.Improved AerodynamicsReducing a vehicles aerodynamic drag(wind resistance)improvesfuel economy,especially at higher speeds.Many manufacturers areimproving aerodynamics by rening vehicle shapes or by employingexternal moving parts such as shutters that close off the grill,allowing air to ow smoothly around the vehicle instead of into theengine compartment,where it produces more drag.Lighter VehiclesReducing vehicle weight improves fuel economy,so manufacturersare beginning to redesign vehicles to weigh less while maintainingperformance and safety.For example,replacing a steel body with onemade from a lighter-weight material,such as aluminum,can reducevehicle weight by hundreds of pounds.ANNUAL FUEL COST RANGES FOR VEHICLE CLASSES8The graph below provides the annual fuel cost ranges for the vehicles in each class so you can see where a given vehicles cost falls within itsclass.Annual fuel costs assume that you travel 15,000 miles each year,drive 55%in the city and 45%on the highway,and that fuel costs$3.15/gallon for regular unleaded gasoline,$4.09/gallon for premium,$3.68/gallon for diesel,and$0.15/kWh for electricity.Visit fueleconomy.gov tocalculate the annual fuel cost for a specic vehicle based on your own driving conditions and fuel prices.Annual Fuel CostFuel economy estimates on this chart do not include vehicles operating on compressed natural gas(CNG),E85,or hydrogen.FUEL ECONOMY LEADERSFUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 20259Listed below are vehicles with the highest fuel economy in the mostpopular classes.For each vehicle class,we list the most efficientvehicle.If the most fuel efficient vehicle is a plug-in hybrid(PHEV)orall-electric vehicle(EV),we also list the most fuel efficient conventionalvehicle.Rankings are based on combined city and highway fueleconomy estimates,which assume 55%city driving and 45%highwaydriving.Please note that many vehicle models come in a rangeof engine sizes and trim lines,resulting in different fuel economyvalues.If there is only one vehicle in a class,a fuel economy leaderis not listed.For an up-to-date list of fuel economy leaders,visitfueleconomy.gov.Trans Type/SpeedsEng Size/CylindersMPG(e)CombinedTWO-SEATER CARSBUGATTI RIMACNevera(EV).A-1.53*BMWZ4 sDrive30i.A-S8.2.0L/4cyl.28MINICOMPACT CARSFIAT500e(EV).A-1.116*SUBARUBRZ.A-S6.2.4L/4cyl.25SUBCOMPACT CARSAUDIS e-tron GT(20 inch wheels)(EV).A-1.90*MINICooper Hardtop 2 door.AM-S7.2.0L/4cyl.32Cooper S Hardtop 2 door.AM-S7.2.0L/4cyl.32COMPACT CARSBMWi4 eDrive35 Gran Coupe(18 inch Wheels)(EV).A-1.116*TOYOTACorolla Hybrid.AV.1.8L/4cyl.47MIDSIZE CARSTESLAModel 3 Long Range RWD(EV).A-1.137*HYUNDAIElantra Hybrid Blue.AM-S6.1.6L/4cyl.54LARGE CARSLUCIDAir Pure RWD with 19 inch wheels(EV).A-1.146*HONDAAccord Hybrid.AV.2.0L/4cyl.48Civic 5Dr(hybrid).AV.2.0L/4cyl.48SMALL STATION WAGONSVOLVOV60 T8 AWD(PHEV).A-S8.2.0L/4cyl.52TOYOTACrown Signia AWD(hybrid).AV-S6.2.5L/4cyl.38Trans Type/SpeedsEng Size/CylindersMPG(e)CombinedMIDSIZE STATION WAGONSMERCEDES-BENZEQE 350 Plus(SUV)(EV).A-1.93*AUDIA6 Allroad quattro(hybrid).AM-S7.3.0L/6cyl.25MERCEDES-BENZE450 4matic All-Terrain(wagon)(hybrid).A-9.3.0L/6cyl.25VOLVOV90CC B6 AWD(hybrid).A-S8.2.0L/4cyl.25STANDARD PICKUP TRUCKSRIVIANR1T Dual Max(22in)(EV).A-1.87*R1T Performance Dual Max(22in)(EV).A-1.87*CHEVROLETSilverado 2WD(diesel).A-10.3.0L/6cyl.26GMCSierra 2WD(diesel).A-10.3.0L/6cyl.26MINIVANSVOLKSWAGENID.Buzz(EV).A-1.83*KIACarnival Hybrid.AM-S6.1.6L/4cyl.33SMALL SPORT UTILITY VEHICLESTESLAModel Y Long Range RWD(EV).A-1.125*KIANiro FE(hybrid).AM-S6.1.6L/4cyl.53STANDARD SPORT UTILITY VEHICLESAUDIQ4 45 e-tron(EV).A-1.115*VOLVOXC90 B5 AWD(hybrid).A-S8.2.0L/4cyl.26*This is an electric vehicle.Since electricity is not measured in gallons,a conversion factor is used to translate the fuel economy into miles per gallon of gasolineequivalent(MPGe).This vehicle is a plug-in hybrid,which runs on both gasoline and electricity.Since electricity is not measured in gallons,a conversion factor is used to translatethe fuel economy when running on electricity into miles per gallon of gasoline equivalent(MPGe).The combined MPGe estimate includes both city andhighway driving and gasoline and electric energy use.2025 MODEL YEAR VEHICLES10This section contains the fuel economy values for 2025 model yearvehicles.Additional information for alternative fuel vehicles canbe found on pages 3248.Alternative fuel vehicles are highlightedwith an orange bar,and those that can use two kinds of fuel,such asexible fuel vehicles,have an entry for each fuel type.The most fuel-efficient vehicles in each class are marked with a blue pointer().ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS GUIDE.Highest MPG in Class2WD.Two-Wheel Drive4WD.Four-Wheel DriveA.Automatic TransmissionA-S.Automatic Transmission-Select ShiftAM.Automated ManualAM-S.Automated Manual-SelectableAV.Continuously Variable TransmissionAV-S.Continuously Variable Transmission withSelect ShiftAWD.All-Wheel DriveCD.With Cylinder DeactivationCity.MPG on City Test ProcedureCyl.CylindersComb.CombinedD.Ultra-Low Sulfur DieselE85.85%Ethanol/15%GasolineEng Size.Engine Volume in LitersEV.Electric VehicleFFV.Flexible Fuel VehicleFWD.Front-Wheel DriveGas.Regular GasolineGHG.Greenhouse GasGPF.Gasoline Particulate FilterGVWR.Gross Vehicle Weight RatingHP.HorsepowerHEV.Hybrid-Electric VehicleHwy.MPG on Highway Test ProcedureLi-ion.Lithium ionLWB.Long WheelbaseM.Manual TransmissionMDPV.Medium-Duty Passenger VehicleMid.Midgrade GasolineMHEV.Mild Hybrid-Electric VehicleMode.Multimode TransmissionMPG.Miles per GallonNA.Not AvailableNi-MH.Nickel-Metal HydrideP.Premium Gasoline RecommendedPHEV.Plug-in Hybrid Electric VehiclePR.Premium Gasoline RequiredPT4.Part-time 4WDRWD.Rear Wheel DriveS.SuperchargerS-Mode.Transmission with Sport ModeS-Plus.Sport Plus PackageSpt Pkg.Sport PackageSS.Stop-Start TechnologyT.TurbochargerTax.Subject to Gas Guzzler TaxTrans.TransmissionXFE.Optional Technology PackageFUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202511MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesTWO-SEATER CARSASTON MARTINVantageA-8,4.0L,8cyl1815/22$3,4004P TBMWZ4 M40iA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2523/29$2,4505P T SSM-6,3.0L,6cyl2219/26$2,8005P T SSZ4 sDrive30i A-S8,2.0L,4cyl2825/33$2,2006P T SSBUGATTIMistralAM-S7,8.0L,16cyl98/12$6,8001PR T TaxBUGATTI RIMACNevera A-15352/54$1,40010EVCHEVROLETCorvetteA-S8,6.2L,8cyl1916/25$3,2504PR CDCorvette E-RayA-S8,6.2L,8cyl1916/24$3,2504PR CD HEV SSCorvette Z06A-S8,5.5L,8cyl1412/20$4,4002PR TaxCorvette Z06 Carbon AeroA-S8,5.5L,8cyl1412/19$4,4002PR TaxFERRARI296 GTBAM-S8,2.9L,6cylSee page 41.PR T PHEV SS296 GTSAM-S8,2.9L,6cylSee page 41.PR T PHEV SSDaytona SP3AM-7,6.5L,12cyl1312/16$4,7001PR Tax SSF167 ABAAM-8,6.5L,12cyl1412/19$4,4002PR Tax SSSF90 SpiderAM-8,3.9L,8cylSee page 41.PR T Tax PHEVSSSF90 XX SpiderAM-8,3.9L,8cylSee page 41.PR T Tax PHEVSSSF90 XX StradaleAM-8,3.9L,8cylSee page 41.PR T Tax PHEVSSLAMBORGHINIRevueltoAM-S8,6.5L,12cyl1210/17$5,1001PR Tax HEV SSMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesMASERATIMC20A-S8,3.0L,6cyl1815/25$3,4004PR TMC20 SpyderA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1815/25$3,4004PR TMERCEDES-BENZAMG GT 55 4matic Plus(coupe)A-9,4.0L,8cyl1412/19$4,4002PR T Tax SSAMG GT 63 4matic Plus(coupe)A-9,4.0L,8cyl1412/19$4,4002PR T Tax SSPORSCHE718 Boxster GTSAM-S7,4.0L,6cyl2119/24$2,9004PRM-6,4.0L,6cyl1917/24$3,2504PR718 Cayman GTSAM-S7,4.0L,6cyl2119/24$2,9004PRM-6,4.0L,6cyl1917/24$3,2504PRTOYOTAGR SupraA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2725/31$2,2505P T SSA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2623/31$2,3505P T SSM-6,3.0L,6cyl2119/27$2,9004P TMINICOMPACT CARSASTON MARTINDB12 V8A-8,4.0L,8cyl1715/22$3,6003P TFERRARIRoma SpiderAM-8,3.9L,8cyl1917/22$3,2504PR T SSFIAT500e A-1116 127/104$65010EV500e All SeasonA-1110 121/100$70010EVMERCEDES-BENZAMG SL43A-9,2.0L,4cyl2219/27$2,8005PR T MHEV SSAMG SL55 4matic PlusA-9,4.0L,8cyl1613/21$3,8503PR T Tax SSAMG SL63 4matic PlusA-9,4.0L,8cyl1613/21$3,8503PR T Tax SSPORSCHE911 CarreraAM-S8,3.0L,6cyl2118/25$2,9004PR T SS12MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotes911 Carrera CabrioletAM-S8,3.0L,6cyl2118/25$2,9004PR T SS911 TurboAM-S8,3.7L,6cyl1714/21$3,6003PR T Tax SS911 Turbo CabrioletAM-S8,3.7L,6cyl1614/20$3,8503PR T Tax SS911 Turbo SAM-S8,3.7L,6cyl1614/20$3,8503PR T Tax SS911 Turbo S CabrioletAM-S8,3.7L,6cyl1614/20$3,8503PR T Tax SSSUBARUBRZ A-S6,2.4L,4cyl2521/30$2,4505PRM-6,2.4L,4cyl2220/27$2,8005PRSUBCOMPACT CARSAUDIA3 quattroAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2824/34$2,2006P T SSS e-tron GT(20 inch wheels)A-19091/88$85010EVS e-tron GT(21 inch wheels)A-18889/85$85010EVS3AM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2623/31$2,3505P T SSBMW230i CoupeA-S8,2.0L,4cyl3026/35$2,0506P T SS230i xDrive CoupeA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2825/33$2,2006P T SS430i ConvertibleA-S8,2.0L,4cyl3027/35$2,0506P T MHEV SS430i CoupeA-S8,2.0L,4cyl3128/36$2,0006P T MHEV SS430i xDrive ConvertibleA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2824/33$2,2006P T MHEV SS430i xDrive CoupeA-S8,2.0L,4cyl3027/34$2,0506P T MHEV SS840i ConvertibleA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2421/29$2,5505P T SS840i CoupeA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2421/29$2,5505P T SS840i xDrive ConvertibleA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2421/29$2,5505P T SS840i xDrive CoupeA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2421/29$2,5505P T SSM2 CoupeA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1916/23$3,2504PR T SSM-6,3.0L,6cyl1916/23$3,2504PR T SSM240i CoupeA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2623/32$2,3505P T SSMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesM240i xDrive CoupeA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2623/32$2,3505P T SSM4 Competition CoupeA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1916/23$3,2504PR T SSM4 Competition M xDrive ConvertibleA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1816/22$3,4004PR T SSM4 Competition M xDrive CoupeA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1816/23$3,4004PR T SSM4 CoupeM-6,3.0L,6cyl1916/23$3,2504PR T SSM4 CS CoupeA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1816/23$3,4004PR T SSM440i ConvertibleA-S8,3.0L,4cyl2927/33$2,1006P T MHEV SSM440i CoupeA-S8,3.0L,4cyl3027/34$2,0506P T MHEV SSM440i xDrive ConvertibleA-S8,3.0L,4cyl2825/32$2,2006P T MHEV SSM440i xDrive CoupeA-S8,3.0L,4cyl2926/33$2,1006P T MHEV SSM8 Competition ConvertibleA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1715/22$3,6003PR T Tax SSM8 Competition CoupeA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1715/22$3,6003PR T Tax SSM850i xDrive ConvertibleA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1917/24$3,2504P T SSM850i xDrive CoupeA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1917/24$3,2504P T SSMASERATIGrancabrio FolgoreA-18283/81$90010EVGranturismo FolgoreA-18385/81$90010EVMERCEDES-BENZAMG CLE53 4matic Plus(convertible)A-9,3.0L,6cyl2219/26$2,8005PR T S MHEV SSAMG CLE53 4matic Plus(coupe)A-9,3.0L,6cyl2320/27$2,6505PR T S MHEV SSAMG GT 43(coupe)A-9,2.0L,4cyl2219/27$2,8005PR T MHEV SSCLE300 4matic(Convertible)A-9,2.0L,4cyl2623/32$2,3505PR T MHEV SSCLE300 4matic(Coupe)A-9,2.0L,4cyl2724/33$2,2505PR T MHEV SSCLE450 4matic(Convertible)A-9,3.0L,6cyl2623/32$2,3505PR T S MHEV SSCLE450 4matic(Coupe)A-9,3.0L,6cyl2623/33$2,3505PR T S MHEV SSFUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202513MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesMINICooper Hardtop 2 door AM-S7,2.0L,4cyl3228/39$1,9006P T SSCooper S Hardtop 2 door AM-S7,2.0L,4cyl3228/39$1,9006P T SSTOYOTAGR CorollaA-S8,1.6L,3cyl2219/27$2,8005PR TM-6,1.6L,3cyl2421/28$2,5505PR TCOMPACT CARSACURATLX AWD A-SPECA-S10,2.0L,4cyl2421/29$2,5505P T SSTLX FWDA-S10,2.0L,4cyl2522/31$2,4505P T SSTLX Type-SA-S10,3.0L,6cyl2119/25$2,9004P T CD SSAUDIA4 quattroAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2926/36$2,1006P T MHEV SSA4 S line quattroAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2623/32$2,3505P T MHEV SSS4A-S8,3.0L,6cyl2420/29$2,5505P T SSBMW330i SedanA-S8,2.0L,4cyl3128/35$2,0006P T MHEV SS330i xDrive SedanA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2926/34$2,1006P T MHEV SS430i Gran CoupeA-S8,2.0L,4cyl3027/35$2,0506P T MHEV SS430i xDrive Gran CoupeA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2925/34$2,1006P T MHEV SSi4 eDrive35 Gran Coupe(18 inch Wheels)A-1116 117/114$65010EVi4 eDrive35 Gran Coupe(19 inch Wheels)A-1106 108/104$70010EVi4 eDrive40 Gran Coupe(18 inch wheels)A-1112 113/111$70010EVi4 eDrive40 Gran Coupe(19 inch Wheels)A-1104 106/103$75010EVi4 M50 Gran Coupe(19 inch wheels)A-19493/96$80010EVi4 M50 Gran Coupe(20 inch wheels)A-18080/80$95010EVi4 xDrive40 Gran Coupe(18 inch Wheels)A-110199/103$75010EVMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesi4 xDrive40 Gran Coupe(19 inch Wheels)A-19493/95$80010EVi5 eDrive40 Sedan(19 inch Wheels)A-1105 104/105$70010EVi5 eDrive40 Sedan(20 inch Wheels)A-19999/98$75010EVi5 eDrive40 Sedan(21 inch Wheels)A-19697/94$80010EVi5 M60 xDrive Sedan(19 inch Wheels)A-19089/91$85010EVi5 M60 xDrive Sedan(20 inch Wheels)A-18888/88$85010EVi5 M60 xDrive Sedan(21 inch Wheels)A-18483/85$90010EVi5 xDrive40 Sedan(19 inch Wheels)A-19392/95$80010EVi5 xDrive40 Sedan(20 inch Wheels)A-19392/94$80010EVi5 xDrive40 Sedan(21 inch Wheels)A-18786/87$85010EVM3 Competition M xDrive SedanA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1816/23$3,4004PR T SSM3 Competition SedanA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1916/23$3,2504PR T SSM3 SedanM-6,3.0L,6cyl1916/23$3,2504PR T SSM340i SedanA-S8,3.0L,4cyl2927/33$2,1006P T MHEV SSM340i xDrive SedanA-S8,3.0L,4cyl2926/33$2,1006P T MHEV SSM440i Gran CoupeA-S8,3.0L,4cyl2826/32$2,2006P T MHEV SSM440i xDrive Gran CoupeA-S8,3.0L,4cyl2725/31$2,2505P T MHEV SSCADILLACCT4A-S8,2.0L,4cyl2622/32$2,3505PR T CD SSA-S10,2.7L,4cyl2521/31$2,4505PR T CD SSCT4 AWDA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2521/31$2,4505PR T CD SSA-S10,2.7L,4cyl2421/29$2,5505PR T CD SSCT4 VA-S10,2.7L,4cyl2320/29$2,6505PR T CD SSA-S10,3.6L,6cyl1916/24$3,2504PR TM-6,3.6L,6cyl1815/23$3,4004PR TCT4 V AWDA-S10,2.7L,4cyl2320/28$2,6505PR T CD SSGENESISG70 AWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2320/28$2,6505P TA-S8,3.3L,6cyl1917/23$3,2504P T14MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesG70 RWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2421/29$2,5505P TA-S8,3.3L,6cyl2017/25$3,0504P TLEXUSUX 300hAV,2.0L,4cyl4345/41$1,1007HEV SSAV-S6,2.0L,4cyl4345/41$1,1007HEV SSUX 300h AWDAV,2.0L,4cyl4244/40$1,1007HEV SSAV-S6,2.0L,4cyl4244/40$1,1007HEV SSMAZDA3 4-Door 2WDA-S6,2.5L,4cyl3127/37$1,5006CD3 4-Door 4WDA-S6,2.5L,4cyl3026/35$1,6006CDA-S6,2.5L,4cyl2723/32$1,7505TMERCEDES-BENZAMG C43 4maticA-9,2.0L,4cyl2219/27$2,8005PR T MHEV SSAMG CLA35 4maticAM-8,2.0L,4cyl2522/29$2,4505PR T MHEV SSAMG CLA45 S 4maticAM-8,2.0L,4cyl2320/28$2,6505PR T SSC300A-9,2.0L,4cyl2925/35$2,1006PR T MHEV SSC300 4maticA-9,2.0L,4cyl2724/33$2,2505PR T MHEV SSCLA250AM-8,2.0L,4cyl3026/36$2,0506PR T MHEV SSCLA250 4maticAM-8,2.0L,4cyl2925/34$2,1006PR T MHEV SSMINICooper S Hardtop 4 doorAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl3228/39$1,9006P T SSNISSANVersaAV,1.6L,4cyl3532/40$1,3507M-5,1.6L,4cyl3027/35$1,6006PORSCHETaycan 4S Perf Battery PlusA-28789/85$85010EVTaycan 4S Perf Battery Plus 19 inch WheelsA-29394/92$80010EVTaycan 4S Performance BatteryA-28890/85$85010EVTaycan Perf Battery PlusA-29294/90$80010EVTaycan Performance BatteryA-29194/88$85010EVMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesTaycan TurboA-28688/83$90010EVTaycan Turbo 21in Aero-Design wheel(285/35)A-29394/92$80010EVTaycan Turbo GTA-28286/78$90010EVTaycan Turbo GT with Weissach PackageA-28185/76$95010EVTaycan Turbo SA-27980/78$95010EVTaycan Turbo S 21in Aero-Design wheel(285/35)A-29090/90$85010EVROLLS-ROYCESpectre(22 inch wheels)A-17774/82$1,00010EVSpectre(23 inch Wheels)A-17067/75$1,10010EVSpectre Black Badge(22 inch wheels)A-17470/80$1,00010EVSpectre Black Badge(23 inch wheels)A-17067/74$1,10010EVTOYOTACorollaAV,2.0L,4cyl3532/41$1,35071-modeAV,2.0L,4cyl3431/40$1,4007AV-S10,2.0L,4cyl3431/38$1,40073-ModeCorolla FXAV,2.0L,4cyl3431/39$1,4007Corolla HatchbackAV-S10,2.0L,4cyl3532/41$1,3507Corolla Hatchback XSEAV-S10,2.0L,4cyl3330/38$1,4506Corolla Hybrid AV,1.8L,4cyl4750/43$1,0008HEV SSCorolla Hybrid AWDAV,1.8L,4cyl4447/41$1,0507HEV SSVOLKSWAGENGLIAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2925/35$1,6506T SSM-6,2.0L,4cyl3026/36$1,6006T SSJettaA-S8,1.5L,4cyl3329/39$1,4506T SSJetta Sport/SE/SELA-S8,1.5L,4cyl3329/40$1,4506T SSVOLVOS60 B5A-S8,2.0L,4cyl3027/36$2,0506PR T MHEV SSS60 B5 AWDA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2825/34$2,2006PR T MHEV SSFUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202515MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesS60 T8 AWDA-S8,2.0L,4cylSee page 41.PR T PHEV SSMIDSIZE CARSALFA ROMEOGiuliaA-8,2.0L,4cyl2724/33$2,2505P T SSGiulia AWDA-8,2.0L,4cyl2623/31$2,3505P T SSAUDIA5 Sportback quattroAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2926/36$2,1006P T MHEV SSA5 Sportback S line quattroAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2623/32$2,3505P T MHEV SSA6 quattroAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2624/31$2,3505P T MHEV SSAM-S7,3.0L,6cyl2522/30$2,4505P T MHEV SSA7 quattroAM-S7,3.0L,6cyl2522/30$2,4505P T MHEV SSRS 5 SportbackA-S8,2.9L,6cyl2018/25$3,0504P TRS 7A-S8,4.0L,8cyl1714/21$3,6003P T Tax CDMHEV SSS5 SportbackA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2320/29$2,6505P T SSS6A-S8,2.9L,6cyl2219/27$2,8005P MHEV SSS7A-S8,2.9L,6cyl2219/27$2,8005P MHEV SSBMW530i SedanA-S8,2.0L,4cyl3128/35$2,0006P T MHEV SS530i xDrive SedanA-S8,2.0L,4cyl3027/35$2,0506P T MHEV SS540i xDrive SedanA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2826/33$2,2006P T MHEV SS840i Gran CoupeA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2421/29$2,5505P T SS840i xDrive Gran CoupeA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2421/29$2,5505P T SSAlpina B8 Gran CoupeA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1917/24$3,2504P T SSM8 Competition Gran CoupeA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1715/22$3,6003PR T Tax SSM850i xDrive Gran CoupeA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1917/24$3,2504P T SSCADILLACCT5A-S10,2.0L,4cyl2623/32$2,3505PR T CD SSA-S10,3.0L,6cyl2219/28$2,8005PR T CD SSMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesCT5 AWDA-S10,2.0L,4cyl2521/30$2,4505PR T CD SSA-S10,3.0L,6cyl2118/26$2,9004PR T CD SSCT5 VA-S10,3.0L,6cyl2118/27$2,9004PR T CD SSA-S10,6.2L,8cyl1513/20$4,1002PR S Tax CDM-6,6.2L,8cyl1513/20$4,1002PR S TaxCT5 V AWDA-S10,3.0L,6cyl2017/26$3,0504PR T CD SSCHEVROLETMalibuAV,1.5L,4cyl3128/36$1,5006T SSGENESISElectried G80A-197105/89$80010EVHONDAAccord Hybrid Sport/TouringAV,2.0L,4cyl4446/41$1,0507HEV SSCivic 4DrM-6,1.5L,4cyl3127/37$2,0006P T SSAV,2.0L,4cyl4950/47$9508HEV SSAV,2.0L,4cyl3632/41$1,3007SSAV-S7,2.0L,4cyl3431/39$1,4007SSHYUNDAIElantraAM-S7,1.6L,4cyl3128/35$1,5006TAV-S1,2.0L,4cyl3632/41$1,3007SSAV-S1,2.0L,4cyl3430/39$1,4007Elantra HybridAM-S6,1.6L,4cyl5049/52$9508HEV SSElantra Hybrid Blue AM-S6,1.6L,4cyl5451/58$9008HEV SSElantra NAM-S8,2.0L,4cyl2320/27$2,6505P TM-6,2.0L,4cyl2421/29$2,5505P TIoniq 6 AWD(18 inch Wheels)A-1121 130/111$65010EVIoniq 6 AWD(20 inch Wheels)A-1103111/94$75010EVIoniq 6 RWD(18 inch Wheels)A-1132 144/120$60010EVIoniq 6 RWD(20 inch Wheels)A-1111 123/100$65010EVIoniq 6 Standard RangeA-1135 151/120$55010EVKIAK4AV-S1,2.0L,4cyl3430/40$1,4007AV-S1,2.0L,4cyl3329/39$1,4506with DMS16MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesLEXUSES 250 AWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2824/33$1,7006ES 300hAV-S6,2.5L,4cyl4443/44$1,0507HEV SSES 350A-S8,3.5L,6cyl2522/32$1,9005ES 350 F SportA-S8,3.5L,6cyl2522/31$1,9005MAZDA3 5-Door 2WDA-S6,2.5L,4cyl3027/35$1,6006CDM-6,2.5L,4cyl3026/36$1,6006CD3 5-Door 4WDA-S6,2.5L,4cyl2926/33$1,6506CDA-S6,2.5L,4cyl2623/31$1,8005TMERCEDES-BENZAMG EQE 4matic PlusA-17069/71$1,10010EV SSE350A-9,2.0L,4cyl2825/33$2,2006PR T MHEV SSE350 4maticA-9,2.0L,4cyl2724/33$2,2505PR T MHEV SSE450 4maticA-9,3.0L,6cyl2522/31$2,4505PR T S MHEV SSEQE 350 4maticA-18687/85$90010EV SSEQE 350 PlusA-19494/94$80010EV SSEQE 500 4maticA-18585/84$90010EV SSNISSANAltimaAV,2.5L,4cyl3227/39$1,5006Altima AWDAV,2.5L,4cyl2825/34$1,7006Altima SL/SRAV,2.5L,4cyl3127/37$1,5006LEAFA-1111123/99$70010EVLEAF SVA-1109121/98$70010EVSentraAV,2.0L,4cyl3430/40$1,4007SSSentra SRAV,2.0L,4cyl3330/38$1,4506SSPOLESTAR2 Dual Motor(19 Inch Wheels)A-1101105/95$75010EVMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotes2 Dual Motor(20 Inch Wheels)A-197101/92$80010EV2 Dual Motor Performance PackA-19195/87$85010EV2 Single Motor(19 Inch Wheels)A-1114 123/104$65010EV2 Single Motor(20 Inch Wheels)A-1109 117/101$70010EVPORSCHETaycan 4 Cross TurismoA-28184/79$95010EVTaycan 4S Cross TurismoA-28082/77$95010EVTaycan Turbo Cross TurismoA-27880/76$95010EVTaycan Turbo S Cross TurismoA-27779/75$1,00010EVSUBARULegacy AWDAV-S8,2.4L,4cyl2623/31$1,8005T SSAV-S8,2.5L,4cyl3027/35$1,6006SSTESLAModel 3 Long Range AWDA-1128 133/122$60010EVModel 3 Long Range RWD A-1137 145/128$55010EVTOYOTACamry HEV AWD LEAV-S6,2.5L,4cyl5051/49$9508HEV SSCamry HEV AWD SE/XLEAV-S6,2.5L,4cyl4646/46$1,0508HEV SSCamry HEV AWD XSEAV-S6,2.5L,4cyl4444/43$1,0507HEV SSCamry HEV FF LEAV-S6,2.5L,4cyl5153/50$9508HEV SSCamry HEV FF SE/XLE/XSEAV-S6,2.5L,4cyl4748/47$1,0008HEV SSCrown AWDAV-S6,2.4L,4cyl3029/32$1,6006T HEV SSAV,2.5L,4cyl4142/41$1,1507HEV SSVOLVOS90 B6 AWDA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2623/31$2,3505PR T S MHEV SSLARGE CARSACURAIntegraAV-S7,1.5L,4cyl3330/37$1,8506P T SSM-6,2.0L,4cyl2421/28$2,5505P TFUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202517MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesIntegra A-SpecAV-S7,1.5L,4cyl3229/36$1,9006P T SSM-6,1.5L,4cyl3026/36$2,0506P T SSAUDIA8 quattroA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2220/26$2,8005P T MHEV SSS8A-S8,4.0L,8cyl1815/24$3,4004P T CD MHEV SSBMW740i SedanA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2825/31$2,2006P T MHEV SS740i xDrive SedanA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2724/31$2,2505P T MHEV SS760i xDrive SedanA-S8,4.4L,8cyl2018/25$3,0504P T MHEV SSi7 eDrive50 Sedan(19 inch Wheels)A-18885/93$85010EVi7 eDrive50 Sedan(20 inch Wheels)A-18582/88$90010EVi7 eDrive50 Sedan(21 inch Wheels)A-18784/90$90010EVi7 M70 xDrive Sedan(20 inch Wheels)A-17572/79$1,00010EVi7 M70 xDrive Sedan(21 inch Wheels)A-17977/83$95010EVi7 xDrive60 Sedan(19 inch wheels)A-18885/91$85010EVi7 xDrive60 Sedan(20 inch wheels)A-18381/85$90010EVi7 xDrive60 Sedan(21inch wheels)A-18785/89$85010EVGENESISG80 AWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2420/29$2,5505P T SSA-S8,3.5L,6cyl1916/24$3,2504P T SSG90 AWDA-S8,3.5L,6cyl2118/26$2,9004P T SSG90 MHEVA-S8,3.5L,6cyl2017/24$3,0504P T S MHEV SSHONDAAccordAV,1.5L,4cyl3229/37$1,5006T SSAccord Hybrid AV,2.0L,4cyl4851/44$1,0008HEV SSCivic 5Dr AV,2.0L,4cyl4850/45$1,0008HEV SSAV-S7,2.0L,4cyl3430/38$1,4007SSM-6,2.0L,4cyl2422/28$2,5505P TMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesHYUNDAISonata AWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2825/34$1,7006Sonata FWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl3228/38$1,5006SSA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2925/36$1,6506AM-S8,2.5L,4cyl2723/32$1,7505TSonata HybridAM-S6,2.0L,4cyl4744/51$1,0008HEV SSKIAK5A-S8,2.5L,4cyl3026/37$1,6006SSA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2925/36$1,6506AM-S8,2.5L,4cyl2723/33$1,7505TK5 AWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2724/33$1,7505LUCIDAir G Touring XR AWD with 19 inch wheelsA-1128 129/126$60010EVAir G Touring XR AWD with 20 inch wheelsA-1120 122/117$65010EVAir G Touring XR AWD with 21 inch wheelsA-1112 114/109$70010EVAir Pure RWD with 19 inch wheels A-1146 149/142$50010EVAir Pure RWD with 20 inch wheelsA-1129 132/125$60010EVAir Sapphire AWDA-1105 108/101$70010EVAir Touring AWD with 19 inch wheelsA-1132 133/130$60010EVAir Touring AWD with 20 inch wheelsA-1121 124/119$60010EVAir Touring AWD with 21 inch wheelsA-1116 119/113$65010EVMERCEDES-BENZAMG EQS 4matic PlusA-17876/81$95010EV SSEQS 450 4maticA-19291/93$85010EV SSEQS 450 PlusA-19898/98$75010EV SSEQS 580 4maticA-19393/93$80010EV SSMaybach S680 4maticA-9,6.0L,12cyl1512/20$4,1002PR T Tax SSS500 4maticA-9,3.0L,6cyl2421/31$2,5505PR T S MHEV SSS580 4maticA-9,4.0L,8cyl2017/25$3,0504PR T MHEV SS18MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesS580 4matic MaybachA-9,4.0L,8cyl2016/27$3,0504PR T MHEV SSPORSCHEPanameraAM-S8,2.9L,6cyl2118/25$2,9004PR T SSPanamera 4AM-S8,2.9L,6cyl2118/25$2,9004PR T SSTESLAModel S Plaid(19in wheels)A-1104108/99$75010EVModel S Plaid(21in wheels)A-19397/89$80010EVSMALL STATION WAGONSAUDIA4 allroad quattroAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2623/30$2,3505P T MHEV SSBUICKEnvistaA-6,1.2L,3cyl3028/32$1,6006T SSA-6,1.2L,3cyl3028/32$1,6006Gas T SS2220/24$1,8506E85CHEVROLETTraxA-6,1.2L,3cyl3028/32$1,6006Gas T SS2221/24$1,8506E85A-6,1.2L,3cyl2928/31$1,6506T SSHONDAHR-V AWDAV,2.0L,4cyl2725/30$1,7505HR-V FWDAV,2.0L,4cyl2826/32$1,7006KIASoulAV,2.0L,4cyl3027/33$1,6006SSSoul Eco dynamicsAV,2.0L,4cyl3129/35$1,5006SSMERCEDES-BENZAMG GLA35 4maticAM-8,2.0L,4cyl2422/28$2,5505PR T MHEV SSAMG GLC43 4maticA-9,2.0L,4cyl2119/25$2,9004PR T MHEV SSAMG GLC43 4matic CoupeA-9,2.0L,4cyl2118/24$2,9004PR T MHEV SSMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesSUBARUImprezaAV-S8,2.0L,4cyl3027/34$1,6006SSAV-S8,2.5L,4cyl2926/33$1,6506SSTOYOTACrown Signia AWD AV-S6,2.5L,4cyl3839/37$1,2507HEV SSVOLVOV60 T8 AWD A-S8,2.0L,4cylSee page 41.PR T PHEV SSV60CC B5 AWDA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2724/31$2,2505PR T MHEV SSMIDSIZE STATION WAGONSAUDIA6 Allroad quattro AM-S7,3.0L,6cyl2522/30$2,4505P T MHEV SSRS 6 AvantA-S8,4.0L,8cyl1714/21$3,6003P T Tax CDMHEV SSMERCEDES-BENZAMG GLB35 4maticAM-8,2.0L,4cyl2321/26$2,6505PR T MHEV SSE450 4matic All-Terrain(wagon)A-9,3.0L,6cyl2522/31$2,4505PR T S MHEV SSEQE 350 Plus(SUV)A-19398/87$80010EV SSEQE 500 4matic(SUV)A-18183/78$95010EV SSVOLVOV90CC B6 AWD A-S8,2.0L,4cyl2522/29$2,4505PR T S MHEV SSSTANDARD PICKUP TRUCKS 2WDCHEVROLETSilverado 2WDA-8,2.7L,4cyl1918/21$2,5004T CD SSA-8,2.7L,4cyl1917/21$2,5004T CD S-Mode SS A-10,3.0L,6cyl2623/29$2,1005D T SSA-10,5.3L,8cyl1816/21$2,6004CD S-Mode SSA-10,5.3L,8cyl1816/21$2,6004CD SSGMCSierra 2WDA-8,2.7L,4cyl1918/21$2,5004T CD SSA-8,2.7L,4cyl1917/21$2,5004T CD S-Mode SS A-10,3.0L,6cyl2623/29$2,1005D T SSA-10,5.3L,8cyl1816/21$2,6004CD S-Mode SSA-10,5.3L,8cyl1716/20$2,8003CD SSFUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202519MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesNISSANFrontier 2WDA-S9,3.8L,6cyl2119/24$2,2504SSRAM1500 2WDA-8,3.0L,6cyl2118/25$2,2504T SSA-8,3.6L,6cyl2220/25$2,1505MHEV SS1500 HFE 2WDA-8,3.6L,6cyl2320/26$2,0505MHEV SSTOYOTATundra 2WDA-S10,3.4L,6cyl2220/24$2,1505T HEV SSA-S10,3.4L,6cyl2018/23$2,3504T SSA-S10,3.4L,6cyl2018/23$2,3504T 3-Mode SSSTANDARD PICKUP TRUCKS 4WDCHEVROLETSilverado 4WDA-8,2.7L,4cyl1817/20$2,6004T CD S-Mode SSA-8,2.7L,4cyl1817/20$2,6004T CD SSA-10,3.0L,6cyl2422/26$2,3004D T S-Mode SSA-10,3.0L,6cyl2322/25$2,4004D T SSA-10,5.3L,8cyl1716/19$2,8003CD S-Mode SSA-10,5.3L,8cyl1716/19$2,8003CD SSA-10,5.3L,8cyl1615/19$2,9503CDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1715/19$2,8003Gas CD1211/14$3,4003E85A-10,6.2L,8cyl1715/20$3,6003PR CD SSSilverado 4WD ZR2A-10,3.0L,6cyl2120/23$2,6504D T SSA-10,6.2L,8cyl1514/17$4,1002PR CD SSSilverado EV(11 kW Charger)A-16874/61$1,10010EVSilverado EV(19 kW Charger)A-16470/59$1,20010EVSilverado EV 5WT(11 kW Charger)A-17077/63$1,10010EVSilverado EV 5WT(19 kW Charger)A-17077/63$1,10010EVSilverado EV 8WTA-16874/61$1,10010EVSilverado Mud Terrain Tires 4WDA-8,2.7L,4cyl1616/17$2,9503T CD S-Mode SSA-8,2.7L,4cyl1616/17$2,9503T CD SSA-10,3.0L,6cyl2321/24$2,4004D T S-Mode SSA-10,3.0L,6cyl2221/24$2,5004D T SSA-10,5.3L,8cyl1615/19$2,9503CDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1715/19$2,8003Gas CD1211/14$3,4003E85A-10,5.3L,8cyl1615/18$2,9503CD S-Mode SSA-10,5.3L,8cyl1615/18$2,9503CD SSA-10,6.2L,8cyl1514/17$4,1002PR CD SSMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesFORDF-150 Lightning 4WD ER1A-17078/63$1,1009EVF-150 Lightning 4WD PRO ER1A-17078/63$1,1009EVF-150 Lightning 4WD SRA-16876/61$1,1009EVF-150 Lightning Platinum 4WDA-16673/60$1,1509EVGMCHummer EV Pickup 2XA-15359/47$1,45010EVHummer EV Pickup 3XA-15258/46$1,45010EVHummer EV Pickup MT Tires 2XA-14752/42$1,60010EVHummer EV Pickup MT Tires 3XA-14853/43$1,60010EVSierra 4WDA-8,2.7L,4cyl1817/19$2,6004T CD SSA-8,2.7L,4cyl1717/18$2,8003T CD S-Mode SSA-10,3.0L,6cyl2422/26$2,3004D T S-Mode SSA-10,5.3L,8cyl1615/19$2,9503CDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1715/19$2,8003CD S-Mode SSA-10,5.3L,8cyl1715/19$2,8003CD SSA-10,5.3L,8cyl1715/19$2,8003Gas CD1211/14$3,4003E85A-10,6.2L,8cyl1615/19$3,8503PR CD SSSierra 4WD AT4XA-10,3.0L,6cyl1919/20$2,9003D T SSA-10,6.2L,8cyl1514/16$4,1002PR CD SSSierra EVA-16470/59$1,20010EVSierra Mud Terrain Tires 4WDA-8,2.7L,4cyl1616/17$2,9503T CD SSA-10,3.0L,6cyl2321/24$2,4004D T S-Mode SSA-10,5.3L,8cyl1615/19$2,9503CDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1715/19$2,8003Gas CD1211/14$3,4003E85A-10,5.3L,8cyl1615/18$2,9503CD S-Mode SSA-10,5.3L,8cyl1615/18$2,9503CD SSA-10,6.2L,8cyl1514/17$4,1002PR CD SSHONDARidgeline AWDA-S9,3.5L,6cyl2118/24$2,2504CD SSRidgeline AWD TrailSportA-S9,3.5L,6cyl2018/23$2,3504CD SSJEEPGladiator 4WDA-8,3.6L,6cyl1917/22$2,5004SS20MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesNISSANFrontier 4WDA-S9,3.8L,6cyl1917/21$2,5004PT4 SSFrontier 4WD PRO4XA-S9,3.8L,6cyl1816/20$2,6004PT4 SSRAM1500 4WDA-8,3.0L,6cyl1917/24$2,5004T SSA-8,3.6L,6cyl2119/24$2,2504MHEV SS1500 HO 4WDA-8,3.0L,6cyl1715/21$3,6003P T SS1500 RHO 4WDA-8,3.0L,6cyl1514/16$4,1002P T SSRIVIANR1T All-Terrain Dual Large(20in)A-17682/70$1,00010EVR1T All-Terrain Dual Large Plus(20in)A-17276/67$1,05010EVR1T All-Terrain Dual Max(20in)A-17882/73$95010PT4 EVR1T All-Terrain Performance Dual Large(20in)A-17682/70$1,00010EVR1T All-Terrain Performance Dual Large Plus(20in)A-17276/67$1,05010EVR1T All-Terrain Performance Dual Max(20in)A-17882/73$95010PT4 EVR1T All-Terrain Tri Max(20in)A-16872/63$1,10010EVR1T Dual Large(20in)A-17985/72$95010EVR1T Dual Large(22in)A-18594/77$90010EVR1T Dual Large Plus(20in)A-17885/72$95010EVR1T Dual Large Plus(22in)A-18289/75$90010EVR1T Dual Max(20in)A-18086/74$95010PT4 EVR1T Dual Max(22in)A-18793/80$85010PT4 EVR1T Dual Standard(20in)A-17985/72$95010PT4 EVR1T Dual Standard(22in)A-18592/77$90010PT4 EVR1T Performance Dual Large(20in)A-17985/72$95010EVR1T Performance Dual Large(22in)A-18594/77$90010EVR1T Performance Dual Large Plus(20in)A-17885/72$95010EVMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesR1T Performance Dual Large Plus(22in)A-18289/75$90010EVR1T Performance Dual Max(20in)A-18086/74$95010PT4 EVR1T Performance Dual Max(22in)A-18793/80$85010PT4 EVR1T Tri Max(22in)A-17681/70$1,00010EVTOYOTATundra 4WDA-S10,3.4L,6cyl1917/22$2,5004T PT4 3-Mode SSA-S10,3.4L,6cyl1917/22$2,5004T PT4 SSA-S10,3.4L,6cyl2019/22$2,3504T PT4 HEV SSTundra 4WD PROA-S10,3.4L,6cyl1918/20$2,5004T PT4 HEV SSSPECIAL PURPOSE VEHICLES 2WDCHEVROLETSilverado Cab Chassis 2WDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1615/18$2,9503CD SSGMCSierra Cab Chassis 2WDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1615/18$2,9503CD SSMERCEDES-BENZGLA250AM-8,2.0L,4cyl2926/34$2,1006PR T MHEV SSGLB250AM-8,2.0L,4cyl2825/33$2,2006PR T MHEV SSSPECIAL PURPOSE VEHICLES 4WDCHEVROLETSilverado Cab Chassis 4WDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1514/16$3,1502CD SSGMCSierra Cab Chassis 4WDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1514/16$3,1502CD SSMINIVANS 2WDCHRYSLERPacicaA-9,3.6L,6cyl2219/28$2,1505SSPacica HybridAV,3.6L,6cylSee page 41.PHEVVoyagerA-9,3.6L,6cyl2219/28$2,1505SSHONDAOdysseyA-S10,3.5L,6cyl2219/28$2,1505CD SSFUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202521MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesKIACarnivalA-S8,3.5L,6cyl2118/26$2,2504Carnival Hybrid AM-S6,1.6L,4cyl3334/31$1,4506T HEV SSVOLKSWAGENID.Buzz A-18390/75$90010EVMINIVANS 4WDCHRYSLERPacica AWDA-9,3.6L,6cyl2017/25$2,3504SSVOLKSWAGENID.Buzz 4motionA-18087/74$95010EVSMALL SPORT UTILITY VEHICLES 2WDACURAMDX FWDA-S10,3.5L,6cyl2219/26$2,8005P CD SSBUICKEncore GX FWDAV,1.2L,3cyl3030/31$1,6006Gas T SS2222/23$1,8506E85AV,1.3L,3cyl3029/31$1,6006T SSCADILLACLYRIQA-192100/83$80010EVXT4 FWDA-S9,2.0L,4cyl2624/29$2,3505PR T CD SSXT5 FWDA-S9,2.0L,4cyl2422/29$2,5505PR T CD SSA-S9,3.6L,6cyl2119/26$2,2504CD SSXT6 FWDA-S9,2.0L,4cyl2321/27$2,6505PR T CD SSA-S9,3.6L,6cyl2119/26$2,2504CD SSCHEVROLETBlazer EV RWDA-195106/85$80010EVBlazer FWDA-9,2.0L,4cyl2522/29$1,9005T CD SSA-9,3.6L,6cyl2219/26$2,1505CD SSEquinox EV FWDA-1109 117/100$70010EVEquinox FWDAV,1.5L,4cyl2726/28$1,7505T SSMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesTrailblazer FWDAV,1.2L,3cyl3030/31$1,6006Gas T SS2222/23$1,8506E85AV,1.3L,3cyl3129/33$1,5006T SSFORDEscape FWDA-8,1.5L,3cyl3027/34$1,6006T SSEscape FWD HEVAV,2.5L,4cyl3942/36$1,2007HEV SSEscape FWD PHEVAV,2.5L,4cylSee page 41.PHEV SSGENESISGV60 RWDA-1112125/99$70010EVGMCTerrain FWDAV,1.5L,4cyl2726/28$1,7505T SSHONDACR-V FWDAV,1.5L,4cyl3028/34$1,6006T SSAV,2.0L,4cyl4043/36$1,2007HEV SSPilot FWDA-S10,3.5L,6cyl2219/27$2,1505CD SSHYUNDAIIoniq 5 RWDA-1114 129/100$70010EVIoniq 5 Standard rangeA-1115 131/100$65010EVKona Electric(17 inch Wheels)A-1116 129/103$65010EVKona Electric(19 inch Wheels)A-1103113/93$70010EVKona Electric Standard RangeA-1118 131/105$65010EVKona FWDA-S8,1.6L,4cyl2826/32$1,7006TAV-S1,2.0L,4cyl3128/35$1,5006AV-S1,2.0L,4cyl3129/34$1,5006SSPalisade FWDA-S8,3.8L,6cyl2219/26$2,1505SSSanta Cruz FWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2522/30$1,9005Santa Fe FWDAM-S8,2.5L,4cyl2420/29$1,9505T SSSanta Fe Hybrid FWDAM-S6,1.6L,4cyl3636/35$1,3007T HEV SSTucson FWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2825/33$1,7006SSVenueAV-S1,1.6L,4cyl3129/32$1,500622MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesINFINITIQX50AV-S8,2.0L,4cyl2623/29$2,3505PR TKIANiroAM-S6,1.6L,4cyl4953/45$9508HEV SSNiro ElectricA-1113 126/101$70010EVNiro FE AM-S6,1.6L,4cyl5353/54$9008HEV SSNiro Plug-in HybridAM-S6,1.6L,4cylSee page 41.PHEV SSSeltos FWDAV-S8,2.0L,4cyl3128/34$1,5006SSSorento FWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2623/31$1,8005SSAM-S8,2.5L,4cyl2320/29$2,0505T SSSorento Hybrid FWDAM-S6,1.6L,4cyl3636/36$1,3007T HEV SSSportage FWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2825/32$1,7006SSTelluride FWDA-S8,3.8L,6cyl2220/26$2,1505SSLEXUSNX 250A-S8,2.5L,4cyl2826/33$1,7006SSLINCOLNCorsair FWDA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2522/30$1,9005T SSNISSANARIYA EVOLVE FWD 87kWhA-198105/91$75010EVARIYA FWD 63kWhA-1101109/94$75010EVKicksAV,2.0L,4cyl3128/35$1,5006SSPathnder 2WDA-S9,3.5L,6cyl2320/27$2,0505SSRogue FWDAV-S8,1.5L,3cyl3330/37$1,4506T SSRogue FWD SL/PlatinumAV-S8,1.5L,3cyl3229/36$1,5006T SSTESLAModel Y Long Range RWD A-1125 134/117$60010EVMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesVOLKSWAGENAtlasA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2220/26$2,1505T SSAtlas Cross SportA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2320/26$2,0505T SSVOLVOEC40A-1106118/95$70010EVEX30 Single Motor extended range(18 Inch Wheels)A-1114 124/103$65010EVEX30 Single Motor extended range(19/20 Inch Wheels)A-1116 127/104$65010EVEX40A-1106118/94$70010EVSMALL SPORT UTILITY VEHICLES 4WDACURAMDX AWDA-S10,3.5L,6cyl2119/25$2,9004P CD SSRDX AWDA-S10,2.0L,4cyl2321/27$2,6505P T SSRDX AWD A-SPECA-S10,2.0L,4cyl2321/26$2,6505P T SSALFA ROMEOStelvio AWDA-8,2.0L,4cyl2422/28$2,5505P T SSTonale eAWDA-6,1.3L,4cylSee page 41.T PHEVAUDIQ3A-S8,2.0L,4cyl2522/29$2,4505P T SSQ3 S-Line quattroA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2320/28$2,6505P T SSQ5 Plug-In Hybrid quattroAM-S7,2.0L,4cylSee page 41.P T PHEV SSQ5 quattroAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2623/29$2,3505P T MHEV SSQ5 S line quattroAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2523/28$2,4505P T MHEV SSQ5 Sportback S line quattroAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2523/28$2,4505P T MHEV SSSQ5A-S8,3.0L,6cyl2119/24$2,9004P T SSSQ5 SportbackA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2119/24$2,9004P T SSBMWX1 M35iAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2623/31$2,3505P T SSFUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202523MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesX1 xDrive28iAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2824/33$2,2006P T SSX2 M35iAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2623/32$2,3505P T SSX2 xDrive28iAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2824/33$2,2006P T SSX3 M50i xDriveA-S8,3.0L,4cyl2725/30$2,2505P T MHEV SSX3 xDrive30iA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2927/33$2,1006P T MHEV SSX4 MA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1715/20$3,6003P T SSX4 M CompetitionA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1715/20$3,6003P T SSX4 M40iA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2322/26$2,6505P T MHEV SSX4 xDrive30iA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2421/27$2,5505P T SSBUICKEncore GX AWDA-9,1.3L,3cyl2726/28$1,7505T SSEnvision AWDA-S9,2.0L,4cyl2422/28$1,9505T CD SSCADILLACLYRIQ AWD(11 kW Charger)A-18998/80$85010EVLYRIQ AWD(19 kW Charger)A-18693/77$90010EVXT4 AWDA-S9,2.0L,4cyl2523/28$2,4505PR T CD SSXT5 AWDA-S9,2.0L,4cyl2321/27$2,6505PR T CD SSA-S9,3.6L,6cyl2118/26$2,2504CD SSXT6 AWDA-S9,2.0L,4cyl2321/26$2,6505PR T CD SSA-S9,3.6L,6cyl2018/25$2,3504CD SSCHEVROLETBlazer AWDA-9,2.0L,4cyl2422/27$1,9505T CD SSA-9,3.6L,6cyl2118/26$2,2504CD SSBlazer EV AWDA-195102/87$80010EVEquinox AWDA-8,1.5L,4cyl2624/29$1,8005T SSEquinox EV AWD(11 kW Charger)A-1103112/95$75010EVEquinox EV AWD(19 kW Charger)A-196103/88$80010EVTrailblazer AWDA-9,1.3L,3cyl2726/29$1,7505T SSMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesDODGEHornet AWDA-9,2.0L,4cyl2421/29$1,9505T SSHornet PHEV AWDA-6,1.3L,4cylSee page 41.T PHEVFORDEscape AWDA-8,1.5L,3cyl2826/32$1,7006T SSA-8,2.0L,4cyl2623/31$1,8005T SSEscape AWD HEVAV,2.5L,4cyl3942/36$1,2007PT4 HEV SSGENESISElectried GV70A-19198/83$85010EVGV60 AWD(19 inch Wheels)A-1100110/90$75010EVGV60 AWD Advanced(20 inch Wheels)A-195103/86$80010EVGV60 AWD PerformanceA-19097/82$85010EVGV70 AWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2422/28$2,5505P T SSA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2219/26$2,8005P T S-Mode SSA-S8,3.5L,6cyl2018/24$3,0504P T SSGMCTerrain AWDA-8,1.5L,4cyl2524/28$1,9005T SSHONDACR-V AWDAV,1.5L,4cyl2826/31$1,7006T SSAV,2.0L,4cyl3740/34$1,3007HEV SSPassport AWDA-S9,3.5L,6cyl2119/24$2,2504CD SSHYUNDAIIoniq 5 AWD(19 inch Wheels)A-1106116/96$70010EVIoniq 5 AWD(20 inch Wheels)A-198108/88$80010EVIoniq 5 AWD XRTA-194103/85$80010EVIoniq 5 NA-17884/72$95010EVKona AWDA-S8,1.6L,4cyl2624/29$1,8005TAV-S1,2.0L,4cyl2827/29$1,7006SSAV-S1,2.0L,4cyl2726/29$1,7505Palisade AWDA-S8,3.8L,6cyl2119/24$2,2504SS24MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesSanta Cruz AWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2421/29$1,9505AM-S8,2.5L,4cyl2219/27$2,1505TSanta Cruz XRT AWDAM-S8,2.5L,4cyl2118/26$2,2504TSanta Fe AWDAM-S8,2.5L,4cyl2320/28$2,0505T SSSanta Fe AWD XRTAM-S8,2.5L,4cyl2219/26$2,1505T SSSanta Fe Hybrid AWDAM-S6,1.6L,4cyl3435/34$1,4007T HEV SSTucson AWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2624/30$1,8005Tucson HybridAM-S6,1.6L,4cyl3535/35$1,3507T HEV SSTucson Hybrid BlueAM-S6,1.6L,4cyl3838/38$1,2507T HEV SSINFINITIQX50 AWDAV-S8,2.0L,4cyl2522/28$2,4505PR TQX55 AWDAV-S8,2.0L,4cyl2522/28$2,4505PR TJAGUARF-PaceA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2422/27$2,5505P T SSF-Pace MHEVA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2119/25$2,9004P T S MHEV SSF-Pace SVRA-S8,5.0L,8cyl1715/21$3,6003P S SSJEEPCompass 4WDA-8,2.0L,4cyl2724/32$1,7505T SSWrangler 2dr 4WDA-8,2.0L,4cyl2120/23$2,2504T SSM-6,3.6L,6cyl1917/23$2,5004SSWrangler 4dr 4WDA-8,2.0L,4cyl2120/22$2,2504T SSM-6,3.6L,6cyl1916/22$2,5004SSWrangler 4dr 4xeA-8,2.0L,4cylSee page 41.T PHEV SSKIASeltos AWDA-S8,1.6L,4cyl2524/27$1,9005TAV-S8,2.0L,4cyl2927/31$1,6506SSSorento AWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2523/28$1,9005SSAM-S8,2.5L,4cyl2320/27$2,0505T SSSorento Hybrid AWDAM-S6,1.6L,4cyl3434/34$1,4007T HEV SSMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesSportage AWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2523/27$1,9005SSSportage Hybrid AWDAM-S6,1.6L,4cyl3838/38$1,2507T HEV SSSportage Hybrid FWDAM-S6,1.6L,4cyl4342/44$1,1008T HEV SSSportage Plug-in HybridAM-S6,1.6L,4cylSee page 41.T PHEV SSSportage X-proA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2623/30$1,8005SSTelluride AWDA-S8,3.8L,6cyl2018/23$2,3504SSLAND ROVERDiscovery SportA-S9,2.0L,4cyl2019/23$3,0504P T SSRange Rover EvoqueA-S9,2.0L,4cyl2220/27$2,8005P T SSRange Rover VelarA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2322/26$2,6505P T SSRange Rover Velar P340 MHEVA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2219/26$2,8005P T S MHEV SSRange Rover Velar P400 MHEVA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2119/25$2,9004P T S MHEV SSLEXUSNX 250 AWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2825/32$1,7006SSNX 350 AWDA-S8,2.4L,4cyl2421/28$2,5505PR T SSNX 350 AWD F SportA-S8,2.4L,4cyl2421/28$2,5505PR T SSNX 350h AWDAV-S6,2.5L,4cyl3941/37$1,5507P HEV SSNX 450h Plus AWDAV-S6,2.5L,4cylSee page 41.P PHEV SSLINCOLNCorsair AWDA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2421/28$1,9505T SSCorsair AWD PHEVAV,2.5L,4cylSee page 41.PT4 PHEV SSNautilus AWDA-8,2.0L,4cyl2421/29$1,9505T SSNautilus HEV AWDAV,2.0L,4cyl3030/31$1,6006T PT4 HEV SSMASERATIGrecale Folgore(20 inch Wheels)A-17580/70$1,00010EVGrecale Folgore(21 inch Wheels)A-16265/59$1,20010EVFUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202525MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesGrecale ModenaA-8,2.0L,4cyl2422/28$2,5505P T MHEV SSMAZDACX-30 4WDA-S6,2.5L,4cyl2926/33$1,6506CDA-S6,2.5L,4cyl2522/30$1,9005TCX-5 4WDA-S6,2.5L,4cyl2826/30$1,7006CD SSA-S6,2.5L,4cyl2523/29$1,9005A-S6,2.5L,4cyl2422/27$1,9505TCX-50 4WDA-S6,2.5L,4cyl2825/31$1,7006CDA-S6,2.5L,4cyl2523/29$1,9005T SSMERCEDES-BENZGLA250 4maticAM-8,2.0L,4cyl2825/33$2,2006PR T MHEV SSGLB250 4maticAM-8,2.0L,4cyl2724/33$2,2505PR T MHEV SSGLC300 4maticA-9,2.0L,4cyl2623/31$2,3505PR T MHEV SSGLC300 4matic CoupeA-9,2.0L,4cyl2623/31$2,3505PR T MHEV SSGLC350e 4matic with EQ Hybrid TechA-9,2.0L,4cylSee page 41.PR T PHEV SSGLE350A-9,2.0L,4cyl2321/28$2,6505PR T MHEV SSGLE350 4maticA-9,2.0L,4cyl2219/26$2,8005PR T MHEV SSMINICountryman S All4AM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2724/32$2,2506P T SSCountryman SE ALL4(18 inch Wheels)A-19699/94$80010EVCountryman SE ALL4(19 inch Wheels)A-19194/88$85010EVJCW Countryman All4AM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2623/30$2,3505P T SSNISSANARIYA e-4ORCE 63kWhA-195101/89$80010EVARIYA ENGAGE /EVOLVE e-4ORCE 87kWhA-19297/86$80010EVARIYA PLATINUM e-4ORCE 87kWh 19in.WheelsA-19093/87$85010EVARIYA PLATINUM e-4ORCE 87kWh 20in.WheelsA-18789/84$85010EVKicks AWDAV,2.0L,4cyl3027/34$1,6006Pathnder 4WDA-S9,3.5L,6cyl2321/27$2,0505SSMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesPathnder 4WD Rock CreekA-S9,3.5L,6cyl2120/23$2,9004P SSRogue AWDAV-S8,1.5L,3cyl3128/35$1,5006T SSRogue AWD Rock CreekAV-S8,1.5L,3cyl2927/32$1,6506T SSRogue AWD SL/PlatinumAV-S8,1.5L,3cyl3128/34$1,5006T SSPORSCHEMacanAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2119/25$2,9004PR T SSMacan 4 ElectricA-198107/89$80010EVMacan 4S ElectricA-19198/83$85010EVMacan SAM-S7,2.9L,6cyl1917/23$3,2504PR T SSMacan TAM-S7,2.0L,4cyl2119/25$2,9004PR T SSMacan Turbo ElectricA-19199/84$85010EVSUBARUCrosstrek AWDAV-S8,2.0L,4cyl2927/34$1,6506SSAV-S8,2.5L,4cyl2927/33$1,6506SSCrosstrek Wilderness AWDAV-S8,2.5L,4cyl2725/29$1,7505SSForester AWDAV-S8,2.5L,4cyl2926/33$1,6506SSForester Sport/Touring AWDAV-S8,2.5L,4cyl2825/32$1,7006SSOutback AWDAV-S8,2.4L,4cyl2522/29$1,9005T SSAV-S8,2.5L,4cyl2826/32$1,7006SSOutback Wilderness AWDAV-S8,2.4L,4cyl2321/26$2,0505T SSSolterra AWDA-1104114/94$70010EVSolterra Limited/Touring AWDA-1102111/93$75010EVTESLAModel Y Long Range AWDA-1117 123/111$65010EVModel Y Performance AWDA-1104110/97$75010EVVOLKSWAGENAtlas 4motion Peak EditionA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2018/25$2,3504T SSAtlas Cross Sport 4motionA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2119/26$2,2504T SS26MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesAtlas SE 4motionA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2119/26$2,2504T SSAtlas SEL 4motionA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2118/25$2,2504T SSID.4 AWD ProA-1102108/96$75010EVID.4 AWD Pro SA-1102108/96$75010EVVOLVOEC40 TwinA-197105/88$80010EVEX30 Twin Performance(19 Inch Wheels)A-1109 116/100$70010EVEX30 Twin Performance(20 Inch Wheels)A-1109118/99$70010EVEX40 TwinA-194103/85$80010EVXC40 B5 AWDA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2623/30$2,3505PR T MHEV SSXC60 B5 AWDA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2623/30$2,3505PR T MHEV SSXC60 T8 AWDA-S8,2.0L,4cylSee page 41.PR T PHEV SSSTANDARD SPORT UTILITY VEHICLES 2WDAUDIQ4 45 e-tron A-1115 125/104$65010EVQ6 e-tron(19 inch wheels)A-1100106/93$75010EVQ6 e-tron(20 inch wheels)A-196103/88$80010EVQ6 e-tron ultraA-1104112/96$75010EVBMWX5 sDrive40iA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2523/27$2,4505P T MHEV SSBUICKEnclave FWDA-8,2.5L,4cyl2320/27$2,0505T SSCADILLACEscalade 2WDA-10,6.2L,8cyl1715/19$3,6003PR CD SSCHEVROLETSuburban 2WDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1715/20$2,8003CD SSA-10,6.2L,8cyl1615/19$3,8503PR CD SSMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesTahoe 2WDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1715/20$2,8003CD SSA-10,6.2L,8cyl1715/20$3,6003PR CD SSTraverse FWDA-8,2.5L,4cyl2320/27$2,0505T SSDODGEDurango RWDA-8,3.6L,6cyl2018/25$2,3504SSA-8,5.7L,8cyl1714/22$3,3003Mid CDFORDExplorer RWDA-10,2.3L,4cyl2420/29$1,9505T SSA-10,3.0L,6cyl2118/25$2,2504T SSA-S10,3.0L,6cyl2118/25$2,2504T SSGMCAcadia FWDA-8,2.5L,4cyl2320/27$2,0505T SSYukon 2WDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1715/20$2,8003CD SSA-10,6.2L,8cyl1715/20$3,6003PR CD SSYukon XL 2WDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1715/20$2,8003CD SSA-10,6.2L,8cyl1615/19$3,8503PR CD SSINFINITIQX60 FWDA-S9,2.0L,4cyl2422/28$2,5505PR T SSQX80 2WDA-S9,3.5L,6cyl1816/20$3,4004PR T SSJEEPGrand Cherokee 2WDA-8,3.6L,6cyl2219/26$2,1505SSGrand Cherokee L 2WDA-8,3.6L,6cyl2119/26$2,2504SSWagoneer 2WDA-8,3.0L,6cyl2017/24$2,3504T SSWagoneer L 2WDA-8,3.0L,6cyl2017/24$2,3504T SSKIAEV9 Long Range RWDA-189100/78$85010EVEV9 Standard Range RWDA-18899/77$85010EVLINCOLNAviator RWDA-S10,3.0L,6cyl2118/25$2,2504T SSFUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202527MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesMERCEDES-BENZEQS 450 Plus(SUV)A-18284/79$90010EV SSPOLESTAR3 Long Range Single Motor(20 Inch Wheels)A-194103/84$80010EV3 Long Range Single Motor(21 Inch Wheels)A-195105/86$80010EV3 Long Range Single Motor(22 Inch Wheels)A-191100/82$85010EV4 Long Range Single MotorA-19093/87$85010EVTOYOTASequoia 2WDA-S10,3.4L,6cyl2221/24$2,1505T HEV SSSTANDARD SPORT UTILITY VEHICLES 4WDACURAMDX AWD Type-SA-S10,3.0L,6cyl1917/21$3,2504P T CD SSASTON MARTINDBX 707A-9,4.0L,8cyl1715/20$3,6003P T CDAUDIQ4 55 e-tron quattroA-1100107/92$75010EVQ4 Sportback 55 e-tron quattroA-1100107/92$75010EVQ6 e-tron quattro(19 inch wheels)A-199105/93$75010EVQ6 e-tron quattro(20 inch wheels)A-195102/89$80010EVQ6 Sportback e-tron quattro(19 inch wheels)A-1103109/97$75010EVQ6 Sportback e-tron quattro(20 inch wheels)A-198104/92$75010EVQ7A-S8,2.0L,4cyl2220/26$2,8005P T SSA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2018/23$3,0504P T MHEV SSQ8 e-tron quattro(20 inch wheels)A-17877/80$95010EVQ8 e-tron quattro(21 inch wheels)A-17473/75$1,00010EVQ8 quattroA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1917/23$3,2504P T MHEV SSQ8 Sportback e-tron quattro(20 inch wheels)A-17877/80$95010EVMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesQ8 Sportback e-tron quattro(21 inch wheels)A-17473/75$1,00010EVRS Q8 PerformanceA-S8,4.0L,8cyl1614/20$3,8503P T CD MHEV SSSQ6 e-tronA-18996/82$85010EVSQ6 Sportback e-tronA-19197/85$85010EVSQ7A-S8,4.0L,8cyl1715/21$3,6003P T CD SSSQ8A-S8,4.0L,8cyl1715/21$3,6003P T CD SSSQ8 e-tron(20 inch wheels)A-17068/72$1,10010EVSQ8 e-tron(21/22 inch wheels)A-16059/60$1,25010EVSQ8 Sportback e-tron(20 inch wheels)A-17068/72$1,10010EVSQ8 Sportback e-tron(21/22 inch wheels)A-16059/60$1,25010EVBENTLEYBentaygaA-S8,4.0L,8cyl1614/21$3,8503P T CD SSBentayga EWBA-S8,4.0L,8cyl1614/21$3,8503P T CD SSBentayga HybridA-S8,3.0L,6cylSee page 41.P T PHEV SSBMWAlpina XB7A-S8,4.4L,8cyl1716/20$3,6004P T MHEViX M60(21 inch Wheels)A-17675/77$1,00010EViX M60(22 inch Wheels)A-17775/79$1,00010EViX xDrive40(20 inch Wheels)A-18687/85$90010EViX xDrive40(21 inch Wheels)A-18384/81$90010EViX xDrive40(22 inch Wheels)A-18789/85$85010EViX xDrive50(20 inch wheels)A-18382/84$90010EViX xDrive50(21 inch wheels)A-18182/81$95010EViX xDrive50(22 inch wheels)A-18182/81$95010EVX5 M CompetitionA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1513/18$4,1002PR T MHEV SSX5 M60i xDriveA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1917/22$3,2504P T MHEV SS28MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesX5 xDrive40iA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2523/27$2,4505P T MHEV SSX6 M CompetitionA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1513/18$4,1002PR T MHEV SSX6 M60i xDriveA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1917/22$3,2504P T MHEV SSX6 xDrive40iA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2423/26$2,5505P T MHEV SSX7 M60i xDriveA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1816/20$3,4004P T MHEV SSX7 xDrive40iA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2220/24$2,8005P T MHEV SSXMA-S8,4.4L,8cylSee page 41.PR T PHEV SSBUICKEnclave AWDA-8,2.5L,4cyl2119/24$2,2504T SSCADILLACEscalade 4WDA-10,6.2L,8cyl1614/18$3,8503PR CD SSEscalade V AWDA-S10,6.2L,8cyl1311/17$4,7001PR SCHEVROLETSuburban 4WDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1614/19$2,9503CD SSA-10,6.2L,8cyl1614/18$3,8503PR CD SSTahoe 4WDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1715/19$2,8003CD SSA-10,6.2L,8cyl1614/18$3,8503PR CD SSTraverse AWDA-8,2.5L,4cyl2119/24$2,2504T SSDODGEDurango AWDA-8,3.6L,6cyl2017/24$2,3504SSA-8,5.7L,8cyl1714/22$3,3003Mid CDDurango SRT AWDA-8,6.2L,8cyl1312/17$4,7001P SFERRARIPurosangueAM-8,6.5L,12cyl1211/15$5,1001PR SSFORDExplorer AWDA-10,2.3L,4cyl2320/27$2,0505T PT4 SSA-10,3.0L,6cyl2118/25$2,2504T PT4 SSA-S10,3.0L,6cyl2018/25$2,3504T PT4 SSMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesGENESISGV80 AWDA-S8,2.5L,4cyl2119/24$2,9004P T SSA-S8,3.5L,6cyl1916/22$3,2504P T SSGV80 MHEVA-S8,3.5L,6cyl2018/22$3,0504P T S MHEV SSGMCAcadia AWDA-8,2.5L,4cyl2119/24$2,2504T SSHummer EV SUV 2XA-15359/46$1,45010EVHummer EV SUV 3XA-15258/46$1,45010EVHummer EV SUV MT Tires 2XA-14752/42$1,60010EVHummer EV SUV MT Tires 3XA-14853/43$1,60010EVYukon 4WDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1715/19$2,8003CD SSA-10,6.2L,8cyl1614/18$3,8503PR CD SSYukon XL 4WDA-10,5.3L,8cyl1614/19$2,9503CD SSA-10,6.2L,8cyl1614/18$3,8503PR CD SSHONDAPilot AWDA-S10,3.5L,6cyl2119/25$2,2504CD SSPilot AWD Touring/Elite/BlackA-S10,3.5L,6cyl2119/25$2,2504CD SSPilot AWD TrailSportA-S10,3.5L,6cyl2018/23$2,3504CD SSINEOS AUTOMOTIVEGrenadierA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1515/15$4,1002P T SSGrenadier Trialmaster EditionA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1414/14$4,4002P T SSINFINITIQX60 AWDA-S9,2.0L,4cyl2422/27$2,5505PR T SSQX80 4WDA-S9,3.5L,6cyl1716/19$3,6003PR T SSJEEPGrand Cherokee 4WDA-8,3.6L,6cyl2219/26$2,1505SSGrand Cherokee 4xeA-8,2.0L,4cylSee page 41.T PHEVGrand Cherokee L 4WDA-8,3.6L,6cyl2118/25$2,2504SSFUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202529MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesGrand Wagoneer 4WDA-8,3.0L,6cyl1714/20$3,6003P T SSGrand Wagoneer L 4WDA-8,3.0L,6cyl1714/20$3,6003P T SSWagoneer 4WDA-8,3.0L,6cyl1916/23$2,5004T SSWagoneer L 4WDA-8,3.0L,6cyl1916/23$2,5004T SSKIAEV9 Long Range AWDA-18391/75$90010EVEV9 Long Range AWD GT-LineA-18088/72$95010EVLAND ROVERDefender 110A-S8,2.0L,4cyl1918/20$3,2504P T SSA-S8,5.0L,8cyl1614/18$3,8502P S SSDefender 110 MHEVA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1918/20$3,2504P T S MHEV SSDefender 130A-S8,5.0L,8cyl1614/19$3,8503P S SSDefender 130 OutboundA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1816/19$3,4003PR T S MHEV SSDefender 130 P300 MHEVA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1817/20$3,4004P T S MHEV SSDefender 130 P400 MHEVA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1918/20$3,2504P T S MHEV SSDefender 90A-S8,2.0L,4cyl1918/21$3,2504P T SSA-S8,5.0L,8cyl1615/19$3,8503P S SSDefender 90 MHEVA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1918/21$3,2504P T S MHEV SSDiscoveryA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2119/24$2,9004P T SSDiscovery MHEVA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1917/23$3,2504P T S MHEV SSRange Rover LWB MHEVA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1816/22$3,4004P T MHEV SSRange Rover MHEVA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1916/23$3,2504P T MHEV SSRange Rover P400 LWB MHEVA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2119/24$2,9004P T S MHEV SSRange Rover P400 MHEVA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2119/24$2,9004P T S MHEV SSRange Rover P550 PHEVA-S8,3.0L,6cylSee page 41.P T PHEV SSRange Rover Sport MHEVA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1916/23$3,2504P T MHEV SSRange Rover Sport P360 MHEVA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2220/25$2,8005P T S MHEV SSMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesRange Rover Sport P400 MHEVA-S8,3.0L,6cyl2220/25$2,8005P T S MHEV SSRange Rover Sport P460 PHEVA-S8,3.0L,6cylSee page 41.P T PHEV SSRange Rover Sport SVR MHEVA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1816/22$3,4004P T MHEV SSRange Rover SV LWB MHEVA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1816/22$3,4004P T MHEV SSRange Rover SV MHEVA-S8,4.4L,8cyl1816/22$3,4004P T MHEV SSLINCOLNAviator AWDA-S10,3.0L,6cyl2017/25$2,3504T PT4 SSMAZDACX-70 4WDA-S8,3.3L,6cyl2524/28$1,9005T MHEVA-S8,3.3L,6cyl2523/28$2,4505P T MHEVCX-70 4WD PHEVA-S8,2.5L,4cylSee page 41.P PHEV SSCX-90 4WDA-S8,3.3L,6cyl2524/28$1,9005T MHEV SSA-S8,3.3L,6cyl2523/28$2,4505P T MHEV SSCX-90 4WD PHEVA-S8,2.5L,4cylSee page 41.P PHEV SSMERCEDES-BENZAMG EQE 4matic Plus(SUV)A-17476/72$1,00010EV SSAMG G63A-9,4.0L,8cyl1514/16$4,1002PR T CD MHEVSSAMG GLE53 4matic PlusA-9,3.0L,6cyl2018/23$3,0504PR T S MHEV SSAMG GLE53 4matic Plus CoupeA-9,3.0L,6cyl2018/22$3,0504PR T S MHEV SSAMG GLE63 S 4matic PlusA-9,4.0L,8cyl1614/19$3,8503PR T CD MHEVSSAMG GLE63 S 4matic Plus CoupeA-9,4.0L,8cyl1614/19$3,8503PR T CD MHEVSSAMG GLS63 4matic PlusA-9,4.0L,8cyl1514/18$4,1002PR T CD MHEVSSEQE 350 4matic(SUV)A-18184/78$95010EV SSEQS 450 4matic(SUV)A-17980/78$95010EV SSEQS 580 4matic(SUV)A-18082/78$95010EV SSEQS 680 4matic Maybach(SUV)A-17676/76$1,00010EV SS30MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesG 580 with EQ TechnologyA-26268/56$1,20010EV SSG550A-9,3.0L,6cyl1817/19$3,4004PR T S MHEV SSGLE450 4maticA-9,3.0L,6cyl2119/25$2,9004PR T S MHEV SSGLE450 4matic(coupe)A-9,3.0L,6cyl2119/25$2,9004PR T S MHEV SSGLE450e 4maticA-9,2.0L,4cylSee page 41.PR T PHEV SSGLE580 4maticA-9,4.0L,8cyl1715/20$3,6003PR T CD MHEVSSGLS450 4maticA-9,3.0L,6cyl2119/24$2,9004PR T S MHEV SSGLS580 4maticA-9,4.0L,8cyl1614/19$3,8503PR T CD MHEVSSGLS600 4matic MaybachA-9,4.0L,8cyl1513/18$4,1002PR T CD MHEVSSMITSUBISHIOutlander PHEVA-1,2.4L,4cylSee page 41.PHEV SSNISSANPathnder 4WD PlatinumA-S9,3.5L,6cyl2220/25$2,1505SSPOLESTAR3 Long Range Dual Motor(20 Inch Wheels)A-18791/82$90010EV3 Long Range Dual Motor(21 Inch Wheels)A-18892/84$85010EV3 Long Range Dual Motor(22 Inch Wheels)A-18084/76$95010EV3 Long Range Dual Motor Performance PackA-17781/73$1,00010EV4 Long Range Dual MotorA-18386/80$90010EVPORSCHECayenneA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1917/23$3,2504PR T SSCayenne CoupeA-S8,3.0L,6cyl1917/23$3,2504PR T SSCayenne GTSA-S8,4.0L,8cyl1815/22$3,4004PR T SSCayenne GTS CoupeA-S8,4.0L,8cyl1816/22$3,4004PR T SSCayenne Turbo GTA-S8,4.0L,8cyl1715/20$3,6003PR T CD SSMPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesRIVIANR1S All-Terrain Dual Large(20in)A-17682/70$1,00010EVR1S All-Terrain Dual Large Plus(20in)A-17276/67$1,05010EVR1S All-Terrain Dual Max(20in)A-17882/73$95010PT4 EVR1S All-Terrain Performance Dual Max(20in)A-17882/73$95010PT4 EVR1S All-Terrain Performance Dual Large(20in)A-17682/70$1,00010EVR1S All-Terrain Performance Dual Large Plus(20in)A-17276/67$1,05010EVR1S All-Terrain Tri Max(20in)A-16872/63$1,10010EVR1S Dual Large(20in)A-17985/72$95010EVR1S Dual Large(22in)A-18594/77$90010EVR1S Dual Large Plus(20in)A-17885/72$95010EVR1S Dual Large Plus(22in)A-18289/75$90010EVR1S Dual Max(20in)A-18086/74$95010PT4 EVR1S Dual Max(22in)A-18491/77$90010PT4 EVR1S Dual Standard(20in)A-17985/72$95010PT4 EVR1S Dual Standard(22in)A-18592/77$90010PT4 EVR1S Performance Dual Large(20in)A-17985/72$95010EVR1S Performance Dual Large(22in)A-18594/77$90010EVR1S Performance Dual Large Plus(20in)A-17885/72$95010EVR1S Performance Dual Large Plus(22in)A-18289/75$90010EVR1S Performance Dual Max(20in)A-18086/74$95010PT4 EVR1S Performance Dual Max(22in)A-18491/77$90010PT4 EVR1S Tri Max(22in)A-17681/70$1,00010EVROLLS-ROYCECullinanA-S8,6.7L,12cyl1412/19$4,4002P TCullinan Black BadgeA-S8,6.7L,12cyl1412/19$4,4002P TFUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202531MPGManufacturerModelConguration(trans,eng size,cyl)Comb City/HwyAnnualFuelCostGHGRatingNotesSUBARUAscentAV-S8,2.4L,4cyl2220/26$2,1505TAscent Limited/Touring/Onyx AWDAV-S8,2.4L,4cyl2119/25$2,2504TTESLAModel X Plaid(20in wheels)A-19498/89$80010EVModel X Plaid(22in wheels)A-18892/84$85010EVTOYOTASequoia 4WDA-S10,3.4L,6cyl2019/22$2,3504T PT4 HEV SSVOLVOEX90 Twin Motor(20 and 22 Inch Wheels)A-18183/78$95010EVEX90 Twin Motor(21 Inch Wheels)A-18486/82$90010EVEX90 Twin Motor Performance(20 and 22 Inch Wheels)A-18183/78$95010EVEX90 Twin Motor Performance(21 Inch Wheels)A-18486/82$90010EVXC90 B5 AWD A-S8,2.0L,4cyl2623/30$2,3505PR T MHEV SSXC90 B6 AWDA-S8,2.0L,4cyl2320/26$2,6505PR T S MHEV SSXC90 T8 AWDA-S8,2.0L,4cylSee page 41.PR T PHEV SSALL-ELECTRIC VEHICLES32All-electric vehicles(EVs)are propelled by one or more electricmotors powered by a rechargeable battery.EVs are energy efficientand emit no tailpipe pollutants,although the power plant producingthe electricity may emit pollution.Electric motors have several performance benets.They are quiet,have instant torque for quick acceleration,enable regenerativebraking,and require less maintenance than internal combustionengines.Current EVs typically have a shorter driving range than comparablegasoline or hybrid vehicles,and their range is more sensitive todriving style,driving conditions,and accessory use.Fully rechargingthe battery can take several hoursthough a“fast charge”to 80pacity may take as little as 30 minutes.Charging options outsidethe home are expanding.More than 65,000 public charging stationswith over 177,000 charging ports are available,along with more than1,600 workplace charging stations with over 10,300 charging ports.EVs are typically more expensive than comparable conventionalvehicles and hybrids due to the cost of the large battery.However,as manufacturers continue to improve the driving range and reducethe cost of these vehicles,they are becoming more practical andaffordable for a wider range of consumers.A federal income tax credit of up to$7,500 is currently available toconsumers purchasing a qualifying EV.State and/or local incentivesmay also apply.For additional information on EVs,including taxincentives,visit fueleconomy.gov.FUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202533Fuel Economy(comb/city/hwy)ModelMotorBatteryTypeMPGekWh/100 miDrivingRange*(miles)ChargeTime(hrs 240 V)AnnualFuelCostGHGRatingTWO-SEATER CARSBUGATTI RIMACNevera226,226,450 and450 kW AC InductionLi-Ion53/52/5463/64/6220417.6$1,40010MINICOMPACT CARSFIAT500e87 kW DCPMLi-Ion116/127/10429/27/321496.2$65010500e All Season87 kW DCPMLi-Ion110/121/10031/28/341416.2$70010SUBCOMPACT CARSAUDIS e-tron GT(20 inch wheels)176,176 and 415kW PSM 3-PhaseLi-Ion90/91/8838/37/3830015.5$85010S e-tron GT(21 inch wheels)252,252 and 415kW PSM 3-PhaseLi-Ion88/89/8538/38/3929415.5$85010MASERATIGrancabrio Folgore275,275 and 275 kW DCPMLi-Ion82/83/8141/41/422299$90010Granturismo Folgore275,275 and 275 kW DCPMLi-Ion83/85/8141/40/422339$90010COMPACT CARSBMWi4 eDrive35 Gran Coupe(18 inch Wheels)250 kW EESMLi-Ion116/117/11429/29/302668$65010i4 eDrive35 Gran Coupe(19 inch Wheels)250 kW EESMLi-Ion106/108/10432/31/322448$70010i4 eDrive40 Gran Coupe(18 inch wheels)250 kW EESMLi-Ion112/113/11130/30/3031810$70010i4 eDrive40 Gran Coupe(19 inch Wheels)250 kW EESMLi-Ion104/106/10332/32/3329510$75010i4 M50 Gran Coupe(19 inch wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion94/93/9636/36/3526710$80010i4 M50 Gran Coupe(20 inch wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion80/80/8042/42/4222710$95010i4 xDrive40 Gran Coupe(18 inch Wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion101/99/10333/34/3328710$75010i4 xDrive40 Gran Coupe(19 inch Wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion94/93/9536/36/3626810$80010i5 eDrive40 Sedan(19 inch Wheels)250 kW EESMLi-Ion105/104/10532/32/3229510$70010i5 eDrive40 Sedan(20 inch Wheels)250 kW EESMLi-Ion99/99/9834/34/3527810$75010i5 eDrive40 Sedan(21 inch Wheels)250 kW EESMLi-Ion96/97/9435/35/3627110$80010i5 M60 xDrive Sedan(19 inch Wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion90/89/9138/38/3725310$85010i5 M60 xDrive Sedan(20 inch Wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion88/88/8838/38/3825010$85010i5 M60 xDrive Sedan(21 inch Wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion84/83/8540/40/4023910$90010i5 xDrive40 Sedan(19 inch Wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion93/92/9536/37/3626610$80010i5 xDrive40 Sedan(20 inch Wheels)192 and 250 kW EESMLi-Ion93/92/9436/37/3626210$80010i5 xDrive40 Sedan(21 inch Wheels)192 and 250 kW EESMLi-Ion87/86/8739/39/3924810$85010PORSCHETaycan 4S Perf Battery Plus201 and 234 kW ACPMLi-Ion87/89/8539/38/4029513$85010Taycan 4S Perf Battery Plus 19 inch Wheels201 and 235 kW ACPMLi-Ion93/94/9236/36/3731513$80010Taycan 4S Performance Battery150 and 234 kW ACPMLi-Ion88/90/8538/37/4025211.5$85010Taycan Perf Battery Plus300 and 320 kW ACPMLi-Ion92/94/9037/36/3831813$80010Taycan Performance Battery300 and 320 kW ACPMLi-Ion91/94/8837/36/3827411.5$85010Taycan Turbo175 and 234 kW ACPMLi-Ion86/88/8339/38/4029213$90010Taycan Turbo 21in Aero-Design wheel(285/35)175 and 234 kW ACPMLi-Ion93/94/9236/36/3731713$80010Taycan Turbo GT150 and 253 kW ACPMLi-Ion82/86/7841/39/4327613$90010Taycan Turbo GT with Weissach Package175 and 234 kW ACPMLi-Ion81/85/7642/40/4426913$95010Taycan Turbo S190 and 235 kW ACPMLi-Ion79/80/7843/42/4326613$95010Taycan Turbo S 21in Aero-Design wheel(285/35)234 and 254 kW ACPMLi-Ion90/90/9038/38/3829813$85010ROLLS-ROYCESpectre(22 inch wheels)190 and 360 kW EESMLi-Ion77/74/8244/46/4127712$1,00010Spectre(23 inch Wheels)190 and 360 kW EESMLi-Ion70/67/7548/50/4525312$1,10010Spectre Black Badge(22 inch wheels)190 and 360 kW EESMLi-Ion74/70/8045/48/4226612$1,00010Spectre Black Badge(23 inch wheels)190 and 360 kW EESMLi-Ion70/67/7448/50/4625112$1,1001034Fuel Economy(comb/city/hwy)ModelMotorBatteryTypeMPGekWh/100 miDrivingRange*(miles)ChargeTime(hrs 240 V)AnnualFuelCostGHGRatingMIDSIZE CARSGENESISElectried G80136 and 136 kW PMSMLi-Ion97/105/8935/32/382829$80010HYUNDAIIoniq 6 AWD(18 inch Wheels)74 and 165 kW PMSMLi-Ion121/130/11128/26/303167.5$65010Ioniq 6 AWD(20 inch Wheels)74 and 165 kW PMSMLi-Ion103/111/9433/31/362707.5$75010Ioniq 6 RWD(18 inch Wheels)168 kW PMSMLi-Ion132/144/12026/23/283427.5$60010Ioniq 6 RWD(20 inch Wheels)168 kW PMSMLi-Ion111/123/10030/27/342917.5$65010Ioniq 6 Standard Range111 kW PMSMLi-Ion135/151/12025/22/282406.1$55010MERCEDES-BENZAMG EQE 4matic Plus165 and 165 kWACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion70/69/7148/49/4822010.8$1,10010EQE 350 4matic71 and 144 kWACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion86/87/8539/39/3926710.8$90010EQE 350 Plus215 kW ACPM 6-PhaseLi-Ion94/94/9436/36/3630811.5$80010EQE 500 4matic71 and 144 kWACPM 6-PhaseLi-Ion85/85/8440/39/4026611.5$90010NISSANLEAF110 kW DCPMLi-Ion111/123/9930/27/341498$70010LEAF SV160 kW DCPMLi-Ion109/121/9831/28/3421211$70010POLESTAR2 Dual Motor(19 Inch Wheels)200 and 215 kW PMSMLi-Ion101/105/9534/32/352788$750102 Dual Motor(20 Inch Wheels)190 and 215 kW PMSMLi-Ion97/101/9235/33/372688$800102 Dual Motor Performance Pack190 and 215 kW PMSMLi-Ion91/95/8737/35/392548$850102 Single Motor(19 Inch Wheels)185 and 220 kW PMSMLi-Ion114/123/10430/27/323148$650102 Single Motor(20 Inch Wheels)185 and 220 kW PMSMLi-Ion109/117/10131/29/333008$70010PORSCHETaycan 4 Cross Turismo150 and 354 kW ACPMLi-Ion81/84/7942/40/4327713$95010Taycan 4S Cross Turismo150 and 175 kW ACPMLi-Ion80/82/7742/41/4427213$95010Taycan Turbo Cross Turismo190 and 201 kW ACPMLi-Ion78/80/7643/42/4426513$95010Taycan Turbo S Cross Turismo150 and 253 kW ACPMLi-Ion77/79/7544/43/4526113$1,00010TESLAModel 3 Long Range AWD85 and 88 kW ACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion128/133/12226/25/2834611.7$60010Model 3 Long Range RWD192 kW ACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion137/145/12825/23/2636311.7$55010LARGE CARSBMWi7 eDrive50 Sedan(19 inch Wheels)335 kW EESMLi-Ion88/85/9338/40/3631412$85010i7 eDrive50 Sedan(20 inch Wheels)335 kW EESMLi-Ion85/82/8840/41/3830112$90010i7 eDrive50 Sedan(21 inch Wheels)335 kW EESMLi-Ion87/84/9039/40/3730712$90010i7 M70 xDrive Sedan(20 inch Wheels)190 and 360 kW EESMLi-Ion75/72/7945/47/4326812$1,00010i7 M70 xDrive Sedan(21 inch Wheels)190 and 360 kW EESMLi-Ion79/77/8342/44/4128512$95010i7 xDrive60 Sedan(19 inch wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion88/85/9138/39/3731112$85010i7 xDrive60 Sedan(20 inch wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion83/81/8541/42/3929612$90010i7 xDrive60 Sedan(21inch wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion87/85/8939/40/3830812$85010LUCIDAir G Touring XR AWD with 19 inch wheels178 and 433 kW ACPMLi-Ion128/129/12626/26/2751213$60010Air G Touring XR AWD with 20 inch wheels178 and 433 kW ACPMLi-Ion120/122/11728/28/2948013$65010Air G Touring XR AWD with 21 inch wheels178 and 433 kW ACPMLi-Ion112/114/10930/30/3144613$70010Air Pure RWD with 19 inch wheels330 kW ACPMLi-Ion146/149/14223/23/2442010$50010Air Pure RWD with 20 inch wheels330 kW ACPMLi-Ion129/132/12526/25/2737210$60010Air Sapphire AWD310,310 and 310 kW ACPMLi-Ion105/108/10132/31/3342713$70010Air Touring AWD with 19 inch wheels178 and 433 kW ACPMLi-Ion132/133/13026/25/2640610$60010Air Touring AWD with 20 inch wheels178 and 433 kW ACPMLi-Ion121/124/11928/27/2837710$60010Air Touring AWD with 21 inch wheels178 and 433 kW ACPMLi-Ion116/119/11329/28/3036110$65010FUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202535Fuel Economy(comb/city/hwy)ModelMotorBatteryTypeMPGekWh/100 miDrivingRange*(miles)ChargeTime(hrs 240 V)AnnualFuelCostGHGRatingMERCEDES-BENZAMG EQS 4matic Plus174 and 310 kWACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion78/76/8143/45/4231512.8$95010EQS 450 4matic174 and 310 kWACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion92/91/9337/37/3636712.8$85010EQS 450 Plus265 kW ACPM 6-PhaseLi-Ion98/98/9834/34/3439014$75010EQS 580 4matic310 kW ACPM 6-PhaseLi-Ion93/93/9336/36/3637111.5$80010TESLAModel S Plaid(19in wheels)250,250 and 250kW ACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion104/108/9932/31/3434814$75010Model S Plaid(21in wheels)250,250 and 250kW ACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion93/97/8936/35/3831214$80010MIDSIZE STATION WAGONSMERCEDES-BENZEQE 350 Plus(SUV)215 kW ACPM 6-PhaseLi-Ion93/98/8736/34/3930211.5$80010EQE 500 4matic(SUV)71 and 144 kWACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion81/83/7842/41/4326411.5$95010STANDARD PICKUP TRUCKS 4WDCHEVROLETSilverado EV(11 kW Charger)189 and 189 kW ACPMLi-Ion68/74/6150/46/5540818.6$1,10010Silverado EV(19 kW Charger)189 and 189 kW ACPMLi-Ion64/70/5952/48/5739011.5$1,20010Silverado EV 5WT(11 kW Charger)189 and 189 kW ACPMLi-Ion70/77/6348/44/5442218.6$1,10010Silverado EV 5WT(19 kW Charger)189 and 189 kW ACPMLi-Ion70/77/6348/44/5442211.5$1,10010Silverado EV 8WT189 and 189 kW ACPMLi-Ion68/74/6150/46/5549213.3$1,10010FORDF-150 Lightning 4WD ER1210 and 210 kW AC PMSMLi-Ion70/78/6348/43/5432014.6$1,1009F-150 Lightning 4WD PRO ER1210 and 210 kW AC PMSMLi-Ion70/78/6348/43/5432010.1$1,1009F-150 Lightning 4WD SR358 and 358 kW AC PMSMLi-Ion68/76/6149/44/5624011.9$1,1009F-150 Lightning Platinum 4WD210 and 210 kW AC PMSMLi-Ion66/73/6051/46/5630014.6$1,1509GMCHummer EV Pickup 2X195 and 215 kW ACPMLi-Ion53/59/4764/57/7231811.2$1,45010Hummer EV Pickup 3X195,195 and 195 kW ACPMLi-Ion52/58/4665/59/7331211.2$1,45010Hummer EV Pickup MT Tires 2X195 and 215 kW ACPMLi-Ion47/52/4272/65/8028211.2$1,60010Hummer EV Pickup MT Tires 3X195,195 and 215 kW ACPMLi-Ion48/53/4370/64/7828911.2$1,60010Sierra EV189 and 189 kW ACPMLi-Ion64/70/5952/48/5739011.5$1,2001036Fuel Economy(comb/city/hwy)ModelMotorBatteryTypeMPGekWh/100 miDrivingRange*(miles)ChargeTime(hrs 240 V)AnnualFuelCostGHGRatingRIVIANR1T All-Terrain Dual Large(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion76/82/7044/41/4828912$1,00010R1T All-Terrain Dual Large Plus(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion72/76/6747/44/5029212$1,05010R1T All-Terrain Dual Max(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion78/82/7343/41/4637015$95010R1T All-Terrain Performance Dual Large(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion76/82/7044/41/4828912$1,00010R1T All-Terrain Performance Dual Large Plus(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion72/76/6747/44/5029212$1,05010R1T All-Terrain Performance Dual Max(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion78/82/7343/41/4637015$95010R1T All-Terrain Tri Max(20in)201,201 and 233 kW ACPMLi-Ion68/72/6350/47/5332915$1,10010R1T Dual Large(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion79/85/7243/40/4730012$95010R1T Dual Large(22in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion85/94/7739/36/4432912$90010R1T Dual Large Plus(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion78/85/7243/40/4731712$95010R1T Dual Large Plus(22in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion82/89/7541/38/4533012$90010R1T Dual Max(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion80/86/7442/39/4638015$95010R1T Dual Max(22in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion87/93/8039/36/4242015$85010R1T Dual Standard(20in)208 and 208 kW ACPMLi-Ion79/85/7243/40/472589.5$95010R1T Dual Standard(22in)208 and 208 kW ACPMLi-Ion85/92/7740/37/442709.5$90010R1T Performance Dual Large(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion79/85/7243/40/4730012$95010R1T Performance Dual Large(22in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion85/94/7739/36/4432912$90010R1T Performance Dual Large Plus(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion78/85/7243/40/4731712$95010R1T Performance Dual Large Plus(22in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion82/89/7541/38/4533012$90010R1T Performance Dual Max(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion80/86/7442/39/4638015$95010R1T Performance Dual Max(22in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion87/93/8039/36/4242015$85010R1T Tri Max(22in)201,201 and 233 kW ACPMLi-Ion76/81/7045/42/4837115$1,00010MINIVANS 2WDVOLKSWAGENID.Buzz210 kW AC 3-PhaseLi-Ion83/90/7541/37/452349$90010MINIVANS 4WDVOLKSWAGENID.Buzz 4motion80 and 210 kW AC 3-PhaseLi-Ion80/87/7442/39/462319$95010SMALL SPORT UTILITY VEHICLES 2WDCADILLACLYRIQ255 kW ACPMLi-Ion92/100/8336/33/3932611.2$80010CHEVROLETBlazer EV RWD255 kW ACPMLi-Ion95/106/8535/32/4033411.2$80010Equinox EV FWD67 and 180 kW ACPMLi-Ion109/117/10031/29/343199.5$70010GENESISGV60 RWD168 kW PMSM(IPM)Li-Ion112/125/9930/27/342947.2$70010HYUNDAIIoniq 5 RWD168 kW PMSMLi-Ion114/129/10030/26/343189.1$70010Ioniq 5 Standard range125 kW PMSMLi-Ion115/131/10029/26/342456.3$65010Kona Electric(17 inch Wheels)150 kW PMSM(IPM)Li-Ion116/129/10329/26/332616.7$65010Kona Electric(19 inch Wheels)150 kW PMSM(IPM)Li-Ion103/113/9331/28/342306.9$70010Kona Electric Standard Range99 kW PMSM(IPM)Li-Ion118/131/10529/26/322005.1$65010KIANiro Electric150 kW PMSM(IPM)Li-Ion113/126/10130/27/332537.5$70010NISSANARIYA EVOLVE FWD 87kWh178 and 160 kW AC 3-phaseLi-Ion98/105/9134/32/3728914$75010ARIYA FWD 63kWh160 kW AC 3-phaseLi-Ion101/109/9433/31/3621610$75010TESLAModel Y Long Range RWD221 kW ACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion125/134/11727/25/2933712$60010FUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202537Fuel Economy(comb/city/hwy)ModelMotorBatteryTypeMPGekWh/100 miDrivingRange*(miles)ChargeTime(hrs 240 V)AnnualFuelCostGHGRatingVOLVOEC40185 and 220 kW PMSMLi-Ion106/118/9532/29/352988$70010EX30 Single Motor extended range(18 Inch Wheels)185 kW PMSMLi-Ion114/124/10330/27/332578$65010EX30 Single Motor extended range(19/20 Inch Wheels)185 kW PMSMLi-Ion116/127/10429/27/322618$65010EX40185 and 220 kW PMSMLi-Ion106/118/9432/28/362968$70010SMALL SPORT UTILITY VEHICLES 4WDCADILLACLYRIQ AWD(11 kW Charger)155 and 220 kW ACPMLi-Ion89/98/8038/34/4231911.2$85010LYRIQ AWD(19 kW Charger)155 and 220 kW ACPMLi-Ion86/93/7740/36/443037$90010CHEVROLETBlazer EV AWD67 and 180 kW AC InductionLi-Ion95/102/8736/33/392839.5$80010Equinox EV AWD(11 kW Charger)180 kW ACPMLi-Ion103/112/9533/30/363079.5$75010Equinox EV AWD(19 kW Charger)67 and 180 kW AC InductionLi-Ion96/103/8835/33/383079.5$80010GENESISElectried GV7074 and 160 kW PMSMLi-Ion91/98/8337/34/412367.9$85010GV60 AWD(19 inch Wheels)74 and 160 kW PMSMLi-Ion100/110/9034/31/382647.2$75010GV60 AWD Advanced(20 inch Wheels)74 and 160 kW PMSMLi-Ion95/103/8635/33/392487.2$80010GV60 AWD Performance74 and 160 kW PMSMLi-Ion90/97/8237/35/412357.2$85010HYUNDAIIoniq 5 AWD(19 inch Wheels)74 and 165 kW PMSMLi-Ion106/116/9632/29/352908.2$70010Ioniq 5 AWD(20 inch Wheels)74 and 165 kW PMSMLi-Ion98/108/8834/31/392698.2$80010Ioniq 5 AWD XRT74 and 165 kW PMSMLi-Ion94/103/8536/33/402598.2$80010Ioniq 5 N166 and 282 kW PMSMLi-Ion78/84/7243/40/472218.7$95010MASERATIGrecale Folgore(20 inch Wheels)205 and 205 kW DCPMLi-Ion75/80/7045/42/4824511$1,00010Grecale Folgore(21 inch Wheels)205 and 205 kW DCPMLi-Ion62/65/5954/52/5720611$1,20010MINICountryman SE ALL4(18 inch Wheels)140 and 140 kW EESMLi-Ion96/99/9435/34/362128$80010Countryman SE ALL4(19 inch Wheels)140 and 140 kW EESMLi-Ion91/94/8837/36/382048$85010NISSANARIYA e-4ORCE 63kWh160 and 160 kW AC 3-phaseLi-Ion95/101/8935/33/3820510$80010ARIYA ENGAGE /EVOLVE e-4ORCE 87kWh160 and 160 kW AC 3-phaseLi-Ion92/97/8637/35/3927213$80010ARIYA PLATINUM e-4ORCE 87kWh 19in.Wheels160 and 160 kW AC 3-phaseLi-Ion90/93/8737/36/3926714$85010ARIYA PLATINUM e-4ORCE 87kWh 20in.Wheels160 and 160 kW AC 3-phaseLi-Ion87/89/8439/38/4025714$85010PORSCHEMacan 4 Electric175,175 and 495 kW ACPMLi-Ion98/107/8934/32/3830811.5$80010Macan 4S Electric280,280 and 495 kW ACPMLi-Ion91/98/8337/34/4028811.5$85010Macan Turbo Electric280,280 and 495 kW ACPMLi-Ion91/99/8437/34/4028811.5$85010SUBARUSolterra AWD80 and 80 kWAC SynchronousLi-Ion104/114/9432/30/3622711$70010Solterra Limited/Touring AWD80 and 80 kWAC SynchronousLi-Ion102/111/9333/30/3622211$75010TESLAModel Y Long Range AWD91 and 183 kWACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion117/123/11129/27/3031112$65010Model Y Performance AWD135 and 200 kWACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion104/110/9732/31/3527711.8$75010VOLKSWAGENID.4 AWD Pro210 and 210 kWACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion102/108/9633/31/352638$75010ID.4 AWD Pro S80 and 210 kWACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion102/108/9633/31/352638$7501038Fuel Economy(comb/city/hwy)ModelMotorBatteryTypeMPGekWh/100 miDrivingRange*(miles)ChargeTime(hrs 240 V)AnnualFuelCostGHGRatingVOLVOEC40 Twin135 and 215 kW PMSMLi-Ion97/105/8835/32/382688$80010EX30 Twin Performance(19 Inch Wheels)115 and 185 kW PMSMLi-Ion109/116/10031/29/342538$70010EX30 Twin Performance(20 Inch Wheels)115 and 185 kW PMSMLi-Ion109/118/9931/29/342508$70010EX40 Twin190 and 210 kW PMSMLi-Ion94/103/8536/33/402608$80010STANDARD SPORT UTILITY VEHICLES 2WDAUDIQ4 45 e-tron210 kW PMSM 3-PhaseLi-Ion115/125/10429/27/3228812$65010Q6 e-tron(19 inch wheels)225 kW PMSM ECCA 3-PhaseLi-Ion100/106/9334/32/3631014$75010Q6 e-tron(20 inch wheels)225 kW PMSM ECCA 3-PhaseLi-Ion96/103/8835/33/3829814$80010Q6 e-tron ultra225 kW PMSM ECCA 3-PhaseLi-Ion104/112/9632/30/3532114$75010KIAEV9 Long Range RWD160 kW PMSM(IPM)Li-Ion89/100/7838/34/4330415.2$85010EV9 Standard Range RWD160 kW PMSM(IPM)Li-Ion88/99/7738/34/4423011.4$85010MERCEDES-BENZEQS 450 Plus(SUV)265 kW ACPM 6-PhaseLi-Ion82/84/7941/40/4232314$90010POLESTAR3 Long Range Single Motor(20 Inch Wheels)220 kW PMSMLi-Ion94/103/8436/33/4034210$800103 Long Range Single Motor(21 Inch Wheels)220 kW PMSMLi-Ion95/105/8635/32/3935010$800103 Long Range Single Motor(22 Inch Wheels)220 kW PMSMLi-Ion91/100/8237/34/4133310$850104 Long Range Single Motor200 kW PMSMLi-Ion90/93/8737/36/3930011$85010STANDARD SPORT UTILITY VEHICLES 4WDAUDIQ4 55 e-tron quattro80 and 170 kWAsynchron 3-PhaseLi-Ion100/107/9234/31/3725812$75010Q4 Sportback 55 e-tron quattro80 and 170 kWAsynchron 3-PhaseLi-Ion100/107/9234/31/3725812$75010Q6 e-tron quattro(19 inch wheels)140 and 280 kWPMSM ECCA 3-PhaseLi-Ion99/105/9334/32/3630714$75010Q6 e-tron quattro(20 inch wheels)140 and 280 kWAsynchron ECFA 3-PhaseLi-Ion95/102/8935/33/3829514$80010Q6 Sportback e-tron quattro(19 inch wheels)140 and 280 kWAsynchron ECFA 3-PhaseLi-Ion103/109/9733/31/3531914$75010Q6 Sportback e-tron quattro(20 inch wheels)140 and 280 kWAsynchron ECFA 3-PhaseLi-Ion98/104/9234/32/3730514$75010Q8 e-tron quattro(20 inch wheels)141 and 172 kWAsynchron 3-PhaseLi-Ion78/77/8043/44/4227216$95010Q8 e-tron quattro(21 inch wheels)141 and 172 kWAsynchron 3-PhaseLi-Ion74/73/7546/46/4525416$1,00010Q8 Sportback e-tron quattro(20 inch wheels)141 and 172 kWAsynchron 3-PhaseLi-Ion78/77/8043/44/4227216$95010Q8 Sportback e-tron quattro(21 inch wheels)141 and 172 kWAsynchron 3-PhaseLi-Ion74/73/7546/46/4525416$1,00010SQ6 e-tron140 and 140 kWAsynchron ECFA 3-PhaseLi-Ion89/96/8238/35/4127514$85010SQ6 Sportback e-tron280 and 280 kWPMSM ECCA 3-PhaseLi-Ion91/97/8537/35/4028314$85010SQ8 e-tron(20 inch wheels)138 and 157 kWAsynchron 3-PhaseLi-Ion70/68/7248/49/4724216$1,10010SQ8 e-tron(21/22 inch wheels)138 and 157 kWAsynchron 3-PhaseLi-Ion60/59/6056/57/5620816$1,25010SQ8 Sportback e-tron(20 inch wheels)138 and 157 kWAsynchron 3-PhaseLi-Ion70/68/7248/49/4724216$1,10010SQ8 Sportback e-tron(21/22 inch wheels)138 and 157 kWAsynchron 3-PhaseLi-Ion60/59/6056/57/5620816$1,25010FUEL ECONOMY GUIDE 202539Fuel Economy(comb/city/hwy)ModelMotorBatteryTypeMPGekWh/100 miDrivingRange*(miles)ChargeTime(hrs 240 V)AnnualFuelCostGHGRatingBMWiX M60(21 inch Wheels)190 and 360 kW EESMLi-Ion76/75/7744/45/4428413$1,00010iX M60(22 inch Wheels)190 and 360 kW EESMLi-Ion77/75/7944/45/4228513$1,00010iX xDrive40(20 inch Wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion86/87/8539/39/402179$90010iX xDrive40(21 inch Wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion83/84/8141/40/412119$90010iX xDrive40(22 inch Wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion87/89/8539/38/392199$85010iX xDrive50(20 inch wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion83/82/8441/41/4030913$90010iX xDrive50(21 inch wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion81/82/8141/41/4230313$95010iX xDrive50(22 inch wheels)190 and 230 kW EESMLi-Ion81/82/8141/41/4230213$95010GMCHummer EV SUV 2X195 and 215 kW ACPMLi-Ion53/59/4664/57/7331511.2$1,45010Hummer EV SUV 3X195,195 and 215 kW ACPMLi-Ion52/58/4665/59/7331211.2$1,45010Hummer EV SUV MT Tires 2X195 and 215 kW ACPMLi-Ion47/52/4272/65/8028211.2$1,60010Hummer EV SUV MT Tires 3X195,195 and 215 kW ACPMLi-Ion48/53/4370/64/7828911.2$1,60010KIAEV9 Long Range AWD141 and 141 kW PMSM(IPM)Li-Ion83/91/7541/37/4528014.5$90010EV9 Long Range AWD GT-Line141 and 141 kW PMSM(IPM)Li-Ion80/88/7242/38/4727015.2$95010MERCEDES-BENZAMG EQE 4matic Plus(SUV)165 and 295 kWACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion74/76/7246/44/4723010.8$1,00010EQE 350 4matic(SUV)71 and 144 kWACPM 6-PhaseLi-Ion81/84/7842/40/4325310.8$95010EQS 450 4matic(SUV)174 and 310 kWACPM 6-PhaseLi-Ion79/80/7843/42/4331214$95010EQS 580 4matic(SUV)174 and 310 kWACPM 6-PhaseLi-Ion80/82/7842/41/4331714$95010EQS 680 4matic Maybach(SUV)174 and 310 kWACPM 6-PhaseLi-Ion76/76/7644/44/4430214$1,00010G 580 with EQ Technology108,108 and 108kW ACPM 3-PhaseLi-Ion62/68/5654/50/6023914$1,20010POLESTAR3 Long Range Dual Motor(20 Inch Wheels)173 and 180 kW PMSMLi-Ion87/91/8239/38/4131010$900103 Long Range Dual Motor(21 Inch Wheels)127 and 180 kW PMSMLi-Ion88/92/8438/37/4031510$850103 Long Range Dual Motor(22 Inch Wheels)173 and 200 kW PMSMLi-Ion80/84/7642/40/4428710$950103 Long Range Dual Motor Performance Pack127 and 200 kW PMSMLi-Ion77/81/7344/42/4627910$1,000104 Long Range Dual Motor200 kW PMSMLi-Ion83/86/8041/39/4227211$90010RIVIANR1S All-Terrain Dual Large(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion76/82/7044/41/4828912$1,00010R1S All-Terrain Dual Large Plus(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion72/76/6747/44/5029212$1,05010R1S All-Terrain Dual Max(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion78/82/7343/41/4637015$95010R1S All-Terrain Performance Dual Max(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion78/82/7343/41/4637015$95010R1S All-Terrain Performance Dual Large(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion76/82/7044/41/4828912$1,00010R1S All-Terrain Performance Dual Large Plus(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion72/76/6747/44/5029212$1,05010R1S All-Terrain Tri Max(20in)201 and 233 kW ACPMLi-Ion68/72/6350/47/5332915$1,10010R1S Dual Large(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion79/85/7243/40/4730012$95010R1S Dual Large(22in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion85/94/7739/36/4432912$90010R1S Dual Large Plus(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion78/85/7243/40/4731712$95010R1S Dual Large Plus(22in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion82/89/7541/38/4533012$90010R1S Dual Max(20in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion80/86/7442/39/4638015$95010R1S Dual Max(22in)264 and 264 kW ACPMLi-Ion84/91/7740/37/4441015$90010R1S Dual Standard(20in)208 and 208 kW ACPMLi-Ion79/85/7243/40/472589.5$95010R1S Dual Standard(22in)208 and 208 kW ACPMLi-Ion85/92/7740/37/442709.
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Protecting Young Lives Global Status Report on Child and Adolescent Road SafetyGlobal Status Report .
2025-03-03
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MARKET REPORT JANUARY 2025 THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT 1 1 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT CONTENTS Introduction Mike Hawes OBE,Chief Executive,SMMT 2 Foreword Ben Morley,Commercial Counsellor and Country Director Trade British Embassy Bangkok 3 Report Overview 4 Thailand Automotive Production Overview 4 Thailand Automotive Market Overview 9 State of Technology 13 Policy 17 Trade Partnership 19 Opportunity Areas 19 Things to consider for UK companies 22 Closing:SMMT Support 25 2 2 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT INTRODUCTION SMMT helps automotive and mobility companies in the UK grow their business overseas through a programme of international activities.Thailand has been a mainstay of that programme and,through a series of UK exhibition groups over the last three years,we have seen how the Thai automotive sector offers tremendous opportunities for UK firms.The automotive sector plays an important role in Thailands economy,positioning Thailand as one of Southeast Asias key automotive manufacturing hubs.Over the past few decades,the industry has seen significant growth,driven by both domestic demand and a strong export market.Supportive government policies have attracted international companies to Thailand,which is now home to several international vehicle manufacturers,seven major research centres and more than 2,400 suppliers.This report provides an in-depth analysis of the current state of the Thai automotive sector,including production trends,key market players,and emerging challenges and opportunities including the shift towards electric vehicles.This report will help UK firms better understand the automotive sector in Thailand and identify growth opportunities for their business.Accordingly,the report includes key considerations and recommendations for UK businesses considering the Thai market.Mike Hawes,Chief Executive The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT)33 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT FOREWORD I am delighted that we are working closely with the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders(SMMT)to explore opportunities for UK-Thailand collaboration.This Thailand Automotive Sector Report provides an in-depth assessment of the automotive ecosystem in Thailand,with a particular focus on the burgeoning electric vehicle(EV)sector.It examines the development of clean mobility across Thailand,UK commercial opportunities in areas including EV production,charging infrastructure,and capacity building,and discusses potential business and financial models for international partners.Thailand,as a key automotive player in the ASEAN region,has set an ambitious target through its 3030 policy,aiming to make the country a production base for EVs by 2030.Yet fossil fuels are still the dominant source of power in the current system.So,we are delighted to support the Thai governments vision to deliver a sustainable energy transition,in line with Thailands Bio-Circular-Green(BCG)ambitions and its commitment to work towards Net Zero by 2065.The UK is at the forefront of innovations in energy transition and sustainable infrastructure,and our EV ecosystem has matured significantly in recent years.A key success factor to the UKs growth has been UK grant funds for innovation and pilot projects,which have propelled our businesses to become leaders in zero emission technologies(incl.batteries,motors,and power electronics),connected and autonomous vehicles,lightweight materials,high-performance engineering;and zero emission buses,taxis and commercial vehicles.This aligns seamlessly with the UKs Net Zero ambitions and our plans to ban the sale of new internal combustion engine(ICE)vehicles by 2035.The Department for Business and Trade is keen to support Thailands low carbon transportation and energy transition ambitions and has been working alongside UK businesses to connect with Thai partners in building a green transport future.I sincerely hope that this report can serve as a practical guide for our partners,both in the UK and in Thailand,who are interested in tapping into Thailands clean mobility ecosystem and further supporting the journey to Net Zero.Together,we can drive forward a sustainable future,leveraging our shared expertise and commitment to innovation.Ben Morley Commercial Counsellor and Country Director Trade British Embassy Bangkok 4 4 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT REPORT OVERVIEW This report describes Thailands automotive landscape.Highlighting the market opportunities for UK automotive companies arising from Thailands vehicle production,vehicles in circulation,market trends,and regulatory drivers across different vehicle types.UK automotive companies will understand what needs to be considered before entering Thailand,what the risks and key challenges are,and recommendations on what will be the first steps to take.THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE PRODUCTION OVERVIEW From Detroit of Asia to Electric Vehicle manufacturing hubFrom Detroit of Asia to Electric Vehicle manufacturing hub Thailand has become a major automotive manufacturing hub and has been called“the Detroit of Asia”for decades.The industry growth that began in the 1960s has been fuelled by consistent government support to attract foreign direct investment(FDI).The introduction of the Board of Investment(BoI)incentives was a pivotal moment,offering tax breaks and fostering local content requirements that bolstered supply chains and encouraged technology transfer.Thailands focus on“product champions”such as pick-up trucks in earlier years and later eco-cars(vehicles designed to reduce environmental impact with small engine size),has solidified its competitive edge in automotive supply chains.Recent surges in demand for electric vehicles(EVs)have further diversified the industry.Thailand has an ambitious target to become an EV production hub by 2030.Additionally,export-oriented policies have shifted the industrys focus outward,with export sales averaging 53%of total production between 2007 and 2023.5 5 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT Vehicle Production Vehicle Production 66 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT As of September 2024,Thailands motor vehicle production volume was 1.128 million vehicles(-19%compared to the same period in 2023).This decline reflects both weakening domestic demand,driven by stricter financial criteria and reduced consumer affordability,and softer export performance due to global economic uncertainties.Motorcycle production contracted 12%compared to the same period in 2023.Thailand has 25 car manufacturers(12 foreign-owned,nine joint ventures and four Thai-owned),26 motorcycle producers(10 foreign-owned,eight Joint Ventures and eight Thai-owned)and several bus and truck manufacturers.Japanese brands,Chinese brands,and American brands are usually 100%foreign-owned or joint ventures with local businesses.Mercedes-Benz relies on a long-term strategic partnership with Thonburi Automotive Assembly,which is a local Thai automotive assembler.7 7 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT Thailand hosts 57 automotive OEM locations,including 10 headquarters(some located within the plants)and 49 plants.Key assembly hubs are Rayong and Samut Prakan,due to their proximity to deep-sea ports and key logistics routes.Rayong has 11 plants and two headquarters,Samut Prakan has respectively 13 and three.88 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT Automotive Parts production Automotive Parts production Thailands automotive parts sector consists of 2,415 players categorised into three tiers.Tier-1 manufacturers,responsible for high-quality parts,are 47%foreign-owned,30%joint ventures and 23%Thai-owned.They produce key components such as engines,electrical systems,transmissions,and body panels.Among them,54%focus on automobile parts,28%on motorcycle parts,and 18%on both.Tier-2 and tier-3 suppliers,provide raw materials and supporting components like rubber parts,metal fasteners,and plastic mouldings,(mostly Thai-owned SMEs).These parts are either genuine(following OEM specifications)or aftermarket for budget-conscious buyers.Their production primarily supports tier-1 manufacturers and the aftermarket auto parts market,emphasising cost-effective,less complex components.99 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET OVERVIEW Vehicle LandscapeVehicle Landscape As of September 2024,the total number of vehicles in circulation in Thailand reached 44.8 million vehicles.Motorcycles dominate the landscape(nearly 23 million units),passenger cars follow(12.5 million units-including some pick-ups).Pick-up trucks and vans(majority two-door pick-ups)are the third most numerous vehicles in Thailand(seven million)while trucks and buses make up a smaller share(respectively 1.2 and 0.2 million).In terms of new vehicle sales,the first nine months of 2024 show a decline across all segments mainly due to the strict financial criteria within the country,slow economic growth,and tighter loan approval processes.These have limited consumers ability to secure financing for vehicle purchases in Thailand(the rejection rate for new car hire purchase loans has increased from 15%to 20%in the first half of 2024).Motorcycles remain the largest segment(1.3 million units sold),but sales dropped by 11%compared to the same period in 2023.Passenger cars(397,000 units sold)experienced an even steeper decline of 21%.Trucks and buses saw sharper declines of 30%and 27%,respectively.Three-wheelers(3W)registered the most significant drop of 37%,highlighting their shrinking role in the market.1010 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT Toyota is the market leader in new passenger car sales with 34.8%market share,followed by Honda with 17.7%,Isuzu with 10.2%,and BYD with 5.6%.In the motorcycle segment,Honda leads overwhelmingly with 80.5%of the market,while Yamaha holds a second position with 13.7%.Vespa follows with 1.7%.1111 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT 1212 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT Automotive parts Automotive parts o outlookutlook In 2023,Thailands automotive parts market was valued at approximately 54 billion,with strong demand for tyres,filters and engine components.Emerging growth areas include advanced sensors,EV batteries,and electronics,reflecting a shift towards higher-margin products.The market is divided into two segments:Original Equipment Manufacturer(OEM),accounting for 51%of sales,and the aftermarket parts,which makes up 49%.The aftermarket segment continues to expand due to an ageing vehicle fleet and rising vehicle numbers,while OEM growth is expected to accelerate as supply constraints ease by 2024.Local production supports over 80%of parts used in domestic assembly.However,technology-intensive components such as microcontroller chips and specialised parts are predominantly imported from Japan and China.The aftermarket segment,driven by vehicle age and mileage,relies on a distribution network of service centres,retailers,and garages.Import values for aftermarket parts are rising steadily,with Japan supplying 43%,China 17%,and the United States 8%of these components.The auto parts industry is projected to grow continuously,supported by global investments in semiconductor production and increasing demand for replacement parts.Key players include Bridgestone,Bosch,NGK Spark Plug,ZF Friedrichshafen AG,and Continental AG.Bridgestone leads in tyre manufacturing,Bosch offers a wide range of components for both OEMs and the aftermarket,and NGK specializes in ignition systems.ZF and Continental focus on advanced technologies and high-performance parts,driving innovation in the sector.1313 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT STATE OF TECHNOLOGY Electric Vehicles in ThailandElectric Vehicles in Thailand Between January to September 2023 and the same period in 2024,the adoption rate of four-wheel battery electric vehicles(BEV)rose from 12%to 13%,driven by the wider availability of models and supportive government initiatives such as the EV 3.5 program.This program runs up to 2027 and offers subsidies and tax incentives to encourage both consumers and manufacturers to transition to BEVs.To qualify for these benefits,manufacturers must increase local production to two domestically made EVs for every imported one by 2026,and three by 2027.This incentivises local manufacturing,lowers costs and enhances accessibility for consumers,thereby boosting the appeal of EVs.Chinese players are leading the BEV market in Thailand.1414 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT Charging InfrastructureCharging Infrastructure As of June 2024,Thailand has over 3,000 charging locations and 10,846 outlets nationwide,with 5,388 AC and 5,458 DC fast chargers,according to the Electric Vehicle Association of Thailand(EVAT).Charging outlets grew by 12%in the first six months of 2024,driven by a 20%increase in DC chargers,favoured for their speed.Despite this growth,most chargers are concentrated in urban areas,limiting inter-provincial EV travel.To address this,Thailand aims to expand DC fast chargers to 12,000 by 2030 and 36,500 by 2035.Leading the market,EV Station PluZ added 200 locations and 500 outlets in early 2024.Meanwhile,the Metropolitan Electricity Authority(MEA)introduced Charge Sure by MEA,a certification service ensuring charging station safety and reliability,promoting EV adoption.To further support Thailand to achieve its EV charging station target,The Thailand Board of Investment has played a role by offering tax incentives to stimulate investments in this sector,granting five-year corporate income tax exemptions to stations with at least 40 chargers(25 fast chargers)and extending three-year exemptions to smaller operator such as startups,broadening eligibility for investors.1515 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT Automotive R&D Centres in ThailandAutomotive R&D Centres in Thailand Thailand has become a key hub for automotive R&D in Southeast Asia,hosting seven research centres.Toyota Motor Asia:Only R&D centre in SE Asia;focuses on product planning,design,evaluation,and localisation.Nissan Technical Centre SEA:Supports ASEAN production;only Nissan R&D centre outside Japan.Isuzu Technical Centre Asia:Specialises in LCVs and PPVs;handles planning,design,engineering,and prototyping.Honda R&D Asia Pacific:Covers planning,design,engineering,and testing for Asia and Oceania;only Southeast Asia presence(plus motorcycle R&D centre).Mitsubishi Proving Ground:First outside Japan;tests pre-production,noise,vibration,and harshness.Yamaha(motorcycle):Customises motorcycles for ASEAN market preferences and standards.1616 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT Current R&D focused areas of researchCurrent R&D focused areas of research By 2030,the Thai Automotive Institute has identified seven key areas of automotive R&D as critical focal points,aligning with current gaps in Thailands capabilities.These areas are likely to gain government support in the coming years,making them strategic opportunities for UK companies operating in these fields to align with evolving priorities within the country.1.Connected Vehicles:Enhanced connectivity to improve safety and generate additional service-based revenue.2.Human-Machine Interface:Development of digitised and intuitive control systems to streamline driver-vehicle interaction.3.E-Mobility:Increasing electrification of powertrains,aiming to reduce the dominance of internal combustion engines in favour of sustainable electric mobility solutions.4.Automated Vehicles:Transition from partially automated driving to fully self-driving technologies,addressing future demands for advanced mobility.5.Digital Industry:Transformation through predictive analytics and adaptive data,enhancing process efficiency within the automotive sector.6.New Distribution Models(Pay-Per-Use):Introduction of flexible vehicle usage models,such as pay-per-use,tailored for specific customer groups.7.Changing Customer Structures:Shift from individual car ownership to large-scale fleet or group purchasing,driven by mobility-on-demand services.1717 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT POLICY Thailands government has implemented policies to bolster its automotive industry in the EV sector.The EV 3.5 policy,introduced in December 2023,offers subsidies and excise tax reductions for BEVs,including passenger cars,pick-up trucks,and motorcycles.Additionally,in 2024,the National Electric Vehicle Policy Committee approved a temporary reduction,effective from 2028 to 2032,on excise tax rates for hybrid electric vehicles(HEV).The EV board has also endorsed incentives aimed at motivating companies to shift their large truck and bus fleets to BEVs.Companies can deduct expenses from the purchases of electric buses and trucks for corporate income tax calculation,for locally manufactured vehicles(deductible twice),and for imported ready-made vehicles(deductible 1.5 times).This incentive is effective until December 31,2025.These initiatives aim to position Thailand as a leading EV production hub in Southeast Asia.1818 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT 1919 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT UK THAILAND TRADE PARTNERSHIP Additionally,The UK-Thailand Enhanced Trade Partnership(ETP),signed in September 2024,aims to strengthen trade and investment between the two countries,the scope of focus includes automotive industry.The partnership seeks to boost bilateral trade and investment in the automotive sector through initiatives such as knowledge sharing on decarbonisation,including EVs,aligning international standards,and collaborating on automotive homologation and testing procedures.It offers UK companies the recognition of the UKs vehicle emission testing standards in Thailand,which will facilitate smoother market access for UK-manufactured vehicles.This also includes trade missions and supply chain matching to strengthen ties between the two countries.The ETP lays the groundwork for future free trade agreements that could enhance opportunities for UK automotive businesses in Thailand,especially within the expanding EV market.UK manufacturers can leverage Thailands strategic location,supportive policies,and growing demand for EVs to establish production facilities and export throughout the ASEAN region.This agreement makes Thailand an increasingly attractive destination for UK automotive investment.OPPORTUNITY AREAS Thailands auto parts aftermarket is growing and expected to be worth 35 billion by 2030.Aftermarket parts represent almost 50%of Thailands overall auto parts market.Currently the aftermarket segment is valued at 27 billion and expected to grow by 4GR,driven by strong demand for replacement equipment from Thailands growing national fleet and ageing vehicle population,where approximately 50%of vehicles are over 10 years old.The aftermarket is expected to reach over 35 billion by 2030.This presents great opportunities for UK companies to collaborate with Thai distributors and workshops,bringing advanced aftermarket solutions to the growing market.When entering the Thai market“Local support and language is very important together with fast quote turnaround and short lead times”Asia Pacific ManagingAsia Pacific ManagingDirector,TRDirector,TR 2020 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT In 2024,the Thai Cabinet has allotted over 164 million to In 2024,the Thai Cabinet has allotted over 164 million to further drive EV growth to meet its 3030 target of more further drive EV growth to meet its 3030 target of more than 1.1 million BEV sales annually by 2030.than 1.1 million BEV sales annually by 2030.Thailands BEV market has been gaining traction since 2022 and is expected to reach over 1.1 million units of BEV sales(including passenger,motorcycle and commercial vehicle)by 2030 as per the governments ambitious 3030 target,which would represent over 55GR from 2024-2030.The growth in EV adoption driven by domestic adoption and government incentives is expected to create substantial opportunities in the EV parts sector.As of year-to-date August 2024,The Board of Investment has approved over 78 million worth of EV parts projects and reported a surge in activity,with approved projects for EV auto parts growing by 62%in value and more than tripling in number of projects between Y-o-Y 2023 vs 2024.This signals on-going development of the EV value chain in Thailand.Examples of BOI promoted parts includes both high voltage wire sets and battery parts for EVs.This presents several opportunities for UK companies to supply to these new investments and reach out to established players such as Denso and Summit Auto who have expanded their offerings to include EV parts.UK companies could start by initially participating in tradeshows to enhance brand visibility and further develop relationships locally.2121 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT PTT group announced its plan to expand its EV charging PTT group announced its plan to expand its EV charging network by 400%by 2030,reaching 7,000 DC outlets,to network by 400%by 2030,reaching 7,000 DC outlets,to support growth EV ecosystem in Thailand support growth EV ecosystem in Thailand PTT Group,the largest oil and gas conglomerate in Thailand,owns and operates EV Station PluZ It is the market leader in EV charging stations in Thailand with over 919 charging stations and 1,718 DC charging outlets.PTT plans to increase DC charging outlets to reach 7,000 outlets by 2030,demonstrating a significant growth of 26GR until 2030.This highlights other opportunities for UK high-tech EV charging station hardware or software service companies to enter Thailand to support this major expansion plan.“We decided to enter Thailand because we saw high growth potential in the local market.Having a native local representative has been a huge help in allowing us to have positive engagement with companies in the market.”UK electric motor manufacturerUK electric motor manufacturer 2222 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT THINGS TO CONSIDER FOR UK COMPANIES Board of Investment of Thailand Board of Investment of Thailand Incentives SchemeIncentives Scheme Board of Investment of Thailand(BOI)is a government agency under the Ministry of Industry responsible for promoting investment in Thailand.The BOI provides various incentives to both Thai and foreign investors in specific sectors of the economy.BOI approval is not required for foreign business to operate in Thailand,but it enables full foreign ownership,offers incentives such as land ownership rights,import duty exemptions on machinery for R&D and training,and the ability to remit foreign currency abroad.These privileges support enterprises that enhance Thailands investment landscape.The application process consists of eight steps,where applicants must provide project details and investment plans,which can take up to eight months.The BOI provides support through Corporate Income Tax exemption for up to 13 years,depending on the activity of the company.In the automotive industry,higher level production such as Completely Knocked Down or Semi Knocked Down is required,rather than distribution and trading activity.It also offers other tax incentives,including exemptions on import and export duties,as well as various non-tax benefits such as exemptions on local content requirements.Market entry modelMarket entry model Overseas firms have a range of market entry options including:Partnering with local trade partners:Explore the market first with less risk and investment,identify trade and support partners,and consider applying for BOI support in parallel,to be ready for the next steps.Acquiring an existing business:Can offer a shortcut to securing business in market with local expertise and customer networks in place.Establishing their own operations or a joint venture:Fully leverage UK companies expertise to start building a strong foundation in Thailand market.Some key questions to understand before entering the market:What type of business activity will the company fall into?Would that specific business plan or model be eligible for government incentives such as Board of Investment(BOI)promotion?What business structure would offer the best financial structure for the company,considering the tax and investment landscape?2323 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT Risks and Challenges for overseas firmsRisks and Challenges for overseas firms Complex Regulatory Landscape:Regulations impacting the auto sector in Thailand can be open to interpretation.Hence,having a local partner with expertise and familiarity with processes and cultural nuances can help UK companies understand the regulatory landscape.Price-sensitive Market:Businesses must contend with price sensitivity in the Thai market.Competing with low-cost imports,particularly from China,can be a considerable challenge,as noted by several UK manufacturers operating in the region.UK companies must identify uniqueness and leverage advanced features and technology to compete in the Thai Market.Recommendations for UK companies Recommendations for UK companies Leverage Local Representative:Having local on-ground representatives can help ease the initial market entry.Local collaboration and on-ground personnel,who understand cultural and market nuance are essential to stay connected with established networks in Thailand,as well as allowing a faster response to customer inquiries.Focus on Differentiation:Avoid competing purely on price in the commoditised market.Offer niche,high-value products or services that cannot be easily replicated by low-cost providers,especially Chinese imports.Utilise Support Networks:Take advantage of the support available from the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders and the UK Department for Business and Trade,for help and advice in doing business in Thailand and other markets.“Price is king in a commoditised market.Thai buyers are forced to look to ultra-low cost competitors typically sourced from China ”UK electric motor manufacturerUK electric motor manufacturer 2424 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT Key Opportunities for UK Companies Key Opportunities for UK Companies Growth in Aftermarket Auto Parts:Thailands aftermarket auto parts segment,currently valued at 27 billion,is expected to grow at a 4GR and reach 35 billion by 2030.This presents great opportunities for UK companies to collaborate with Thai distributors and workshops,bringing advanced aftermarket solutions to the growing market.Electric Vehicle Market Expansion:A significant opportunity is the growing demand for EV parts in Thailand,driven by the governments ambitious 3030 target.With the BOI approving over 78 million for EV parts projects and a 62%increase in project value,there is rising demand for components like high voltage wire sets and EV battery parts to both new and established players such as Denso and Summit Auto.EV Charging Infrastructure Growth:EV Charging providers are expanding their coverage.For example,PTT Group aims to increase charging outlets by 400%by 2030,reaching 7,000 DC outlets.Current network includes over 919 charging stations and 1,718 DC charging outlets.This offers opportunities for the supply of hardware and software to support the expanding EV ecosystem in Thailand.“We would like to attribute part of our success in Thailand to the help and support that has been available from both SMMT,with engagements such as the UK pavilion,and the staff at the Bangkok,British Embassy and the international trade team.”UK electric motor manufacturerUK electric motor manufacturer 2525 PAGE THAILAND AUTOMOTIVE MARKET REPORT CLOSING:SMMT SUPPORT SMMT helps companies enter and succeed in overseas markets through our programme of activities and support for members.Contact the International team to discuss your plans for Thailand or any other market.internationalsmmt.co.uk Footnotes for reference sources for charts.Footnotes for reference sources for charts.Motor Vehicle local production by type:Marklines Motorcycle local production:Thailand Automotive Institute(TAI)Passenger car production by fuel type 9M2024:Thailand Automotive Institute(TAI)Production map:Marklines Component production:Marklines,YCP Research and Analysis Vehicle in circulation by type:Department of Land Transport Vehicle in circulation by fuel type:Department of Land Transport Brand new sales market share:Department of Land Transport BEV Passenger vehicle brand share 9M2024:Department of Land Transport Charging infrastructure source:Electric Vehicle Association of Thailand(EVAT)R&D location map:Marklines EV 3.5 scheme:BOI,YCP Research and Analysis Tax incentives for EV fleet conversion for commercial vehicles:EV board committee,YCP Research and Analysis 3030 targets:BOI,YCP Research and Analysis THE SOCIETY OF MOTOR MANUFACTURERS AND TRADERS LIMITED 71 Great Peter Street,London,SW1P 2BN Tel: 44(0)20 7235 7000 E-mail:communicationssmmt.co.uk SMMT SMMTwww.smmt.co.ukSMMT,the S symbol and the Driving the motor industry brandline are registered trademarks of SMMT Ltd Disclaimer This publication contains general information and,although SMMT endeavours to ensure that the content is accurate and up-to-date at the date of publication,no representation or warranty,express or implied,is made as to its accuracy or completeness and therefore the information in this publication should not be relied upon.Readers should always seek appropriate advice from a suitably qualified expert before taking,or refraining from taking,any action.The contents of this publication should not be construed as advice or guidance and SMMT disclaims liability for any loss,howsoever caused,arising directly or indirectly from reliance on the information in this publication.
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EEA Report XX/2023EEA-EMSA Joint Report 15/2024European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025European Environment AgencyKongens Nytorv 61050 Copenhagen KDenmarkTel.: 45 33 36 71 00Web:eea.europa.euEnquiries:eea.europa.eu/enquiriesEuropean Maritime Safety AgencyPraa Europa 4Cais do Sodr1249-206 Lisboa PortugalTel: 351 21 1209 200Web:emsa.europa.euContact:informationemsa.europa.euCover design:European Environment AgencyCover photo:Casarsa Guru,Getty ImagesLayout:European Environment AgencyLegal noticeThe contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the official opinions of the European Commission or other institutions of the European Union.Neither the European Environment Agency,the European Maritime Safety Agency,nor any person or company acting on behalf of the Agency is responsible for the use that may be made of the information contained in this report.Brexit noticeEEA and EMSA products,websites and services may refer to research carried out prior to the UKs withdrawal from the EU.Research and data relating to the UK will generally be explained by using terminology such as:EU-27 and the UK or EEA-32 and the UK.Exceptions to this approach will be clarified in the context of their use.Copyright notice European Environment Agency and European Maritime Safety Agency,2025This publication is published under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International(CC BY 4.0)licence(https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0).This means that it may be re-used without prior permission,free of charge,for commercial or non-commercial purposes,provided that the EEA and EMSA are acknowledged as the original source of the material and that the original meaning or message of the content is not distorted.For any use or reproduction of elements that are not owned by the European Environment Agency or the European Maritime Safety Agency,permission may need to be sought directly from the respective rightsholders.More information on the European Union is available on https:/european-union.europa.eu/index_en.Luxembourg:Publications Office of the European Union,2025ISBN 978-92-9480-697-0ISSN 1977-8449doi:10.2800/3162144 European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 20253ContentsCommissioners welcome 5Foreword 7Acknowledgements 8Executive summary and key messages 91 Introduction 171.1 Aim and objective 171.2 From EMTER 2021 to EMTER 2025 181.3 State of the maritime transport traffic and trade 182 Trends,status and prospects 252.1 Emissions to the atmosphere 252.1.1 Greenhouse gases 252.1.2 Air pollutants 402.1.3 Air quality in ports 592.2 Water pollution 622.2.1 Oil spills 622.2.2 Discharge waters and contaminants 662.2.3 Ballast waters and non-indigenous species(NIS)712.2.4 Underwater radiated noise 762.3 Marine litter and waste delivery at ports 832.3.1 Marine litter,passively fished waste,and container loss.832.3.2 Waste reception at ports 912.3.3 Ship recycling 942.4 Hazards and physical disturbance of seabed 982.4.1 Collisions with animals 982.4.2 Physical disturbance of the seabed 1032.4.3 Seabed disturbance:A special focus on ports 1073 Achieving decarbonisation targets 1123.1 An EU basket of measures 1133.1.1 EU Emission Trading System 1133.1.2 FuelEU Maritime Regulation 1133.1.3 Alternative Fuel Infrastructure Regulation 1133.1.4 Renewable Energy Directive 1143.1.5 Energy Taxation Directive 115Contents4European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 20253.2 Climate neutral energy solutions 1153.2.1 Biofuels 1153.2.2 Methanol 1153.2.3 Hydrogen 1163.2.4 Synthetic fuels 1173.2.5 Ammonia 1183.2.6 Wind propulsion 1193.2.7 Batteries 1213.2.8 Fuel cells 1223.2.9 Nuclear propulsion 1223.2.10 Onboard carbon capture and storage 1233.2.11 Onshore Power Supply 1243.3 Energy transition foresight 1253.3.1 CO2 emissions outlook 1253.3.2 Roadmap to energy transition in 2030 and 2050 1283.3.3 Green corridors 1353.3.4 Human element and seafarer training outlook 1364 Knowledge gaps 1374.1 Gaps 1374.2 The role of research and innovation 1384.3 A new integrated monitoring infrastructure 140Abbreviations 142References 146 Annex 1 Regulatory and monitoring frameworks 163A1.1 Emissions to the atmosphere 163A1.1.1 Greenhouse gases 163A1.1.2 Air quality and depletion of the ozone layer 166A1.2 Water pollution 173A1.2.1 Contaminants and oil spills 173A1.2.2 Discharge waters 176A1.2.3 Ballast water and non-indigenous species 178A1.3 Marine litter and waste delivery at ports 180A1.3.1 Marine litter,passively fished waste and container loss 180A1.3.2 Waste delivery at ports 182A1.3.3 Ship Recycling 183A1.4 Hazards and physical disturbance of the seabed 185A1.4.1 Collisions with animals 185A1.4.2 Physical disturbance of the seabed 186European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 20255Commissioners welcomeDear reader,This second edition of the European Maritime Transport Environmental Report(EMTER)is brought to you by the European Maritime Safety Agency and the European Environment Agency.It is an honour for us to introduce it together.Three quarters of our international trade is carried by sea,making maritime transport an economic engine in the European Union(EU).It has also proven itself able to provide timely and fitting responses to crisis situations,such as the COVID-19 pandemic and the energy crisis.And of course,shipping plays a crucial role in ensuring cohesion within the Union,by linking the continent to our islands,remote and ultraperipheral regions.Shipping carries more than two thirds of intra-EU freight flows,and does so efficiently,in terms of energy consumption.But we can still do better.For the climate and environment,all sectors of the economy have to help reduce pressure on the planets climate and resources.And maritime transport has work to do there,because alongside GHG emissions,it is also a source of significant air and water pollution,posing a risk for the marine environment and coastal areas.Seas and oceans are the worlds greatest carbon sink.They regulate global climate,are an essential source of food,and are central to the health and prosperity of our densely populated coastalareas.Through the European Green Deal,the EU is proud to be at the forefront of global efforts to curb the sectors GHG emissions,as well as the air and water pollution that it generates.Initiatives such as extending the ETS to shipping,FuelEU Maritime,and the monitoring,reporting and verification of maritime transport CO2 emissions have paved the way for similar efforts at the global level.It is no coincidence that the International Maritime Organization(IMO)is looking into establishing a global GHG Fuel Standard and a GHG pricing measure just as our EU measures enter into force.We have also done a lot to limit pollution,with a wide body of legislation in areas such as ship-source pollution,sulphur emissions,ship recycling,port reception facilities for ship-generated waste and last but not least strict safety rules.These help,on a daily basis,to prevent maritime accidents and their potentially devastating effects on the environment.To be effective,new initiatives must be based on reliable,high-quality,up-to-date data and scientific evidence.This is why this second edition of EMTER is so crucial.It provides a comprehensive analysis of the maritime transport sector,its environmental impact,progress made to date,and the challenges it still faces going forward in terms of decarbonisation,pollution reduction,biodiversity protection,circularity and climate adaptation.EMTER helps us to evaluate our policy initiatives.It will also help us shape the European Oceans Pact,which will target coherence across polices supporting resilient and healthy oceans and coastal areas,those promoting the blue economy and managing the use of our seas and oceans coherently,and policies developing a comprehensive agenda for marine knowledge,innovation and investment.We will also seek inspiration from this report when implementing the new Port and Industrial Commissioners welcome6European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Maritime Strategies,which will step up the competitiveness,sustainability and resilience of Europes maritime manufacturing sector and ports.Finally,we have to keep in mind that activities at sea are intrinsically linked with those on land an issue that the Water Resilience Strategy will examine more closely,including from a source-to-sea angle.EMTER is not only designed for rule-makers and maritime professionals;it constitutes,above all,a science-driven overview of where the EU stands in terms of protecting its marine environment,and what must still be done.With this report,we want to give every EU citizen access to a transparent and objective source of information on the topic.his report is for you;we hope it inspires you to contribute to the debate on how to reconcile maritime transport and environment protection,and drive global cooperation in this area for a prosperous,safe and healthy future for us all.We wish you an interesting and inspiring read!Apostolos Tzitzikostas Commissioner for Sustainable Transport and TourismJessika Roswall Commissioner for Environment,Water Resilience and a Competitive Circular EconomyCostas Kadis Commissioner for Fisheries and OceansEuropean Maritime Transport Environmental Report 20257ForewordIt is with great pride that we present the second edition of the European Maritime Transport Environmental Report(EMTER 2025),a collaborative effort between the European Maritime Safety Agency(EMSA)and the European Environment Agency(EEA).Building upon the foundations laid in the first edition published in 2021,this report provides a comprehensive update on the environmental and climate impacts of the maritime transport sector within the European Union,highlighting achievements,identifying challenges and offering insights into future opportunities.Jointly prepared by the EEA and EMSA in collaboration with the European Commission,the EMTER demonstrates how coordinated efforts among EU institutions can provide up-to-date and policy-relevant information and address the sectors environmental and climate challenges by consolidating expertise and knowledge across the maritime domain.Since the first edition,significant progress has been made in aligning the practices of the maritime transport sector with the objectives of the European Green Deal and other key EU policy initiatives.However,the scale and urgency of environmental and climate challenges ranging from decarbonisation and biodiversity protection to pollution reduction and climate resilience within maritime operations require further action and innovation.The decision to publish a second edition of EMTER was driven by the urgency of continuing to make progress towards Europes ambitious decarbonisation,pollution and biodiversity goals,particularly as the maritime sector faces increased regulatory requirements and a need for an accelerated transition to sustainability.EMTER2025 highlights recent regulatory changes,such as the integration of the maritime transport sector into the EUs Emissions Trading System,the expansion of sulphur emission control areas,the zero pollution action plan and the new Port Reception Facilities Directive to manage waste.Such initiatives underscore the EUs continued commitment to reducing the maritime sectors environmental footprint.This edition not only assesses progress made over recent years but also emphasises the interconnectedness of maritime activities with broader ecological,economic and social systems.It underscores the importance of implementing a wide range of environmental practices to mitigate the sectors environmental footprint while reinforcing maritime transport as a cornerstone of European trade and competitiveness,and of communities relying on the sector.We believe the second edition of EMTER can serve as a valuable resource for policymakers,practitioners,researchers and citizens,offering evidence-based insights to support the sustainable transition of the maritime transport sector.EMTER 2025 reflects the progress made thus far and provides guidance on the remaining work.We trust that with coordinated efforts,maritime transport can continue to thrive in a way that benefits the wellbeing of European citizens and protects the environment and climate.Maja Markovi Kostelac EMSA Executive Director Leena Yl-Mononen EEA Executive DirectorEuropean Maritime Transport Environmental Report 20258AcknowledgementsThe second edition of the European Maritime Transport Environmental Report(EMTER2025)was prepared by the European Maritime Safety Agency(EMSA)and the European Environment Agency(EEA).EMSA and the EEA coordinated the reports development with close engagement with the European Commission and other keystakeholders.EMSA and the EEA acknowledge the contributions of the EMTER Coordination Group members to this publication,thanking them for their insights and comments that helped to improve and enrich the reports content.The Coordination Group included representatives from the following European Commission Directorates-General:Mobility and Transport(MOVE),Environment(ENV),Climate Action(CLIMA),Joint Research Centre(JRC),Maritime Affairs and Fisheries(MARE),and Research and Innovation(RTD).In addition,we would like to thank the European Fisheries Control Agency(EFCA)for their active involvement.EMSA and the EEA also extend thanks to Member States,industry associations and civil society representatives for their contributions via the EMTER Stakeholder Consultation workshop.Finally,we wish to acknowledge the contributions of the following organisations,(listed in alphabetical order)whose expertise and data provided valuable input across the reports focus areas:Bundesamt fr Seeschifffahrt und Hydrographie(BSHGermany),Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic(OSPAR),Croatian Ministry of Economy and Sustainable Development,Cruise Lines International Association(CLIA),Department of Transport Ireland,European Community Shipowners Association(ECSA),European Association of Internal Combustion Engine and Alternative Powertrain Manufacturers(EUROMOT),European Sea Ports Organisation(ESPO),EUROSHORE,Exhaust Gas Cleaning Systems Association(EGSA),DG Shipping-FPS Mobility and Transport,Hempel,International Fund for Animal Welfare(IFAW),International Windship Association(IWSA),Mrsk Mckinney Mller Center for Zero Carbon Shipping,Maritime Research Institute Netherlands(MARIN),OceanCare,Registro Italiano Navale(RINA),Seas at Risk,Shipyards&Maritime Equipment Association(SEAEurope),Stichting De Nordzee and the Surfrider Foundation.We would also like to express our appreciation to all individuals who supported this report in various capacities.For further correspondence regarding this report,please contact informationemsa.europa.eu and eea.europa.eu/en/about/contact-us/ask.European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 20259Executive summary and key messagesThis second edition of the European Maritime Transport Environmental Report(EMTER 2025)examines the progress made towards achieving Europes decarbonisation targets and environmental goals for the maritime sector while indicating the most important trends,key challenges,and opportunities.The objective was to update the indicators developed for the first report,analyse new datasets,and fill existing gaps,to provide a data and knowledge-based assessment of the maritime transport sectors transition to sustainability.Promising progress in various domainsSulphur oxides(SOx)emissions There has been a notable decrease in total Sulphur oxides(SOx)emissions in the EU,with model data for 2023 estimating a reduction of approximately 70%since 2014.While the global sulphur cap,introduced in 2020,contributed to this decline,the primary driver has been the implementation of Sulphur Emission Control Areas(SECAs)in the Baltic Sea and North Sea.Starting 1 May 2025,the Mediterranean Sea will become the third SECA in European waters,and North-East Atlantic countries are considering establishing an ECA,potentially by 2027.These measures should bring substantial health and environmental benefits,improving air quality across the EU.In addition,according to the Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention(LTRAP)inventory,the share of maritime SOx emissions has slightly declined compared to the other transport modes.Non-indigenous species The shipping sector has played a significant role in the introduction of non-indigenous species(NIS)and invasive alien species(IAS)in Europe,mainly through ballast water and hull fouling,which account for 60%of NIS and 56%of IAS introductions.However,while the number of NIS continues to increase,the introduction of IAS peaked between 2000 and 2005 and has since decreased.The International Ballast Water Management Convention entered into force in 2017,and by 2023,31%of the ships held an International Ballast Water Management Certificate,while 23%had compliant ballast water management systems.Delivery and collection of waste from ships at EU ports 2023 marked the first full year of data reporting under the Port Reception Facilities(PRF)Directive,providing insights into the volumes and types of waste delivered by ships and collected by ports.The largest amounts of waste delivered to port reception facilities were oily waste and garbage,followed by sewage.Leading ports such as Rotterdam,Antwerp,and Copenhagen handled the highest volumes of waste,highlighting the significant role ports play in managing waste from ships.Additionally,the introduction of the Passively Fished Waste program under the PRF Directive enabled an analysis of 2022 data,revealing that 26%of the waste passively collected by fishermen was plastic.Ongoing efforts to engage the fishing sector in collecting and delivering waste to ports and reporting waste caught in their nets during routine fishing activities remain critical and are being successfully implemented.Underwater noise Continuous underwater radiated noise from ships impacts wildlife negatively.To address the lack of consistent monitoring data across the EU,new model data now provides a comprehensive,pan-European overview,allowing quantitative like-for-like comparisons of shipping contributions to ambient sound between regions,vessel Executive summary and key messages10European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025categories,years,and forecast scenarios from 2016 to 2050.Areas that have the highest sound pressure level values in Europe include parts of the English Channel;the Strait of Gibraltar;parts of the Adriatic Sea;the Dardanelles Strait;and some regions in the Baltic Sea.The lowest values are recorded in the north-west part of the North-East Atlantic Ocean,particularly around the Denmark Strait and the Irminger Sea,and the southern part of the Mediterranean Sea.Foresight modelling has identified technical and operational mitigation measures that could reduce underwater radiated noise by up to 70%from 2030 to 2050 compared to a business-as-usual scenario,thanks to the implementation of underwater radiated noise and greenhouse gas mitigation measures.Extensive research on-going This report underlines the crucial role of research and innovation in facilitating the maritime transport sectors shift towards environmental sustainability.Significant EU investments are driving advancements in clean technologies across diverse areas like renewable energy,hydrogen,and carbon capture.Efforts are focused on developing alternative fuels and energy-efficient ship designs,alongside technologies to reduce air pollutants and improve operational efficiencies through digitalisation.Moreover,research aims to enhance port automation,sustainable waste management practices,and the adoption of circular economy principles to minimise environmental impact.Environmental pressures from maritime transportMaritime transport remains vital for EU trade and economic growth(about 75%of EU merchandise imports and exports rely on maritime transport),however,it also contributes to environmental issues,emphasising the need for sustainable practices to mitigate its impact.An analysis of the pressures the sector places on the environment is included in EMTER.Key pressuresGreenhouse gas(GHG)emissions Maritime transport in 2022 accounts for 14.2%of EU transport CO2 emissions,with emissions rising yearly since 2015.While it remains one of the least carbon-intensive transport modes,CO2 emissions from this sector have increased annually since the Paris Agreement in 2015,except in 2020 due to the pandemic.In 2022,CO2 emissions from monitored voyages totalled 137.5 million tonnes,an 8.5%increase from 2021.Five types of shipscontainerships,oil tankers,bulk carriers,chemical tankers,and general cargo shipsaccounted for 80%of these emissions.Data shows that from 2015 to 2023,the Mediterranean had the highest average yearly CO2 emissions at 64 million tonnes,followed by the Atlantic at 31 million tonnes,and the North Sea at 26 million tonnes.During this period,CO2 emissions increased by 46%in the Atlantic,15%in the Mediterranean,67%in the Baltic,and 62%in the Arctic,while they decreased by 8%in the North Sea and by 1%in the Black Sea.Most ship types saw an absolute increase in emissions,however,improvements in technical and operational energy efficiency have reduced emissions per unit of transport work(in grammes per tonne-kilometre,g/tkm)for specific ship types,such as cargo,containerships,and tanker vessels.Additionally,fishing vessels in the EU emitted about 4.8 million tonnes of CO2 in 2021(a 25%reduction since 2009)and are estimated to have emitted about 3.7 million tonnes of CO2 in 2023(accounting for 2%of total EU transport emissions)due to a reduction in fleet size.Executive summary and key messages11European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025As for methane,emissions from the maritime transport sector have been rapidly increasing,driven by a 32.2%growth in the LNG fleet in 2022.Furthermore,data indicates that in the same year,the maritime sector contributed 26%of the total methane emissions from the entire EU transport sector.Nitrogen oxides(NOx)emissions Between 2015 and 2023,Nitrogen oxides(NOx)emissions from the maritime sector have significantly risen by about 10ross the EU.In specific areas,the increase was even more pronounced:33%in the Atlantic,8%in the Mediterranean,and 32%in the Arctic.Moreover,data shows that the maritime sectors share of NOx emissions has been growing steadily.In 2022,emissions from this sector accounted for 39%of all NOx emissions from transportation.In addition,the issue of NOx emissions remains important due to the requirements of designated ECAs,notably in the Baltic and North seas,being in force only for new ships.Further to this,the International Maritime Organization(IMO)is poised to address concerns regarding NOx emissions from engines operating at low power loads.Discharges of oil from ships While there was a decrease in the detections of possible oil discharges from ships detected by the CleanSeaNet service up to 2022,the data for 2023 displays an inversion,with an average of 6.35 possible pollution incidents detected per million square kilometres.This marks a rise of over 58%compared to 2022,or 16%if only possible spills with high confidence level are accounted for,demonstrating enhanced surveillance capabilities.More pollution incidents are detected in the North Sea,likely due to offshore oil and gas activities,along with the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula,and the Mediterranean Sea which are affected by high maritime traffic.In 2023,62%of the possible detected pollution incidents were smaller than 2 square kilometres,and 87%were less than 7 square kilometres,showcasing enhanced capability to identify smaller possible spills with higher-resolution satellite imagery.Water discharges Discharges from open loop exhaust gas cleaning systems(EGCS)account for 98%of permitted water discharges,largely due to the lower cost of compliance for ships installing EGCS scrubbers under EU and IMO sulphur emission regulations.The remaining 2%consist of grey water,sewage,bilge water,and closed loop EGCS discharges.The volume of grey water discharged has increased by about 40tween 2014 and 2023,primarily due to the growing number of cruise ships in operation.Discharges from EGCS may negatively impact the marine environment through the contaminants contribution to processes such as bioaccumulation,acidification,and eutrophication,thus underlining the need for further risk assessment and regulatory measures.Marine litter Marine litter can be particularly harmful to the marine environment,biodiversity,and local economic activities.Fisheries and shipping are estimated to contribute to,respectively,11.2%and 1.8%of marine litter in regional seas around Europe,with an estimated 50crease over the past decade.Despite the relatively small number of reported lost containers compared to the total number shipped,notable incidents of container loss can have significant environmental impacts.For example,the CSAV TOCONAO incident in late 2023 led to the release of approximately 26 tonnes of plastic pellets,causing extensive environmental damage and triggering large-scale clean-up efforts along the Galician coastline.Data suggests that the shipping sector contributes between 141 and 279 tonnes to annual pellet losses from European industries.These losses can have both immediate and long-term environmental,socioeconomic,and health impacts,further highlighting the need for robust prevention and response measures.Executive summary and key messages12European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Collisions with animals The risk of ships colliding with whales and turtles has significantly increased in the eastern Greater North Sea,the southern Bay of Biscay,the Gibraltar region,and parts of the Aegean Sea due to increased maritime traffic,potentially leading to both safety issues and impacts on marine biodiversity.Additionally,from 2017 to 2022,there has been a notable rise in collision risks within Natura 2000 protected areas across all marine regions.Conversely,this collision risk has decreased along the western coast of the Iberian Peninsula,and in parts of the Celtic Seas,Adriatic Sea,and Black Sea.Seabed integrity Approximately 27%of Europes near-shore seabed(5cing severe effects)is impacted by maritime transport linked activities such as port expansions,dredging,and anchoring,which lead to physical disturbances and habitat loss.Specifically,4.2%of broad benthic habitats are disturbed solely by maritime transport,and 0.2%of habitats experience loss due to significant seabed changes from these activities.Expansion of ports Between 2000 and 2018,port areas in Europe grew by 12.5%.Port expansions in Europe contribute to impacting marine seabed habitats by disturbing ecosystems through dredging,land reclamation,and increased shipping traffic.The habitats most impacted by port activities were sandy and muddy areas in shallow,near-shore water,which provide homes for various species including seagrass,microalgae,mangroves,saltmarsh,prawns,bivalves,mud crabs,and fish.Whats next?Options to accelerate the transition to sustainabilityAmbitious decarbonisation targets in EU legislation Reductions in maritime transports GHG emissions will be supported by the implementation of maritime related legislation under the Fit-for-55 package.Notably,the EU will become the first jurisdiction to put an explicit carbon price on GHG emissions from the maritime sector with the extension of the EU Emissions Trading System(ETS)to the sector,and its coverage of large ships entering European ports.The FuelEU Maritime Regulation,implemented from January 2025,mandates a progressive reduction in the GHG intensity of the energy used onboard ships(2crease by 2025,6%by 2030,and an 80%reduction by 2050),which aims at incentivising the uptake of low and zero carbon fuels as well as creating the demand for onshore power supply(OPS).Concurrently,the Alternative Fuel Infrastructure Regulation(AFIR)ensures the development of infrastructure for alternative fuels as well as the deployment of OPS.The Renewable Energy Directive(RED III)sets binding targets for the use of renewable energy in the transport sector,including maritime transport,driving innovation in advanced biofuels and renewable fuels of non-biological origin.Additionally,a proposal to revise the Energy Taxation Directive aims to align energy taxation with EU climate policies,promoting clean technologies and discouraging fossil fuel use.The EU legislative measures complement global targets set by the International Maritime Organization(IMO),such as the reduction of GHG emissions from shipping by at least 20%by 2030(striving for 30%),as well as reducing the maritime sectors carbon intensity by at least 40%compared to 2008.Decarbonisation,alternative fuels,and technologies While the maritime sector is one of the least carbon-intensive transportation modes,projections suggest a concerning trajectory,with anticipated increases of CO2 emissions of 14%by 2030 and 34%by 2050 under current trends.Executive summary and key messages13European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025To meet emission reduction targets by 2030,limiting fossil fuel consumption will be crucial,necessitating substantial investment in alternative fuel infrastructure.Various decarbonisation options are under consideration by maritime stakeholders,each with varying levels of technological readiness,availability,sustainability,and suitability for onboard use.Within the next decade,increased use of biofuels,methanol,batteries,and other electric energy/power systems is expected.Biofuels are notable for their rapid adoption due to engine and infrastructure compatibility,but due consideration should be given to sustainability,biomass competition,and safety criteria.Hydrogen,ammonia,and synthetic fuels offer promise but face immediate challenges like production,scalability,storage,distribution,cost,and safety concerns.Wind propulsion shows significant fuel savings,while nuclear and onboard carbon capture both present interesting solutions,but with challenges of their own.Green shipping corridors also aim to accelerate the adoption of zero-emission maritime routes,emphasizing collaborative efforts and technological innovation to achieve sustainable maritime energy solutions.Finally,preparing seafarers with specialised training for the safe operation of new fuels and technologies is essential.Estimates indicate that up to 800,000 seafarers may need training by the mid-2030s in parallel with the target of achieving net-zero emissions by 2050.In view of these challenges,concerted efforts are underway to promote sustainable practices in the maritime sector.By investing in alternative fuels,enhancing energy efficiency,and establishing international training standards,stakeholders can significantly advance decarbonisation goals and reduce environmental impact.Operational measures can also offer significant results,for example through speed reduction(slow steaming),weather routing,port call optimisation,and improved hull monitoring and maintenance.Marine ecosystems and zero pollution Moving forward,the effective protection and sustainable use of marine ecosystems will rely on strong implementation of regulatory frameworks,improved monitoring and reporting,and enhanced international cooperation.This will ensure that maritime transport activities can coexist with efforts to reduce environmental pressures,including pollution.EMTER serves as an essential information source for the Zero Pollution Monitoring and Outlook Report.The Marine Strategy Framework Directive(MSFD),the revised Ship Source Pollution(SSP)Directive,and the Port Reception Facilities(PRF)Directive are key to achieving cleaner maritime transport and zero pollution targets,addressing underwater noise,oil spills,chemical pollution,microplastic releases,and marine litter.To address underwater noise pollution,operational and technical improvements,such as reducing ship speeds,and implementing efficient propeller and hull designs are necessary.The MSFD has already set noise level thresholds to protect marine species.To mitigate the risk of ship strikes on marine life,particularly large cetaceans and turtles,the focus must shift to spatial zoning,rerouting shipping lanes,and enforcing speed restrictions.The Marine Spatial Planning Directive(MSPD)provides a framework to enable these protective measures.Executive summary and key messages14European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Maintaining seabed integrity is also critical,as maritime activities such as port expansions,dredging,and anchoring can physically disturb marine habitats.The MSFD sets monitoring standards and thresholds to limit adverse effects on benthic habitats and prevent habitat loss.Sustainable dredging practices,green infrastructure,and ecological engineering-such as natural materials and designs for port structures-combined with habitat compensation and restoration projects,will help protect coastal ecosystems and prevent further damage.Remaining data and knowledge gaps This report has benefited from the availability of new data.Specifically,the detection of smaller possible oil spills with higher-resolution satellite imagery has improved with EMSAs CleanSeaNet service,which is empowered by enhanced satellite surveillance capabilities.Estimates of the environmental impacts of the fishing fleet(vessels carrying AIS and over 12m in length)have progressed,especially in connection with CO2 emissions.Information on the amount of waste delivered by ships to EU ports has improved due to the reporting under the Port Reception Facilities Directive.Additionally,there has been significant progress in estimating the impacts on the seabed as well as in understanding the total CO2 emission from ships while at berth,thanks to the reporting under the MRV regulation.Nevertheless,maritime transport would benefit from more effective monitoring and enhanced reporting systems to support the implementation of current and future regulations aimed at reducing its environmental impact,while also minimising administrative burdens.Standardising data collection and reporting of the source of pollution would ensure more accurate,reliable,and comparable emission measurements.With the notable exception of CO2 under the MRV regulation,there are no mandatory monitoring and reporting requirements for pollutants such as NOx,Volatile Organic Compounds,Particulate Matter,and Black Carbon,creating gaps in understanding the sectors environmental impact,particularly in high-seas operations.A fuller picture of vessels complete life cycle emissions is needed,requiring more data on manufacturing,shipbreaking,and maintenance.Filling these gaps would strengthen the implementation of key EU policies,further supporting the European Green Deal and the Fit-for-55 package.For instance,work on fuel lifecycle reporting under Renewable Energy Directive(RED)and the improved reporting requirements with the revised Ship Source Pollution(SSP)Directive will also contribute to tackling these issues.Advancements in maritime technologies,including alternative fuels and novel power solutions present new challenges in assessing emissions and safety risks,making international collaboration,standardised monitoring and reporting frameworks,and regulatory measures essential.Executive summary and key messages15European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Overall key messagesAir emissions The maritime sector accounts for 14.2%of the EUs CO2 emissions from transport,behind the road sector,and almost equivalent to the aviation sector.CO2 emissions from maritime transport have increased annually in the EU since 2015(except for 2020),amounting to 137.5 million tonnes in 2022,8.5%more than the previousyear.Methane(CH4)emissions from maritime transport have at least doubled between 2018-2023 and constitute 26%of the transport sectors total methane emissions in2022.Sulphur oxides(SOx)emissions in the EU have decreased by about 70%since 2014,largely due to the introduction of Emission Control Areas for SOx(SECAs)in Northern Europe.The Mediterranean SECA,set to take effect on 1st May 2025,is expected to replicate this success in that region,and North-East Atlantic countries are considering establishing an ECA,potentially by 2027.In contrast,Nitrogen oxides(NOx)emissions from the maritime sector have risen significantly in 2015-2023,by an average of 10ross the EU,despite the North and Baltic Seas being designated as NOx ECAs since 2021 due to low penetration rates as requirements apply to new ships only.Water pollution Maritime transport contributes to water pollution through the emission of hazardous substances,primarily oil spills,but also through operational discharges such as grey water and waste from exhaust gas cleaning systems(ECGS).Noticeably,open-loop ECGS account for 98%of permitted water discharges,with the remaining 2%comprising of grey waters,sewage,bilge water,and closed-loop ECGS.Furthermore,the discharge of grey water has increased by 40%from 2014 to 2023,mainly due to the growth in cruise ship operations.Enhanced satellite technology can now detect smaller possible oil spills on the seas surface than ever before.Most of the 2023 possible incidents detected from space by the CleanSeaNet service covered an area of less than two km2.New pan-European model data allows for quantitative comparisons of underwater radiated noise from shipping,revealing high sound pressure level(SPL)values in parts of the English Channel,the Strait of Gibraltar,parts of the Adriatic Sea,the Dardanelles Strait and some regions in the Baltic Sea.Forecast data suggests that technical and operational mitigation measures could reduce noise by up to 70tween 2030 and 2050.Marine litter attributed to fisheries(11.2%)and shipping(1.8%)sources in the regional seas around Europe is estimated to be decreasing,reaching half of the values from a decade ago.In addition,there is an increasing amount of data on waste deliveries from ships to EU ports each year.However,challenges remain in tackling plastic pollution,such as the release of pellets from lost containers.In 2022,while 13.2%of the global fleet was flagged under an EU Member State,only 7%of end-of-life vessels recycled carried such a flag at the time of disposal.This underscores how re-flagging continues to undermine EU efforts for safe and environmentally sound ship recycling.Executive summary and key messages16European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Biodiversity Maritime transport impacts biodiversity through activities like port expansions,dredging and anchoring that affect 27%of Europes near-shore seabed and lead to physical disturbances or habitat loss.There has also been a notable rise in collision risks of ships with marine wildlife within Natura2000 protectedareas.While the number of non-indigenous species(NIS)keeps increasing,the introductions of invasive alien species(IAS)peaked in 2000-2005 and has since decreased.The International Ballast Water Management Convention entered into force in 2017,and by 2023,31%of the ships held an International Ballast Water Management Certificate,while 23%had compliant ballast water managementsystems.Decarbonisation,alternative fuels,and technologies Recently adopted EU legislation,such as the extension of the ETS to maritime transport and the FuelEU Maritime initiative,can be expected to advance the decarbonisation of the sector.An increasing number of ships are being equipped with alternative fuel systems,indicating a shift towards greener energy solutions.The use of batteries is increasing,with the fleet using them expected to double in the coming years.While the number of ships using methanol remains low,it is growing,as are the numbers of ships using wind propulsion and hydrogen.At least 44 EU ports have already implemented onshore power connections(OPS),with 352 berths having shore-to-ship power supply facilities.However,only a limited number of ships have the necessary equipment to connect to high voltage OPS.Data and knowledge gaps The absence of monitoring data and standardised reporting requirements in the maritime sector,for example for pollutants such as NOx,Volatile Organic Compounds,Particulate Matter,and Black Carbon,hinders the comprehensive assessment of their environmental impacts.Digitalisation,along with advanced remote and in-situ monitoring technologies,can help bridge these gaps.European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025171 IntroductionKey messages The maritime transport sector plays a key role in the EUs economy.Around 74%of EU merchandise imports and exports rely on maritimetransport.In 2021,the maritime transport sector generated a Gross Value Added(GVA)of 44.3 billion.Ports generated a GVA of 29.5 billion,representing a 9.2crease from the peak registered in 2020.Employment in the sector has been steadily increasing,reaching 292,000 persons directly employed in 2022(not including fisheries and ports).About 410,000 persons were employed in port activities in 2021.There has been a decline in the EU fishing fleet since 2016,with about 72,500 vessels registered in 2022,compared to 77,500 in 2016.This reduction is visible also in terms of the fishing fleet capacity,both in total engine power and tonnage.1.1 Aim and objective The European Maritime Transport Environmental Report(EMTER)assesses the environmental footprint of the maritime transport sector.It supports the pollution prevention and decarbonisation targets of the sector,as indicated by the European Green Deal and the Fit for 55 package,and is reflected in key initiatives such as the Sustainable and Smart Mobility Strategy and the Zero Pollution Action Plan(EC,2021g).The objective of this second EMTER report is to update the indicators developed for the first report(EMTER 2021;EEA and EMSA,2021),analyse new datasets,and fill existing gaps,to provide a data and knowledge-based assessment of the maritime transport sectors transition to sustainability.As with the first version of the report,EMTER 2025 is targeted to a wide range of stakeholders,including European Union(EU)policy decisionmakers,EU Member States maritime and environmental national administrations,industry and science organisations,business and environmental NGOs,and civil society.It will also feed into other policy monitoring frameworks such as the Zero Pollution Monitoring and Outlook to help determine the contribution of the maritime sector to achieving the European Green Deal targets.Introduction18European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 20251.2 From EMTER 2021 to EMTER 2025 The first edition of the EMTER report,published in 2021,provided the first comprehensive analysis conducted by EU agencies of the EU maritime transport sectors environmental footprint.It presented information on the relevant environmental standards and described actions to reduce the sectors impact on the environment,highlighting challenges and opportunities which exist when it comes to the necessary implementation and cooperation at European level.Within this context,the European Maritime Safety Agency(EMSA)and the European Environment Agency(EEA)have updated the first edition of the report,to fill in gaps and to provide a set of new elements.These include biodiversity-related indicators,the analysis of observational air emission measurements from remotely piloted aircraft systems,insight on water discharges,underwater radiated noise forecast scenarios,marine litter,fishing vessels,EU 2030 targets for decarbonisation,alternative carbon-free energy sources,as well as an up-to-date CO2 emission outlook and energy transition foresight.The report also provides new information on how the maritime transport sector contributes to preventing marine litter in Europes seas,with new data on waste collected during fishing activities(passively fished waste).Nevertheless,it is important to note that some of the gaps identified in EMTER 2021 still remain in this new edition on air quality in ports,for example,where data is still missing and further research is required.The report is split into four main chapters.Chapter 1 introduces the economic and social status of the maritime transport sector.Chapter 2 offers an update of the key data,indicators and trends of EMTER 2021,evaluating the trends and progress made to reach maritime environmental targets.Where possible,it also provides new elements.Chapter 3 examines the opportunities and challenges of the sector regarding the implementation of the new legislative framework on decarbonisation,in line with the ambition of the European Green Deal and the proposals related to the maritime transport sector.The report concludes with a summary of the major remaining gaps(Chapter 4),while highlighting priority areas in need of development to further reduce the environmental footprint of the maritime transport sector and support the EU decarbonisation roadmap.Annex 1 covers all the international and EU environmental regulatory and monitoring frameworks relevant to the maritime transport sector,thereby providing the context for the monitoring and reporting of data,indicators and trends presented in Chapter2.1.3Stateofthemaritimetransporttrafficandtrade Throughout the report,the term maritime transport is used to describe all shipping and related port activities of a commercial or private nature linked to the transport domain.It therefore includes activities of cargo,carriers,containers,tankers,vehicle/passenger(Ro-Ro and Ro-Pax(1)and cruise ships alike.In contrast to EMTER 2021,this version of the report includes commercial fishing vessels in its definition,while offshore and other marine and maritime industrial platforms are not within its scope.However,there remains a distinction between shipping vessels and fishing vessels.This differentiation is necessary because in many instances these two categories are subject to different regulatory frameworks(for further details see Annex 1 Regulatory and monitoring frameworks).(1)Ro-Ro and Ro-Pax ships are those built for freight vehicle transport and passenger accommodation.Introduction19European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Maritime transport plays a crucial role in sustaining trade,economic growth,connectivity and accessibility,while also contributing to energy security and job creation.It handles and delivers large volumes of cargo,resulting in reduced energy consumption and transportation costs,along with increased efficiency(economies of scale)compared to other modes of transport(UNCTAD,2020).However,increased transport demand for the maritime sector comes with additional environmental impacts on the atmosphere and marine ecosystems.The majority of goods transported in and out of the EU are shipped using maritime transport.In 2021,74%of the EUs total merchandise imports and exports were traded by sea.The maritime transport sector,excluding fisheries and ports,generated a gross value added(GVA)of EUR 44.3 billion in 2021,a 42%increase compared to 2020 and 23%compared to the 2019 peak.Gross profit,at EUR 28.1 billion,increased by 77%on the previous year.Over half(58%)of the sectors GVA(EUR 25.5 billion)was generated by freight transport activities,followed by services with EUR 14.8 billion(33%)and then passenger transport with EUR 4 billion(9%).The turnover reported for 2021 was EUR176.7 billion,a 16%increase on the previous year(EC and JRC,2024).In 2021,the maritime sector directly employed almost 380,000 people,excluding fisheries and ports,2%more than in 2020.Nearly half of them were employed in activities related to services related to marine and maritime transportation equipment.The other half were employed in passenger transport activities(25%)and freight transport operations(25%)(EC and JRC,2024).This overall number then decreased by 23%,to 292,000 in 2022(Eurostat,2023a).Employment in the maritime sector(excluding fisheries)has been increasing steadily since 2014,reaching the record level of 403,000 people in 2019 before suffering an 8%drop due to travel restrictions imposed during the COVID-19 pandemic(EC and JRC,2023).These employment numbers are anticipated to rise further due to the EUs substantial role in developing new maritime technologies and services aimed at decarbonising thesector.EU-27 external trade is dominated in both weight and value by maritime transport,with only a slight decline during the COVID-19 outbreak in 2020 as seen in Figure 1.1.More precisely,the pandemic highlighted the importance of maritime transport in supporting the European economy.Demand for maritime transport is continuously growing,with the amount of goods handled by EU ports in 2021 at 3,463 million tonnes for external trade as per Figure 1.3(Eurostat,2023d).The EU accounts for 17.6%of the total commercial world fleet by gross tonnage(GT).It therefore faces a critical decade where it must lead the transition towards a more economically,socially and environmentally sustainable maritime transport sector(EEA,2021).The realisation of the EUs integrated policies and strategies are crucial in reducing environmental impacts and achieving a more sustainable maritime transport sector.These include the Fit for 55 package(EC,2021d),the Sustainable and Smart Mobility Strategy(EC,2020c),the EU Biodiversity Strategy(EC,2020b),the Zero Pollution Action Plan(EC,2021g),as well as the implementation of EU regulations and directives such as the extension of the Emission Trading Scheme(ETS)to the maritime sector(EU,2023b),the FuelEU Maritime Regulation(EU,2023d),the Marine Strategy Framework Directive(EU,2008a),the Water Framework Directive(WFD)(EU,2000),the Habitats and Birds directives(EU,2010,2013a),the Marine Spatial Planning Directive(EU,2014a),the Ship-Source Pollution Directive(EU,2009b),as well as the revised Ambient Air Quality Directive(EU,2024).Introduction20European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Source:EC,Statistical Pocketbooks 2017 to 2022,Section 2.1(EC,2022).05001,0001,5002,0002,500MtEU external trade weight20162017201820192020202105001,0001,5002,0002,500Billion EUREU external trade value201620172018201920202021SeaOther modesFigure 1.1 External trade per mode in the EU-27 In 2020,the volume of seaborne imports and exports in Europe diminished by 7.3%and 7.8%respectively compared to the previous year.However,in 2021 there was a sound rebound( 8.3%and 7.9%,respectively compared to the previous year)due to the gradual reopening of economies(UNCTAD,2022).Due to the pandemic,other economic activities of the sector suffered more than freight transport.In 2019,approximately 400 million passengers embarked and disembarked at EU ports each year.In 2020,this figure plummeted to about 230 million(EC,2023a).The number of seaborne passengers only partially recovered in 2022.Despite a 30%increase on the previous year,it remains below 2019 levels(Figure 1.2).Introduction21European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Sources:Eurostat,2023a,2023b.Percentage-100-80-60-40-20020406080100Q1Q2Q3Q4Q1Q2Q3Q420212022Rate of changeMillions050100150200250300350400450 30.1 072009201120132015201720192022Number of passengersFigure 1.2 Seaborne passengers(embarked and disembarked)in all EU ports,2007-2022 Ports are integral to the maritime ecosystem and sit at the heart of the sustainable development of the maritime transport sector.EU ports vary in size and may receive port calls from a range of ship types calling in,or from specific types of vessels(EEAand EMSA,2021).Ports are crucial to the European economy and are essential pieces of infrastructure with pivotal commercial and strategic importance.They are gateways for EU trade and instrumental in supporting the free movement of goods and persons across Europe.They also enable economic and trade development through traditional activities such as cargo handling,logistics and servicing,while supporting a complex cross section of industries and facilitating the clustering of energy and industrial companies in theirproximity.In 2021,ports generated a GVA of EUR 29.5 billion,representing a 9.2%increase from 2020(EUR 26.9 billion)and a 3.5%increase from the 2019 peak(EUR 27.9 billion).Gross profits registered a year-on-year drop of EUR 1 billion,although they remained relatively steady across the past decade at approximately EUR 10.8 billion on average.Reported turnover,at EUR 76.0 billion in 2021,marked the sharpest year-on-year increase since 2009( EUR 8.1 billion from 2020)(EC and JRC,2024).Introduction22European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Note:TEU,Twenty-foot Equivalent Unit(standard unit for counting containers of various capacities).Source:Eurostat,2022.AntwerpenBremerhavenHamburgPeiraiasAlgecirasValenciaGioia TauroRotterdam05001,0001,5002,0002,5003,0003,5004,000Number of containers(Thousands TEU)Q1Q2Q3Q42016Q1Q2Q3Q4Q1Q2Q3Q4Q1Q2Q3Q4Q1Q2Q3Q4Q1Q2Q3Q420172018201920202021Figure 1.3 Volume of containers handled in EU top 8 portsHowever,it is also important to highlight the role of trans-shipment ports in neighbouring countries.In these ports,containers are unloaded from a ship in port for the purpose of being loaded onto another ship.Although this report focuses on maritime transport in the EU,there are substantial interlinkages with neighbouring non-EU ports which should ideally be considered when assessing the environmental impacts of ports.The port activities sector directly employed nearly 410,000 people in 2021,up from 385,627 in 2020.Nearly 60%worked in cargo and warehousing activities,with the remaining 40%in the port and water projects sub-sector.In 2021,the two sub-sectors generated an almost equal share of the sectors GVA,i.e.,approximately EUR 15 billion each(EC and JRC,2024).North Sea EU ports remain at the top of the list in terms of total containers handled,with figures twice those of Mediterranean Sea ports,as shown in Figure 1.3.Introduction23European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Notes:Ro-Ro,roll-on,roll-off.Ro-pax,roll-on,roll-off passenger(ships).Source:EMSA,2023.Liquified gas tankerBulk carrierRo-RoOil tankerFishing vesselContainer shipChemical tankerGeneral cargoPassenger shipRo-Pax0102030Port calls(%)Figure 1.4 Port call distribution across EU ports per ship type in 2022(2)Relevant data is available on the Scientific,Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries(STECF)website:https:/stecf.jrc.ec.europa.eu/index.html.EU ports handle a significant proportion of the total port calls made each year around the world.In 2022,more than 12 million port calls took place globally,with almost 3million(approximately 23%)located in EU and European Economic Area ports.This report examines the impact of fishing vessels on the marine environment for the first time.Overall,the total number of EU fishing vessels has declined from around 77,500 in 2016 to 72,500 in 2022(-6.5%).However,both in terms of size and power needs,the fishing fleet is smaller than the merchant fleet,hence the overall related emissions and environmental impacts can be assumed to be lower,irrespective of where the fleet operates(2).Table 1.1 shows that the majority of the fishing fleet belonging to EU Member States is registered in five countries,namely Greece,Italy,Spain,Portugal and Croatia,which collectively account for 68%of the total.The same countries account for 51.2%of the gross tonnage and 53.1%of the engine power across the fleet.Interestingly,while the Greek fleet is numerous(at 19.5%the largest in terms of numbers),but relatively small in gross tonnage(5.2%)and engine power(7.8%),the French fleet is smaller in numbers(8.4%),but largest in engine power(18.3%).This is down to the Greek fleet being dominated by small-scale vessels,as can be inferred by the EU Fleet Register data shown in Table 1.1.Introduction24European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Source:EU Fleet Register(EC,2021).Table 1.1 Total EU size,gross tonnage and engine power of fishing fleet per EU Member State in July 2021 MSNumber of vessels%Gross tonnage%Engine power in kW670.1,6271.0D,7330.8%BG1,8162.4%6,0050.5S,1171.0%DK2,0052.7f,8155.1!6,7984.11,2811.7W,2934.38,3912.41,8562.5,5511.3I,1820.9%IE1,9352.6X,9544.53,8523.3%EL14,58119.5i,0165.2A4,9437.8%ES8,77611.729,37425.0w2,80314.6%FR6,2628.46,33113.40,53518.3%HR7,53510.1C,2723.342,9996.5%IT12,16816.36,77711.17,53217.7%CY8141.1%3,8080.38,9850.7%LV6590.9,3711.79,3840.7%LT1370.26,0302.7A,9130.8%MT8841.2%6,4510.5r,2791.4%NL7201.0,4407.5$4,5034.6%PL8211.12,3962.5,4301.5%PT7,79110.4,9456.644,9256.5%RO1780.2%1,6240.1%6,3430.1%SI1370.2g10.05%8,8530.2%FI3,1794.3,9221.21,4403.2%SE1,1361.5(,5772.28,2082.8%EU-2774,738100.0%1,319,250100.0%5,302,148100.0%European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025252 Trends,status and prospectsThis chapter explores the state of play in relation to the various environmental impacts of the maritime transport sector,along with an analysis of the trends,status and future prospects.This builds on the indicators developed in the first edition of EMTER,released in 2021,which are herein expanded and updated.2.1 Emissions to the atmosphere2.1.1 Greenhouse gasesKey messages CO2 emissions generated by the maritime transport sector account for approximately 3-4%of all EU CO2 emissions,and specifically in 2022 for 14.2%of all CO2 emissions from the EU transport sectoras a whole.CO2 emissions of the shipping sector increased in 2022,with 137.5million tonnes of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere,8.5%higher than in 2021.Between 2015-2023,CO2 emissions increased by 46%in the Atlantic,15%in the Mediterranean,30%in the North Sea,and 67%in the Baltic,while there was a decrease of 8%in the North Sea and 15%in the Black Sea.In the Arctic region,CO2 emissions have increased by 62tween 2015-2023,accompanied by an increase in the ships distance travelled in the area of 48%.Fishing vessels in the EU emitted about 4.8 million tonnes of CO2 in 2021(a 25%reduction since 2009)and are estimated to have emitted about 3.7 million tonnes of CO2 in 2023,accounting for 2%of total EU transport emissions.The contribution of the maritime transport sector to the EU regions overall transport emissions of methane(CH4)has increased over time,reaching approximately 26%in 2022.CH4 emissions across EU marine regions have increased between 2 and 5 times in 2018-2023.Trends,status and prospects26European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025(3)MRV system allows for the correction of already submitted emissions on a rolling basis.(4)From 2025,MRV will cover general cargo ships and offshore ships above 400 GT and below 5,000 GT,which will lead to an increased pool of ships being accounted.(5)Note that the definitions of the categories differ across the dataset.MRV emissions are classified as intra European Economic Area,extra European Economic Area and at berth.For inventories and Ship Traffic Emissions Assessment Model(STEAM),emissions are classified as domestic or as international navigation.Notice that these categories are defined in a different way in the two datasets.Data reported under the EUs Monitoring Reporting Verification(MRV)shows that,in 2022,relevant maritime voyages and activities emitted 137.5 million tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere(3).This reflects a 8.5%growth in maritime emissions compared to 2021,originating from a fleet of nearly 13,000 ships(6.5%larger than 2021 and the highest number of ships recorded)(EC,2024a).This accounts for around 55%of the ships calling to European Economic Area ports and covers 90%of all CO2 emissions of the fleet(4)in tonnes of CO2 equivalent(EC,2023c).Additional information on MRV regulation and the legal and monitoring framework for greenhouse gases(GHGs)can be found in Annex 1.Ship emissions are also monitored based on ships activities,whether they are arriving to or departing from ports in the European Economic Area or travelling between them(see Figure 2.1).In 2022,ships arriving at ports in the European Economic Area accounted for 35%of the total shipping emissions,with voyages departing from European Economic Area ports representing 32.4%.Voyages between European Economic Area ports contributed 26.2%,while around 6.4%of the emissions came from ships at berth(EC,2024a).Notes:Data reported under:United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC)GHG inventories(left),MRV regulation(centre),Ship Traffic Emissions Assessment Model(STEAM)(right)(5).Figures are in Mt,million tonnes of carbon dioxide.Sources:UNFCCC;MRV;STEAM(EEA,2022;FMI,2024).Emissions at berth(MRV)International(UNFCCC,STEAM)/Extra EEA(MRV)navigationDomestic(UNFCCC,STEAM)/Intra EEA(MRV)navigation04080120160200UNFCCC inventoriesMRVSTEAMCO2 emissions(Mt)Figure 2.1 CO2 emissions from the maritime sector in 2022Trends,status and prospects27European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025(6)MRV Data from 2021 onwards excludes the UK.Notes:MRV,Monitoring,Verification,and Reporting.UNFCCC GHG,United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change GreenHouse Gas.STEAM,Ship Traffic Emissions Assessment Model.Sources:EEA,2022;EMSA,2023f;FMI,2024.Table 2.1 Data used in the report and differences between EU MRV,UNFCCC GHG inventories and STEAM modelMRVGHG InventoriesSteamVessel 5,000 gross tonnage(GT)cargo/passenger ships:exceptions apply(military,fishing vessels,etc.)Any waterborne vessel.Includes navigation on lakes and inland waterways.Fishing and military vessels are reported as separate categories.All vessels entering the scope of the AIS system regardless of location.ScopeGeographicalEuropean Economic Area:EU-27 Iceland,Liechtenstein and Norway(6)EU-27:There is a difference between EU inventory and UNFCCC inventory due to differences in territory accounted for Denmark and France.GlobalEmissionsTank-to-WakeTank-to-WakeTank-to-WakeCategorisationIntra European Economic Area/extra European Economic Area/at berthDomestic/international based on port of departure/arrival (for each segment of a trip).EU-27 results are obtained by summing Member State contributions.Total/Domestic/international.International:ship movements which occur between two different countries.Domestic:between ports belonging to the same country.Main approachFuel consumed on boardFuel soldVessel activity through AIS dataMain outputCO2 emissionsGHG(CO2,CH4,N2O)emissionsGHG,AP,and contaminantsReporting cycle/timelinessYearly,T-1Yearly,T-2Yearly,T-1Calculations of CO2 emissions from the shipping sector are currently performed using a variety of methodologies,depending on the context.Figure 2.1 illustrates the differences between the EUs MRV system,the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC)GHG inventories and the Ship Traffic Emissions Assessment Model(STEAM)(FMI,2024).While the data resulting from these three approaches are not directly comparable,they give complementary visions of the sectors emissions.For example,STEAM shows the geographical distribution of emissions at regional level,while the UNFCCC inventories provide an historical data series.In 2022,the UNFCCC and MRV methodologies calculate total CO2 emissions from shipping to be 147 million tonnes and 137.55 million tonnes,respectively,a difference of 7%.Trends,status and prospects28European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Note:Figures are in Mt,million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent.Source:EEA,2022c.International navigationDomestic navigationShare of maritime transport in total transport emissions(%)151515141414141515141515151516161717171616161515141414141414151514020406080100120140160180200CO2 emissions(Mt)19901992199419961998200020022004200620082010201220142016201820222020Figure 2.2 CO2 emissions from the maritime sector and their share in total transport emissions between 1990 and 2022 in the EU-27Calculations of domestic emissions are similarly varied across the three tools.The UNFCCC approach accounts for emissions from voyages starting and ending in ports located in the same Member State;in 2022,these amounted to 18 million tonnes,approximately 12%of the total.According to STEAM,2022 domestic navigation(with a similar definition)totalled 70 million tonnes and accounted for 37%of all shipping emissions.Finally,the MRV data for 2022 reveals that,intra-European Economic Area and extra-European Economic Area emissions accounted for 27%and 67%of the total share,respectively,with the remaining emissions occurring at berth.The maritime transport sectors share of total EU transport CO2 emissions has remained roughly constant in time and was approximately 14%in 2022(see Figure 2.2).At the same time,domestic freight maritime transport activity in the EU (measured in billion tkm(7)increased by 45tween 1995 and 2022,despite the impact of COVID-19 pandemic.Meanwhile,the passenger activity(in billion pkm(8)decreased by 22%(EC,2023b).(7)Tonnes-kilometre(tkm):unit of measure of freight transport which represents the transport of one tonne of goods over the distance of one kilometre:https:/ec.europa.eu/Eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Glossary:Tonne-kilometre_(tkm)(8)Passenger-kilometre(pkm):unit of measure of passenger transport which represents the transport of one passenger over a distance of one kilometre:https:/ec.europa.eu/Eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Glossary:Passenger-kilometre Trends,status and prospects29European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Changes in maritime activity are also reflected in the volume of ships calling at EU ports during this period.Between 2019 and 2020,a period affected by the COVID pandemic,ship calls at EU ports declined by 3.5%.They rebounded in 2021 however,growing by 3.7%over the course of the year.Gross tonnage(GT)also fell by 11.1tween 2019 and 2020 and continued to fall into 2021,leading to a total reduction of 9.1tween 2019 and 2021.Factoring in data from the first half of 2022 highlights a shift in this trend,with a total increase of 4.2%on port calls.GTcontinued to decline,however,by 16.2%compared with 2019 likely due to the ongoing crisis in Ukraine(EMSA,2022).Data from the UNFCCC GHG emissions inventories shows that the overall emissions from maritime transport decreased by 11%from 2019 to 2020.As a share of Europes total transport emissions,they remained stable however,as all EU transport activity declined during this period.Indeed,freight and passenger activity declined 6%and 50%respectively during the same period(EC,2023b).Notes:Data from 2021 onwards excludes the UK.Figures are in Mt,million tonnes of carbon dioxide.Source:THETIS-MRV(EMSA,2023f).Intra EEA navigation(MRV)Extra EEA navigation(MRV)Emissions at berth(MRV)2022202120202019201820222021202020192018FreightPassengerCO2 emissions(Mt)020406080100120140Figure 2.3 Distribution of CO2 emissions from freight and passenger vessels between 2018 and 2022 in the European Economic Area The split in maritime emissions shows that freight emissions are four times the magnitude of passenger emissions,totalling 124 million tonnes in 2022(see Figure2.3).Among intra-European Economic Area voyages,the difference of emissions between the two categories has shrunk in absolute terms.Total emissions Trends,status and prospects30European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Notes:UK is not included for the years 2021 and 2022.Ro-ro,roll-on,roll-off;Ro-pax,roll on passenger.Source:THETIS-MRV(EMSA,2023f).Combination carrierOther ship typesContainer/ro-ro cargo shipRefrigerated cargo carrierGas carrierVehicle carrierRo-ro shipGeneral cargo shipLNG carrierPassenger shipChemical tankerRo-pax shipBulk carrierOil tankerContainer ship313032322813131513121312121314101210101066776551254575844554444443333301020304050607080901002018201920202021(UK excluded)2022(UK excluded)CO2 emissions(%)Figure 2.4 Shares in total fleet CO2 emissions by ship type between 2018 and 2022from freight transport fell by 5.9tween 2018-2022,while passenger transport emissions decreased by 5.2%in the same timeframe(with the caveat regarding the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic,as well as the fact that emissions from 2021 and 2022 do not include UK-related emissions).Emissions at berth for freight remained relatively stable at approximately 6%of the total between 2018 and 2022.For passenger transport,this value oscillated between 9%and 15%,depending on theyear.From 2018 until 2022,five types of ships constituted the majority(80%)reporting under the MRV(see Figure 2.4 for the yearly breakdown).For 2022,the reporting included bulk carriers(31%),oil tankers(15%),container ships(14%),chemical tankers(11%)and general cargo ships(9%).Together,containerships,oil tankers,bulk carriers and tankers alone accounted for 54%of the total CO2 emissions for 2022.Notably,in 2022 container ships and oil tankers reported their lowest share of CO2 emissions compared to the overall five year reporting period.Bulk carriers also surpassed oil tankers as the second largest emitter for the first time.Identifying the main contributors serves as a starting point to prioritise decarbonisation strategies and identify the sectors requiring urgent investments to accelerate the transition towards cleaner fuels and power solutions alternatives.Trends,status and prospects31European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Source:STEAM(FMI,2024).10090806030201000-10-20-30-50-70-806050504040303020707080806005001,0001,500 kmTonnes of CO2Difference in CO2 emissions across European shipping areas-1,000,000-500,000-50,000-25,00025,00050,000500,0001,000,0002,000,000Reference data:EuroGeographics,FAO(UN),TurkStat Source:European Commission Eurostat/GISCOMap 2.1 Difference in CO2 emissions across European shipping areasSTEAM modelled data provides additional insights into the uneven distribution of CO2 emissions across different regions of Europe(see Map 2.1).It is important to consider that variables such as the traffic volume(in absolute number of vessel position messages)will influence the total emissions.Between 2015-2023,STEAM data shows that the Mediterranean had the highest average yearly CO2 emissions,equal to 64 million tonnes/year,followed by the Atlantic with 31 million tonnes/year and the North Sea with 26 million tonnes/year.Trends,status and prospects32European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Between 2015 and 2023,CO2 emissions increased by 46%in the Atlantic,15%in the Mediterranean and 6%in the Baltic,while the North and Black Seas experienced a decrease of 8%and 1%respectively.Over the same timeframe,the variation in distance travelled by ships on a per region basis increased by 45%,19%,and 7%for the Atlantic,Mediterranean and Baltic Seas and fell by 7%and 12%for the North and Black Seas respectively.In the Arctic region,CO2 emissions have increased by 62%,alongside an increase of 48%in the distance travelled within the area.CO2 emissions and ship typesSpecific emissions declined for most of the ship types between 2015 and 2023(see Figure 2.5).While average cargo ships CO2 emissions fell by 21%during this period,those of containerships and tankers fell by 18%and 14%.Vehicle carrier vessels also cut their emissions by 7%.For reference,in the same region and timeframe,the payload carried by these vessel types grew by 34%,25%,57%and 10%,respectively,while in absolute terms,CO2 emissions of the same vessels type increased by 6%,3%,35%and 2%,respectively.Cargo ships and tankers had the lowest yearly emissions per tonne-kilometre with 6.456g/tkm(grammes per tonne-kilometre)and 6.517g/tkm.By comparison,container ships emitted on average 7.508g/tkm,while emissions from vehicle carriers rose to 23.585g/tkm.Notes:Emissions for freight and passenger ships in(g/tkm)or(kg/km)respectively.g/tkm,grammes per tonne-kilometre;kg/km,kilogrammes per kilometre.Source:STEAM(FMI,2024).CO2 emissions(kg/km)20152017201920212023CO2 emissions(kg/km)1000300200400500600700100030020040050060070020152017201920212023CO2 emissions(g/tkm)01051520253020152017201920212023CO2 emissions(g/tkm)01051520253020152017201920212023CO2 emissions(g/tkm)01051520253020152017201920212023010515202530CO2 emissions(g/tkm)20152017201920212023Cargo shipsContainer shipsTankersVehicle carriersPassenger shipsCruisersFigure 2.5 CO2 specific emissions from selected freight and passenger ship types in the EU between 2015 and 2023Trends,status and prospects33European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Specific emissions of cruisers in Europe fell by 7%,while the distance travelled increased by 17%.Conversely,emissions from passenger ships increased sharply by 34%,while the distance travelled reduced modestly by-4%.At the same time,absolute CO2 emissions increased by 8%for cruise ships and by 28%for passengerships.Cruise ships emitted 444kg/km during this same period,approximately 11 times higher than conventional passenger ship emissions in the same region and period,(42kg/km).However,it is important to note that these figures do not consider the number of passengers transported.Trends in fuel consumptionRegarding fuel consumption,data reported under the MRV regulation shows that there has been a shift in the types of fuel used.Since 2020,the use of heavy fuel oil(HFO)has declined while light fuel oil(LFO)has grown,as shown in Figure 2.6.The implementation of the global sulphur cap in 2020 and the prohibition on the carriage of such fuel without abatement technologies onboard are two factors that can help explain this trend(IMO,2020b).All vessels covered by the MRV regulation consumed approximately 43.7 million tonnes of fuel in 2022,a 7.2%increase compared to 2021(40 million tonnes).Notes:UK is not included for the years 2021 and 2022.LNG,Liquefied natural gas;LPG,Liquefied petroleum gas.Figures are in kt,kilotonnes of fuel.Source:THETIS-MRV(EMSA,2023f).Heavy fuel oilGas oilLight fuel oilDiesel oilLiquefied natural gas(LNG)OtherMethanolLiquefied petroleum gas(LPG)05,00010,00015,00020,00025,00030,00035,00040,00045,00050,000Fuel consumption(kt)71.37i.42E.24G.93I.78.93.18.98.11.14%7.54%8.01.61%.73.00%4.15%4.55%5.80%6.94%6.54%3.43%4.46%6.19%5.54%6.82 18201920202021(UK excluded)2022(UK excluded)Figure 2.6 Total fuel consumption of the EU MRV fleet 2018 to 2021 and consumption per fuel type between 2018 and 2022Trends,status and prospects34European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Source:STEAM(FMI,2024).2,00004,0006,000 kmTonnes of CO2Global CO2 emissions for fishing vessels(only)in 2023-1,000,000-500,000-100,000-25,00025,000100,000500,0001,000,0002,000,000Reference data:EuroGeographics,FAO(UN),TurkStat Source:European Commission Eurostat/GISCOMap 2.2 Global CO2 emissions for fishing vessels(only)in 2023CO2 and fishing vesselsFinally,STEAM data shows the average emissions per ship of fishing vessels,which fell by 1%from 2015 to 2023.A typical fishing vessel emitted approximately 473.2tonnes of CO2 per year on average in 2020.In 2023 this increased to 505.6 tonnes of CO2 per year.The fishing fleet shrunk by 14.8%over the same period,while absolute CO2 emissions decreased by 10%.CO2 emissions for fishing vessels in the EU were equivalent to 3.7 million tonnes,according to the STEAM model.This accounts for 31.6%of global fishing vessels emissions(see Map 2.2).For 2023,STEAM estimates that fishing vessels accounted for 2%of CO2 emissions in the EU and 1.3%globally,when considering all vessel types,activities and voyages.It is nevertheless important to note that these estimates are based on the Automatic Identification System(AIS)occurrences.Recent studies have shown that about three-quarters(72-76%)of globally mapped industrial fishing vessels did not appear in public monitoring systems between 2017 and 2021,compared with one-quarter(21-30%)for other vessel activities(Paolo et al.,2024).The same study also indicates that relying solely on AIS data may inaccurately suggest that Europe and Asia have similar levels of fishing activity.However,the study reveals that Asia predominates in industrial fishing,representing 70%of all fishing vessel detections.As a result,the estimated 31.6%share of CO2 emissions from fishing vessels in the EU may be overstated.This exposes some limitations when using solely AIS to estimate CO2 emissions from fishing vessels.Trends,status and prospects35European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025(9)https:/blue-economy-observatory.ec.europa.eu/fishing-fleet-fuel-analysis_enThe European Parliaments Communication paper on the Energy Transition in EU fisheries and aquaculture(EP,2023)highlights the EU fishing fleets current energy intensity and reliance on fossil fuels.It also examines the need to strengthen fuel efficiency by switching to alternative and low-carbon energy sources.It reports that:At present,most fishing vessels rely on marine diesel for their operations,although smaller vessels may use petrol.In total,the EU fleet consumed over 1.81 billion litres of marine diesel in 2021.This fuel consumption led to direct emissions of approximately 4.8 million tonnes of CO2,a 25%reduction compared to 2009(EC and JRC,2024).However,STEAM data for 2020 suggests the EU fishing fleet consumed 725thousand tonnes of marine diesel oil,equivalent to the emission of 2.3 million tonnes of CO2.This confirms that quantifying fishing vessel emissions on AIS data alone is not sufficient.Data from the EU Blue Economy Observatory(9),shows the evolution of CO2 emissions for the different sizes of fishing vessels(by length),as well as per kg of fish landed(which can be relevant to control for the efficiency of the fishing vessels and overall sector).Figure 2.7 shows the evolution of CO2 emissions from fishing vessels as a function of the vessel length,both in absolute terms and per unit mass of fish landed between 2008 and 2021.The analysis shows that in absolute terms,smaller vessels(40m)are the second least emitting vessel type.It is important to consider that in 2021,the last reporting year for which data is available and according to the EU fleet register smaller vessels accounted for the majority(around 86%)of the registered EU fishing fleet.A total of 11%of the fleet ranged from 12-24m and the remaining 3%were vessels larger than 24m(EC,2021f).However,if the analysis considers the emissions per kilo of fish landed,vessels 40m)and those ranging from 24-40m.The larger the fishing vessel,the less it emits per kilo of fish landed.Another aspect which emerges from the total emissions of CO2 is that vessels ranging from 12-24m and 24-40m emit more CO2 than those larger than 40m.This may be influenced by several factors,including fishing techniques,the efficiency of the fleet,as well as the number of vessels in each category.Nevertheless,these values should be interpreted with caution due to the diverse fishing gear used by vessels within each size class.These variations in gear can lead to significant differences in both fuel consumption and CO2 emissions.Moreover,the distribution of vessels among different fishing gear types can also impact emissions within each length category.Factors such as stock status and target species are also key considerations,as healthier and more productive stocks may require less time and effort to locate and catch.Additionally,targeting small pelagic fish stocks typically demands less time and effort to catch larger quantities.In terms of absolute emissions,the total number of vessels in the EU fishing fleet has decreased since 2008.Consequently,while emissions have indeed declined,this reduction may not be statistically significant.Trends,status and prospects36European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Note:JRC elaboration based on the Scientific,Technical and Economic Committee for Fisheries(STECF)data(Annual economic report).Source:EC,2023.Below 12 mBetween 12-24 mBetween 24-40 mAbove 40 m0.00.51.01.52.02.520082009201020112012201320142015201620172018201920202021kgCO2 per kg of fish05001,0001,5002,0002,50020082009201020112012201320142015201620172018201920202021Thousand tonnesTotal CO2 emissionsFigure 2.7 Evolution of CO2 emissions per fishing vessel by length group and CO2 emissions per kg of fish landedTrends,status and prospects37European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025MethaneThe scope of the EU MRV has expanded in light of the inclusion of maritime transport.This means relevant methane emissions data will be reported and published for the first time in 2025,for the reporting year 2024.Note:Gg,gigagrams.Source:UNFCCC(EEA,2022).International navigation Share of maritime transport in total transport emissions(%)Domestic navigation 455556677789101011121415161617181818191819202124282826024681012141619901992199419961998200020022004200620082010201220142016201820202022CH4 emissions(Gg)Figure 2.8 CH4 emissions from the maritime sector and their share in total transport emissions(%)in the EU-27According to the UNFCCC inventories data(see Figure 2.8)the contribution of the EUs maritime transport sector to overall transport methane emissions of CH4 has increased over time,reaching approximately 26%in 2022.Methane emissions from the maritime transport sector reached 14Gg in this year.Additional details on the methodology used to account for CH4 emissions in inventories can be found in the dedicated guidelines(IPCC,2006).Trends,status and prospects38European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Source:STEAM(FMI,2024).10090805030200-10-20-30-40-70-80-90106050404030302005001,0001,500 kmTonnes of CH4Difference in CH4 emissions in European shipping areas between 2015 and 2023-250252507502,5006,50010,00020,000-250Reference data:EuroGeographics,FAO(UN),TurkStat Source:European Commission Eurostat/GISCOMap 2.3 Difference in CH4 emissions in European shipping areasThe STEAM model offers insights into the spatial distribution of CH4 pollution across Europe(Map 2.3).It also shows that CH4 emissions,accounted as methane slip,started to grow more significantly from 2018(10).This is associated with an increase in the overall number of ships using liquefied natural gas(LNG)(Comer et al.,2024;EEA and EMSA,2021).(10)In calculating CH4 emissions,the STEAM model distinguishes between spark-ignited,low-pressure(Otto)dual-fuel and high-pressure(Diesel)dual-fuel engines(Kuittinen et al.,2023).Ongoing work on these emissions continues to evolve with the growing availability of experimental data on CH4 slip.Trends,status and prospects39European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025More specifically,CH4 emissions increased significantly across all EU marine regions between 2018 and 2023:by 454%in the Atlantic,375%in the Baltic,291%in the Black Sea,211%in the Mediterranean and 97%in the North Sea.The variation in distance travelled was 52%,10%,-5%,24%and 2%,respectively.In the Arctic region,CH4 emissions increased 108%,coinciding with an increase in distance travelled of 41%.This is of particular concern given the vulnerability of the region to the effects of CH4 pollution,which is considered an important GHG after CO2(Prather et al.,2001).The Atlantic had the highest average yearly CH4 emissions over this period,equal to 9Gg/year,followed by the Mediterranean with 8Gg/year and the North Sea with 5Gg/year.Note however that CH4 emissions are not measured directly at source,neither during real operation nor during certification cycles.Indeed,recent research(Comer et al.,2024)showed that the average CH4 emissions,e.g.for LPDF 4-stroke engines,can be significantly higher than is normally assumed.Loading and unloading operations of LNG can also emit relevant quantities of CH4.Notice that CH4 is not only an air pollutant but also a climate forcing compound,with a Global Warming Potential(GWP)of approximately 81 for a 20-year time(IPCC,2021).Ozone depleting substances and fluorinated greenhouse gases(ODS and F-gases)In the maritime sector,emissions of ozone depleting substances(ODS)and fluorinated gases(F-gases)into the atmosphere can occur due to the use of refrigeration and air-conditioning systems onboard vessels.These are estimated to amount to approximately 18.2 million tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent(CO2e),i.e.ca.15%of the total EU F-gas emissions(based on EU NIR UNFCCC F-gas emissions for the same year)(IMO,2020a).F-gases often show high global warming potentials which are up to several thousand times higher than the climate impact ofCO2.These emissions can result from high annual leakage of the cooling systems deployed.Research from the United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP,2011)and the European Commission(Birchby et al.,2022;Schwarz and Rhiemeier,2007)indicate that cooling systems on ships typically show an average leakage rate of 40%,which is several times higher than leak rates of stationary systems.Ships exhibit specifically high emission rates due to many factors,including long piping systems,constant exposure to sea wave vibrations,motion,as well as insufficient crew expertise in refrigeration technologies which can inhibit leakage repairs.Limited onboard expertise poses challenges that are characteristic for the maritime sector,especially in case of maintenance and repair needs during extended voyages(UNEP,2022).Technical data on the actual leakage rates of refrigeration and air-conditioning systems on ships is usually not available.In 2024,the EU adopted new F-gas and ODS regulations to further address the impact of these substances on global warming.Emission reductions are crucial and need to consider all applications but especially refrigeration and air conditioning,including international maritime shipping.Due to the maritime sectors relevance concerning emissions from cooling coupled with the considerable sector growth,transitioning to environmentally friendly alternatives needs to be fostered across ship types(IMO,2020a).Refrigeration technology is heterogenous across the fleet,reflecting diverse needs.For example,passenger cruise ships can use 7,000-8,000kg of refrigerant for the storage and provision of food,fishing vessels up to 1,500kg to preserve fish catch,refrigerated containers(reefers)up to 6kg of a mixture of refrigerants(per container)to prevent spoilage of the load,while in general cargo ships will use up to 150kg,mainly for air conditioning purposes.The wide variety of refrigerants types used in the systems mentioned above have diverse environmental performances and climate impacts(IMO,2020a),making the impact of each of these emissions complex to estimate.Trends,status and prospects40European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Key messages Sulphur oxides emissions(SOx)have decreased by about 70%since 2014,largely due to the introduction of Sulphur Emission Control Areas(SECAs).However,there is limited data on the impacts of the reductions onto actual SOx concentrations particularly in ports,and the incoming implementation of new SECAs.Between 2015 and 2023,Nitrogen oxides(NOx)emissions increased by 33%and 8%in the Atlantic and in the Mediterranean Sea,while they decreased by 17%,7%and 6%in the North,Black and Baltic Seas,respectively.It is important to note that data and trends are also influenced by ongoing conflicts,other contingent situations,and the implementation of NOx Emission Control Areas(NECAs).However,these latter requirements apply only to new ships,meaning that penetration rates remain low.The contribution of the maritime sector to the overall PM2.5 in transport emissions has slightly increased over time,reaching approximately a 43%share in 2022.In 2022,domestic navigation constituted approximately 14%of the total maritime PM2.5 emissions.Annual mean PM10 and NO2 concentrations in 2021 were higher in port areas compared to the surrounding regions.Black Carbon emissions from the maritime sector,and the contribution to the EU transport sector overall emissions has steadily increased over time.The latter reached approximately 17%in 2022.The EMSA Remote Piloted Aircraft Systems(RPAS)emission monitoring campaigns observed Fuel Sulphur Content(FSC)concentrations within the limits for both SECA(0.1%)and non-SECA(0.5%)areas for the majority of the measurements taken.For both areas,average measured FSC has decreased over the past few years according to the available data.This is a result of compliance with threshold values set by control areas and the Global Sulphur Cap.2.1.2 Air pollutantsTrends,status and prospects41European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Note:Gg,gigagrams.Source:LRTAP(EEA,2024).International navigationDomestic navigationNational fisheriesShare of maritime transport in total transport emissions(%)64646465667174838485909192929396959595969696969595949494949492918802004006008001,0001,2001,4001,60019901992199419961998200020022004200620082010201220142016201820202022SOx emissions(Gg)Figure 2.9 SOx emissions from the maritime sector and their share in total transport emissions in the EU-27Sulphur oxides(SOx)Figure 2.9 shows the contribution of the maritime sector to overall transport SOx emissions in the EU-27 from 1990 to 2022.The data are drawn from the Long Range Transboundary Air Pollution Convention(LRTAP)(EEA,2024).The figure shows a steady increase over time,reaching a peak of 96%in 2005,which in absolute terms represents an emission of approximately 1,500 gigagrams(Gg)of SOx.It has since declined,reaching approximately 88%of the transport total share in 2022.This latter value corresponds to total emissions from the sector of 267Gg.In 2022,fisheries and domestic navigation constituted approximately 1%and 8%of the total maritime SOx emissions,with the remainder coming from international navigation.From 2019 to 2020 the overall emissions from the sector decreased by 60%,also due to the reduction of activity caused by the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions.In the same period,for the maritime sector,freight activity decreased by 6%while passenger activity decreased by 51%.Trends,status and prospects42European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Note:Gg,gigagrams.Source:STEAM(FMI,2024).020406080100120140SOx emissions(Gg)Jan May SepJan May SepJan May SepJan May SepJan May SepJan May SepJan May SepJan May SepJan May SepJan May Sep2014201520162017201820192020202120222023Figure 2.10 SOx emissions in the EU-27The implementation of SOx Emission Control Areas(SECAs)and the global sulphur cap have limited the content of sulphur in marine fuels.Based on the data from the STEAM model,Figure 2.10 shows that there has been a large reduction in the monthly SOx emissions for the EU region as a whole.Trends,status and prospects43European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Source:STEAM(FMI,2024).10090806030201000-10-20-30-50-70-806050504040303020707080806005001,0001,500 km-100,000-15,000-7,500-4,500-2,000-500-1001001,000Tonnes of SOxDifference in SOx emissions in European shipping areas between 2015 and 2023Reference data:EuroGeographics,FAO(UN),TurkStat Source:European Commission Eurostat/GISCOMap 2.4 Difference in SOx emissions across Europes shipping areasSTEAM data illustrates the uneven distribution of SOx emissions in the different regions of Europe(see Map 2.4).As for GHG emissions,it is important to consider variables such as the traffic volume(in absolute number of vessel position messages),which will influence the total air pollutant emissions.SOx emissions decreased by 76%,75%,71%and 11%in the Mediterranean,Atlantic,Black and North regions,respectively between 2015-2023,while they remained unchanged in the Baltic Sea.The variation in distance travelled was respectively 19%and 45%for the Trends,status and prospects44European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Notes:Measurements in(mg/tkm)or(kg/km)for freight and passenger ships,respectively.mg/tkm,milligrammes per tonne-kilometre;kg/km,kilogrammes per kilometre.Source:STEAM(FMI,2024).SOx emissions(kg/km)0.00.51.01.52.02.5201520172019202120230.00.51.01.52.02.5SOx emissions(kg/km)20152017201920212023050100150200250SOx emissions(mg/tkm)20152017201920212023050100150200250SOx emissions(mg/tkm)20152017201920212023050100150200250SOx emissions(mg/tkm)20152017201920212023050100150200250SOx emissions(mg/tkm)20152017201920212023Cargo shipsContainer shipsTankersVehicle carriersPassenger shipsCruisersFigure 2.11 SOx specific emissions from selected freight and passenger ship types in the EU-27Mediterranean Sea and Atlantic and-7%,-12%,and 7%in the North,Black,and Baltic Seas.In the Arctic region,SOx emissions decreased by 57%,while distance travelled in the area grew by 48%.Within the same period,the Mediterranean had the highest average yearly SOx emissions,equal to 482Gg/year,followed by the Atlantic with 255Gg/year and the North Sea at 29Gg/year.SOx specific emissions have been declining for all ship types between 2015 and 2023(see Figure 2.11),by 79%,86%,83%and 82%for cargo,containers,tanker and vehicle carrier vessels,respectively.This is related to a combination of factors,including the increased average payload transported and the introduction of new policies such as the IMO SOx ECAs in force from 2015 and the global sulphur cap in 2020.For reference,the payload carried by each ship type increased by 34%,25%,57%and 10%,respectively over the same period.Despite the increased activity,there has been an overall absolute reduction in sulphur emissions from these vessel types by 72%,82%,73%and 80%respectively.This shows the important role of cleaner fuels and aftertreatment technologies.Between 2015-2023,tankers,cargo ships and container ships had the lowest yearly average emissions with 38mg/tkm,39mg/tkm and 55mg/tkm.By contrast,vehicle carriers emitted 129mg/tkm.Trends,status and prospects45European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Specific emissions of cruisers in Europe fell by 78%,with an increase in the distance travelled of 17%.In absolute terms,the emissions of these ship types have decreased by 74%.The STEAM model provides separate information on passenger ships and cruise ships.It shows a decrease of passenger ships emissions by 30%,with a decrease of 4%in the distance travelled.In absolute terms,SOx emissions decreased by 33%.It is important to highlight that these two modes of passenger transport are of a different magnitude and that cruiser ships emitted an average of 1kg/km per year,while a conventional passenger ship emitted 12 times less.Finally,STEAM data also shows that average emissions per fishing vessel have decreased by 36%from 2015.On average in 2023,a fishing vessel was emitting approximately 1,132kg of SOx per year.It is worth noting that the fishing fleet has only slightly decreased over the same period,i.e.15%,while absolute SOx emissions decreased by 45%.Nitrogen oxides(NOx)Figure 2.12 shows the contribution of the maritime sector to overall transport NOx emissions in the EU-27 from 1990 to 2022 based on LRTAP data,highlighting how emissions have steadily increased over time.In 2022,they reached 39%of all transport emissions of NOx,totalling 1,577Gg.Overall emissions from the sector decreased by 13%from 2019 to 2020,in line with the reduction of activity caused by the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions.In 2022,fishing and domestic navigation constituted approximately 3%and 14%of the total maritime NOx emissions.Note:Gg,gigagrams.Source:LRTAP(EEA,2024).International navigationDomestic navigationNational fisheriesShare of maritime transport in total transport emissions(%)20202021212222242525262627282929303131323233323132323333333539393904008001,2001,6002,0002,400NOx emissions(Gg)19901992199419961998200020022004200620082010201220142016201820202022Figure 2.12 NOx emissions from the maritime sector and their share in total transport emissions in the EU-27Trends,status and prospects46European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Source:STEAM(FMI,2024).10090805030-10-20-30-40-70-80200106050504040303020707080806005001,0001,500 kmTonnes of NOxDifference in NOx emissions in European shipping areas between 2015 and 2023-100,000-10,000-1,000-500-2502505001,00010,000Reference data:EuroGeographics,FAO(UN),TurkStat Source:European Commission Eurostat/GISCOMap 2.5 Difference in NOx emissions across European shipping areas STEAM data provides insights into the uneven distribution of NOx emissions across Europe(see Map 2.5).In the period considered,the Mediterranean Sea had the highest average yearly NOx emissions at 1,237Gg/year,followed by the Atlantic with 622Gg/year and the North Sea with 446Gg/year.NOx emissions increased by 33%and 8%respectively in the Atlantic and in the Mediterranean Sea,while they decreased by 17%,7%and 6%in the North,Black and Baltic Seas between 2015-2023.In the same timeframe and for the same regions,the variation in shipping activity(via the proxy distance travelled)saw a respective Trends,status and prospects47European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025Notes:Measurements in(mg/tkm)or(kg/km)for freight and passenger ships,respectively.mg/tkm,milligrammes per tonne-kilometre;kg/km,kilogrammes per kilometre.Source:STEAM(FMI,2024).NOx emissions(kg/km?)0246810201520172019202120230246810NOx emissions(kg/km)201520172019202120230100200300400500NOx emissions(mg/tkm?)201520172019202120230100200300400500NOx emissions(mg/tkm?)201520172019202120230100200300400500NOx emissions(mg/tkm?)201520172019202120230100200300400500NOx emissions(mg/tkm)?20152017201920212023Cargo shipsContainer shipsTankersVehicle carriersPassenger shipsCruisersFigure 2.13 NOx specific emissions from selected freight and passenger ship types in the EU-27increase of 45%,19%and 7%in the Atlantic,Mediterranean Sea and Baltic Sea,with a decline of 7%and 12%in the North and Black Seas.In the Arctic region,NOx emissions increased by 32%and the distance travelled by 48%.This is of particular concern given the vulnerability of the region to the effects of NOx pollution.Cargo ships and tankers had the lowest yearly NOx emissions over the time period considered,at 123mg/tkm.By comparison,container ships emitted on average 163mg/tkm,while yearly emissions from vehicle carriers were up to 433mg/tkm(see Figure 2.13).Specific emissions(i.e.in mass per tkm)declined for all ship types,particularly by 24%,22%,25%,and 17%for cargo,containers,tanker and vehicle carrier vessels respectively.This relates to a combination of factors,including the increased average payload transported.For reference,in the same region and timeframe,the payload carried increased respectively by 34%,25%,57%and 10%.This overcompensated the absolute pollutant emission increase for cargo and tankers by 2%and 18%,respectively(not shown in the figure).Specific emissions(i.e.in mass per km)from cruisers in Europe decreased by 19%during this period,with an increase in the distance travelled of 17%.In absolute terms,NOx emissions decreased by 5%.The situation is different for passenger ships Trends,status and prospects48European Maritime Transport Environmental Report 2025for which emissions have increased significantly(by 29%),with a small decrease on the distance travelled of 4%.In absolute terms,NOx emissions increased by 23%.Cruiser ships emitted 7kg/km during this period,approximately 11 times more than conventional passenger ships in the same region(0.7kg/km).Finally,the average emissions per ship of fishing vessels decreased by 2%from 2015 to 2023.In 2023,an average fishing vessel was emitting approximately 7,461kg of NOx per year.The fishing fleet has meanwhile slightly decreased in size over the same period(by 15%).Absolute NOx emissions decreased by 17%.Particulate matter(PM)The contribution of the maritime sector to the overall PM2.5 in transport emissions has slightly increased over time,peaking in 2019(43%)and reaching approximately the same share in 2022(Figure 2.14).In 2022,PM2.5 emissions from the sector reached 88Gg.LTRAP invento
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03|No AI,No Future:AI will be the defining factor for cost-efficiency,1 speed,and competitive advantage.Whitepaper Accelerating automotive transformation through partnerships How software and strategic alliances will reshape the global mobility market Disclaimer The opinions and assessments expressed in this whitepaper are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of any organizations,partners,or affiliates.Any quotes or references to external companies are included for illustrative purposes only and do not imply endorsement of the assessments or conclusions presented in this document.All errors and omissions remain the responsibility of the authors.Preface 3 Preface The key elements for driving the automotive transformation are a consistent centralization of the vehicle electric and electronic(E/E)architecture,a strategic shift from project-driven execution to a product-centric mindset,as well as decoupled,modular,and scalable solutions for both hardware and software.We need to focus on understanding and meeting the needs of our customers by steering our offerings systemically.Nevertheless,the real game-changer for a successful transformation lies in the creation of ecosystems and forging of strategic alliances that go beyond traditional networks.Mastering todays complexity is no longer something anyone can accomplish alone.Over the past decades,our industry tried many different approaches to realizing the“software-defined vehicle”.However,the complexity is higher than we all expected,and the tipping point remains an elusive idea.To truly leverage the benefits of software-defined mobility,we must adopt a joint approach with cross-industry partners to accelerate the automotive transforma-tion an approach that keeps pace with our software-driven environment.This has become more important than ever in the face of advancements such as generative AI,which further accelerate the pace of technology,particularly when it comes to automated driving.At Bosch,we value the power of partnerships.That is why we are actively building alliances that transcend different industries to not only master this transformation,but to expedite it.This whitepaper is based on our extensive discussions with partners,ecosystem leaders,and key stakeholders from across the automotive landscape.Together,these conversations illuminate a path forward one defined by partnership,innovation,and a shared purpose.We invite you to explore our perspective as we collectively shape the future of mobility.Christoph Hartung President of Cross-Domain Computing Solutions Robert Bosch GmbHExecutive summary 4 Executive summary The automotive industry stands at a crossroads.Despite the billions invested in electrification,software innovation,and automated driving,the profitable and sustainable transformation remains incomplete.Foundational shifts must be prioritized over temporary hypes.Our understanding is based on extensive discussions conducted with vehicle manufacturers,system-on-chip(SoC)suppliers,hyperscalers,and other eco-system players in an effort to capture the real pain points they currently face.These highlight four key challenges that are reshaping the industry:Hybrid globalization:geopolitical tensions are forcing the adoption of strategies and definition of localized solutions,which is increasing ecosystem fragmentation.Cost and speed benchmarks:Chinese vehicle manufacturers and suppliers are dominating the market with their superior cost structures and rapid execution,thereby challenging traditional players.Intensifying competition:start-ups,tech giants,and cross-industry entrants are challenging incumbents for their leadership.Transformation impacts profitability:years of investment in electrification and software-defined vehicles(SDV)with centralized architectures have yet to yield returns,thus placing a strain on resources.Overcoming these multidimensional challenges of a traditional industry calls for a strategic realignment of our energy and resources.We recommend focusing on the following key priorities in order to guide us through the transformation:01|Think local,win global:we must move from one-size-fits-all strategies to market-specific solutions,developed on the basis of our customers needs.02|The essential shift for SDV its about more than just software:we must embrace fundamental operational and cultural shifts to meet the demands of SDV development.03|No AI,no future:AI will be the defining factor when it comes to cost-efficiency,speed,and the crucial competitive edge.04|Partnerships are key:transformation is a journey,and collaboration within a growing ecosystem is the key to reaching new horizons.In summary,sustainable transformation demands a new way of thinking.This whitepaper takes stock of significant efforts within the automotive industry to drive change and highlights key assets and lessons learned along the way.Our way forward emphasizes colla-boration,modular local design,and user-centric strategies as enablers for sustainable transformation.With its global expertise and strong local presence,Bosch offers a unique position as a partner for navigating these challenges,providing tailored solutions that deliver both regional relevance and global scalability.Table of contents 5 Table of contents Introduction 6 01 Think local,win global 9 02 The essential shift for SDV its more than just software 12 03 No AI,no future 17 04 Partnerships are key 21 Conclusion 23 Partnering with Bosch 24 Introduction 6 Introduction The automotive industry is at a pivotal moment,dealing with disruptive changes that demand thoughtful and strategic responses.Geopolitical tensions,shifting consumer demands,and rapid techno-logical advancements have disrupted the status quo,forcing companies to reevaluate their strategies.Based on our in-depth discussions with all relevant ecosystem players in the automotive industry,this whitepaper reflects the core challenges identified by industry leaders.It emphasizes the importance of practical,scalable solutions and strategic partner-ships that address these challenges while enabling long-term sustainability.Geopolitical tensions and shifting user expectations are challenging companies to adopt more localized approaches.For example,both the US and the EU are introducing tariffs,export controls,or other trade measures for Chinese-made vehicles and components.At the same time,the EUs stringent environmental regulations are pushing the automotive industry to develop tailored,region-specific solutions.Rather than viewing this fragmentation as a barrier,it presents an opportunity to innovate and adapt.Vehicle manufacturers can respond by diversifying supply chains,aligning strategies with regional requirements,and balancing localization with scalability,which can turn fragmentation into a competitive advantage.Simultaneously,new cost and speed benchmarks are being set by Chinese vehicle manufacturers,who are thus challenging traditional players.With rapid innovation cycles and cost-efficient manufacturing,they have become global leaders in both technology and business model innovation.Vehicle manufacturers and suppliers recognize the need to rethink their development processes by leveraging partnerships and adopting more agile,cost-effective strategies to regain competitive ground.The situation is further compounded by intensifying competition.Start-ups,tech giants and new entrants from adjacent industries are entering the fray,challenging traditional players in the automotive industry for market share.Teslas software-first approach has redefined consumer expectations,while tech companies from other domains are leveraging their expertise to carve out significant roles in the automotive value chain.Vehicle manufacturers and suppliers are keenly aware of the need to innovate quickly and decisively to remain relevant in this field.Finally,years of investment in trans-formative initiatives have yet to yield the expected returns.The impact of the transformation on profitability has left many companies reeling.Electric vehicles(EVs),once seen as the silver bullet for sustainability,remain expensive to produce and have not yet achieved the economies of scale needed for wide-spread profitability.Similarly,software-defined vehicles(SDV)promise a future of seamless connectivity but have proven to be resource-intensive yet with limited immediate payoff.This financial strain is evident in layoffs,factory closures,and stalled projects across the industry,highlighting the urgent need for a shift in focus.The result is an industry that finds itself at a crossroads,torn between the need for transformation and the imperative of financial sustainability.To survive and Introduction 7 thrive,focus is needed,avoiding the pitfalls of hype and distraction while realigning resources towards what truly matters.This whitepaper describes shared perspectives and outlines a collaborative path forward,identifying four critical priorities to reshape the industry for sustainable success:01|Think local,win global:we must move from one-size-fits-all strategies to market-specific solutions,developed on the basis of our customers needs.02|The essential shift for SDV its about more than just software:we must embrace fundamental operational and cultural shifts to meet the demands of SDV development.03|No AI,no future:AI will be the defining factor when it comes to cost-efficiency,speed,and the crucial competitive edge.04|Partnerships are key:transformation is a journey,and collaboration within a growing ecosystem is the key to reaching new horizons.This is a call to action:by prioritizing practical,forward-thinking solutions,the automotive industry can turn disruption into opportunity and emerge more resilient than ever.02|The essential shift for SDV its more than just software 8 01|Think local,win global 9 01|Think local,win global:we must move from one-size-fits-all strategies to market-specific solutions.One major challenge for the global automotive industry is the fragmentation of markets.For decades,globalization allowed vehicle manufacturers and their partners to scale standardized solutions across regions.Today,geopolitical tensions,diverse user expectations,and varying technological priorities have made this approach impossible.Stakeholders in the automotive industry need to rethink their strategies and focus on localized solutions while identifying opportunities for global scalability.Striking this balance is a key challenge in these times of rapid technological advancement and intense competition.Understanding local needs:the key to success Central to this transformation is a deep understanding of end users.Consumer preferences differ drastically by region.This becomes particularly evident in the area of software and services.Vehicle manufacturers in every region have been experimenting with paid offerings,with varying degrees of success.Bosch regularly conducts user studies to understand these local user needs in various markets,including China,US,Europe,Japan,and Brazil.The following end user findings highlight general trends and specific regional preferences,providing us with a roadmap for navigating the associated complexities.China:cutting-edge features as a status symbol Consumers in China favor advanced driving features,intelligent voice assistants,and highly automated driving systems.These technologies serve practical purposes and enhance social appeal,with consumers viewing cutting-edge features as a status symbol.US:battling subscription fatigue In the US,consumer frustration with subscription-based models is growing.Many users prefer annual payment plans due to their simplicity and cost predictability.Users are demanding Key messages:Focus on localized solutions while identifying opportunities for global scalability.Consumer preferences differ drastically by region.Investments in a thorough understanding of local needs is the key to success.“Common technology such as basic hardware and software,middleware software,commu-nication tech.and power networking tends to become standard,modular and reusable.Meanwhile,user experience for specific regions is differentiated with diversified solutions.”Qinghua Wang,XE President,UAES 01|Think local,win global 10 real-time updates for their navigation systems with improved accuracy.Additionally,there is significant interest in parking solutions such as trailer parking or in-vehicle payment options,which reflects the regions emphasis on convenience and integrated digital experiences.Europe:balancing sustainability,regulation,and premium expectations Demand among European consumers for affordable,eco-friendly options is rising.Great importance is attached to safety features,such as advanced driver assistance systems.This is further reinforced by an increasing demand for vehicles compliant with Euro NCAP standards.Additionally,there is a growing interest in seamless connectivity and personalized experiences.Japan:prioritizing safety and convenience Japanese consumers prioritize features that enhance safety,navigation performance,and convenience.Automated parking systems are highly valued,particularly in urban areas with limited space.There is also growing interest in connected navigation systems and personalized in-cabin experiences.Japanese users prefer one-time purchases to subscriptions and view free trials as essential for assessing the value of new technologies.Brazil:security as a top priority In Brazil,security and safety dominate consumer preferences,with high demand for vehicle tracking systems,cameras,and advanced driver assistance features,including retrofit and over-the-air options.Consumers also expect connected services to be included in the vehicle price,reflecting a different approach to paid features when compared to other regions.Particularly when requirements of different markets vary so significantly,it is crucial to invest in a thorough understanding of these needs.Building on this foundation,common elements can be identified before being scaled globally.In addition,key focus areas for individual markets can be defined to develop local solutions.Figure 1:End customer needs differ significantly in the individual regions.02|The essential shift for SDV its more than just software 11 02|The essential shift for SDV its more than just software 12 02|The essential shift for SDV its about more than just software:we must embrace fundamental operational and cultural shifts to meet the demands of SDV development.The traditional automotive industry has been held in suspense since the beginning of the decade,when the first new-style vehicle manufacturers entered the market.They showcased radically new approaches to brand differentiation and customer retention by putting the digital consumer experience first.This very much appeals to a new younger generation of tech-savvy car owners,with brand choice and vehicle performance outpacing price when it comes to consumer choice 1.The software-defined vehicle is about much more than just software Executives of established manufacturers have coined the term“software-defined vehicles”in the belief that the success of new vehicle manufacturers lies in their mainly software-driven implementations 2.Their reasoning is that building up the same momentum requires a technology revolution.Subsequently,many definitions surfaced that describe the SDV in what are primarily technical terms:updateable,connected,configurable,centralized.These definitions often fall short in highlighting the differences in how such cars come into being.“To build software-defined vehicles for global markets we need to radically transform our traditional way of developing software and features which is what we are doing with the Superset tech stack.This converges all our engineering efforts into one direction so that we can build safer cars,more efficiently.This is why we are so proud of the EX90,our first truly software-defined vehicle built on the Superset tech stack.Crucially,this transition from hardware to software requires a complete shift in mindset and culture so that we think,and build for,software first.Thats an immense strength and a prerequisite to unlock tomorrows mobility.”Alwin Bakkenes,Head of Global Software Engineering,Volvo Cars Key messages:Organizational transformation is the real challenge for SDV;Chinese manufacturers are at least one generation ahead.New technical approaches with segment-specific and regional vehicle architectures are needed to meet target costs.Manufacturers and tiers need to collaborate on reusability and industry-wide scaling,for example,by fostering open-source software solutions.02|The essential shift for SDV its more than just software 13 Capturing the SDV purely in technological terms is not effective.Rather it is the internal organizational transformation and the new splits of responsibility within the ecosystems that are decisive.We can see this conundrum in Figure 2.A large group of primarily Chinese vehicle manufacturers has established organizations that are capable of rapid evolution.In their upcoming next-generation centralized vehicle architectures,they are heavily targeting verticalization to avoid any friction with corporate boundaries.In addition,they are already in a phase of optimization in order to meet target costs,because this speed is often achieved at the expense of profitability.This requires efficiency improvements throughout the continuous development cycle,for example,with regard to integration,delivery,and testing.Some projections suggest that manufacturers investing here will achieve a 26%cost benefit in terms of software R&D spending in an area where overall budget spending is likely to double 3,Figure J.The approach adopted by these manufacturers is to build tightly grouped networks of suppliers,establish agile development setups across departments and domains,and embrace a fail-fast,fail-early mindset.However,there will be more than one kind of SDV.In comparison to the SDV frontrunners,traditional manufacturers are struggling.Many started by imitating the newcomers and planning for a technical“reset”of their vehicle architectures,while also creating dedicated software organizations.However,this approach is currently being re-evaluated.Over the past few years,the forecasts for new-architecture vehicles have continuously been lowered.Figure 3:Projections of vehicle volumes with respective architectural patterns.4 Figure 2:Vehicle manufacturers are going through the hype cycle of SDV,with some taking shortcuts.02|The essential shift for SDV its more than just software 14 Manufacturers are increasingly adopting a multi-architectural approach,which is split across markets and segments(see Figure 4).With an approximately 40%market share,domain-centralized archi-tectures with traditional value streams continue to play a significant role.There-fore,they need to provide the same customer-perceived features of an SDV to remain competitive.The reuse of software solutions across architectures that we deem commercially necessary requires a renovation of existing domain-centralized setups.Emerging from the trough of disillusionment leads to a new stabilization phase,albeit with diverging technological solution spaces.Since maintaining multiple architectures can be prohibitive,collaborations for technical parts that can be reused between architectures are crucial.The same applies to scaling with components developed jointly between multiple manufacturers and provided by scaling tiers.Cost-efficiency will be paramount for a sustainable software-defined vehicle We already hinted that,for a growing consumer group in the emerging Chinese middle class,the overall vehicle price is of lower relevance than the experience and prestige one stands to gain from owning a particular car.However,there is also a large customer base in markets such as the US,Japan,and Germany for which price remains the most important factor when buying a car,followed closely by product quality 1,5.Appealing to these consumers with an attractive SDV offering will be vital,and this can be implemented in a gradual technical evolution.A recent attempt to classify software-defined vehicles clusters technical solutions using a system of five levels with increasing implementation maturity of the SDV north star 6.As we have witnessed from similar classifications,such unidimensional approaches often fall short in capturing the real complexity of a topic.Nevertheless,this system depicts a fairly common understanding of the relevant technical needs.It shows that SDV features relating to dynamic functionality,pay-per-use,and connectivity may be readily implemented through evolutionary adjustments within existing domain boundaries.New,dynamic designs for the target hardware are only deemed necessary in the highest SDV levels.A clear distinction is required between areas of the vehicle architecture driven by cost optimization and those where standardization and differentiation dominate.Using the design of zone ECUs as an example,we see that a further consolidation is beneficial,for example,with the integration of most power and communications components.A best-fit design of the embedded computing capabilities,for example,for the motion or energy management,will be decided here.The design will need to allow for the variation in the physical vehicle layout while also taking scaling into account.Ultimately,the SDV will only be successful in combination with parts that are reusable Figure 4(schematic):Collaboratively developed,segment-specific,and regional architectures with reusable technology elements meet feature demands.02|The essential shift for SDV its more than just software 15 across segments and regions.Industry standards and consolidation into well-defined core elements are key.This will allow choices to be made from solution catalogues from different sources.Open-source solutions can be used for applications other than infotainment once processes and community developments have evolved to a point of continuous safety certifiability.Due to the very different premises of the automotive software market with few customers and established traditional delivery paths,automotive open source will be organized differently than business setups in other less regulated industries.When we consider the high expectations placed on the SDV,it is apparent that most ultimately,between manufacturers.With regard to domain design,we expect driver of the new features will be implemented in the connected high-compute system.In terms of hardware,standardization will continue to facilitate further commoditization across carlines,and,assistance and infotainment to remain largely separate from a functional perspective.Nevertheless,cost optimization potential exists in the form of mechanical solutions,fusion of system-on-chips(SoCs),or future chiplet integrations.To port more easily between the individual elements,improved hardware abstraction,interface standardization,and better industry-standard frameworks will be essential.True cost-efficiency is achieved when ecosystem contributors focus on end-customer value and collaborate for industry-wide standards.03|No AI,No Future:AI will be the defining factor when it comes to cost-efficiency,16 speed,and the crucial competitive edge.03|No AI,no future 17 03|No AI,no future:AI will be the defining factor when it comes to cost-efficiency,speed,and the crucial competitive edge.Amidst the software transformation,artificial intelligence(AI)is the key to delivering the best possible user experience.As consumers increasingly seek smarter,safer,and more seamless driving experiences,AI provides the means for vehicle manufacturers to meet and exceed these expectations.By leveraging AI,advanced driver assistance systems(ADAS)can be transformed from reactive safety systems into proactive,intelligent copilots.AI-powered ADAS systems can deliver unmatched safety and performance by learning from real-world data,enabling vehicles to respond more intuitively to real-world complexities.At the same time,AI-driven development boosts speed and efficiency.In this way,customers can benefit from rapid feature updates and an improved user experience.It is our firm belief that embracing AI as a strategic cornerstone is not merely an option.Instead,it is a make-or-break decision for vehicle manufacturers that holds more significance today than ever before if they are to stay competitive in the ever-evolving global ADAS market and meet increasing customer demands.But what is needed to be successful in the AI transformation?Focus on highest end customer value with full end-to-end AI ADAS stacks The use of AI is on the rise in the ADAS market,primarily driven by ever-increasing end user expectations and a growing demand for improved safety and performance with human-like driving behavior and contextual understanding.Traditional non-AI solutions are struggling to keep up with the increasing complexity of ADAS use cases and are already losing competitiveness.The solution lies in full Key messages:Embracing AI is essential for meeting evolving customer expectations and staying competitive in the global ADAS market.Modular end-to-end AI ADAS stacks pave the way for superior performance and enable flexibility for customized ADAS features.Integrating real-world knowledge from foundation models into ADAS stacks will further boost performance and efficiency.“Data partnerships are key to build the best experiences for our customers.”Shyam Krishnamurthy,Vice President Auto and IE-IOT Compute,Qualcomm 03|No AI,no future 18 end-to-end AI ADAS stacks,which eliminate the need for traditional,manually engineered modules and instead rely on algorithms that can learn from raw sensor data from vehicles to enable high-performance ADAS features.Full end-to-end AI stacks are already a reality in ADAS products today.While these approaches are currently used predominantly for premium features,their rapid adoption in other market segments is already underway,for example,in China.Therefore,it is evident that vehicle manufacturers and their partners need to act now to embrace the AI transformation and stay ahead in the global ADAS market.Ensure scalability by choosing modular approaches For players in the automotive industry to consciously steer their transition towards AI-based systems,they must adopt modular end-to-end AI approaches.These approaches enable the seamless derivation of sub-modules,allowing for scalable technology solutions tailored to the needs of end customers from the entry segment to the premium market.This paves the way for a gradual and cost-effective introduction of AI.While monolithic end-to-end AI solutions have received widespread support for their performance,they come with serious drawbacks for automotive applications.Due to their black box nature,they lack transparency and interpretability and struggle to provide the necessary scalability to address different market segments in a cost-effective manner.In contrast,modular end-to-end AI approaches achieve a balance between safety and performance:with end-to-end training guided through architecture,they ensure interpretability and controllability while leveraging the performance of a fully AI-driven system.Boost ADAS stacks with real-world knowledge from foundation models Preparing their ADAS stacks for the integration of distilled foundation models will be essential for vehicle manufacturers to remain at the forefront of technological advancements in the industry.Foundation models can boost ADAS stacks in several ways.They can extend the vehicles modular functionality with advanced cognitive features,improving existing ADAS capabilities and introducing new ones such as context-aware situation classification and semantic reasoning.At the same time,foundation models can serve as a development catalyst and significantly increase efficiency,for example,by leveraging the potential of unlabeled automotive data via self-supervised training methods.Forge strategic partnerships to master the complexity of integrating AI into ADAS The integration of AI into automotive systems presents a unique set of challenges.These include,for example,downscaling AI onto affordable embedded control units for the mass market segment as well as the requirement for large-scale access to high-quality,real-world automotive sensor data.Ensuring the safety and regulatory compliance of AI-based ADAS systems is another critical consideration.To successfully address these challenges,collaboration between vehicle manufacturers and suppliers will be crucial.Strategic partnerships are essential for bundling the right competencies and gaining speed in the AI transformation.By jointly establishing robust data sharing frameworks to unlock high-quality data sets while ensuring privacy and compliance,a competitive advantage can be gained in the race for data.Furthermore,vehicle manufacturers and suppliers must take the lead in creating industry-wide standards for AI.03|No AI,no future 19 This will ensure seamless interoperability,safety,and regulatory alignment to effectively navigate the complexity of the AI transformation.Only through collaborative efforts with trust and a shared purpose can we unlock the full potential of AI and shape the future of ADAS.Figure 5:Example of ADAS capability enhancement with advanced cognitive features using foundation models.Text alert:“Please reduce your speed,there might be a child running after the ball.”ADAS function reaction:e.g.AEB prefill brake Generative AI Vision encoder Vision language connector Language Model Input video 04|Partnerships are key 20 04|Partnerships are key 21 04|Partnerships are key:transformation is a journey,and collaboration within a growing ecosystem is the key to reaching new horizons.Over the past decade,relationships between vehicle manufacturers and their suppliers have shifted from exclusive and transactional to open,collaborative ecosystems.This change is driven by increasing vehicle intelligence and centralized architectures,with new players such as SoC vendors and tech firms redefining power dynamics.Everyone in the automotive industry must adapt to stay competitive in this evolving landscape.From in-house software to strategic alliances and backup plans Vehicle manufacturers have heavily invested in in-house software since 2012,inspired by Teslas end-to-end in-house development model.Several vehicle manufacturers aimed to build key differentiating software features,reduce supplier dependency,and avoid lock-ins into proprietary systems.However,by 2021,the scalability of fully in-house software efforts was limited,leading vehicle manufacturers to scale back and instead focus on 1025%of vehicle software 8.In response,strategic alliances with key tech players emerged as a pragmatic solution to meet the demands of compute-heavy functions such as ADAS.For example,BMW partnered with Qualcomm and Arriver,while Mercedes aligned with NVIDIA to accelerate development and mitigate risks.Despite this shift toward alliances,vehicle manufacturers continue to rely on tier-1 suppliers either as a second source or to foster internal competition,which reflects the ongoing skepticism regarding in-house software.While betting on two suppliers internal and external may increase the likelihood of market success,it also adds costs and limits both scalability and speed.For vehicle manufacturers to maintain the all-important competitive edge,a focused to share risks,reduce costs,and address market volatility while maintaining flexibility.Key message:Partnerships are the key to driving a sustainable transformation,striking a balance between ecosystem openness and access,while also taking regional specifics and timeframes into account.“Open source collaboration will be the key to the future success of our industry.The organisations that will thrive are not just those that participate,but those that embrace change and cultivate a culture that welcomes fresh ideas and new approaches.”Michael Plagge,Vice President Ecosystem Development,Eclipse Foundation Europe 04|Partnerships are key 22 The integration dilemma:in-house or supplier expertise?As vehicle manufacturers engage with diverse software suppliers,some are opting to bring their integration efforts in-house.However,this approach demands significant capabilities to efficiently manage integrations while ensuring suppliers align with the broader eco-system.Without this alignment,vehicle manufacturers risk delays in time-to-market and in delivering critical updates.While integration may appear to grant strategic independence and flexibility,it is not inherently differentiating.It can be more effective for vehicle manufacturers to involve suppliers who are deeply integrated into the ecosystem,allowing them to consistently leverage the suppliers expertise to achieve agility.Balancing ecosystem openness as well as market and technology access Vehicle manufacturers are increasingly adopting new business models,such as mobility-as-a-service and subscription-based in-car services,which require collaboration with cloud providers and other ecosystem players.However,reliance on these providers can lead to vendor lock-in,which restricts long-term flexibility.To mitigate this risk,vehicle manufacturers should negotiate clear exit clauses and regularly review their cloud partnerships.Moving beyond service scaling,vehicle manufacturers should focus on co-developing data-driven solutions that benefit both parties.Similarly,SoC vendors play a critical role in key vehicle functions such as ADAS but can create vendor lock-ins and high switching costs.To maintain agility,many vehicle manufacturers adopt multi-cloud and multi-SoC strategies until their architecture is finalized.However,this flexibility may come at the cost of competitive pricing as SoC suppliers often offer better pricing through volume scaling.Vehicle manufacturers must balance flexibility with cost efficiency and strategic alignment to optimize their approaches.Managing partnership timelines Short-term and long-term partnerships each play a distinct role in transformation.Short-term alliances drive rapid innovation and legacy-building,while long-term partnerships help sustain investment and share risks for product commercialization.The latter offer stability,trust,and alignment of goals,which are essential factors for navigating complex changes.While deep-pocketed companies may pursue solitary transformations,sustainable change thrives on time,consistency,and shared commitment.These partnerships are critical for successful,region-specific technology rollouts.In China,rapid market shifts of every six months demand a fast time-to-the fittest”and thus promotes regional independence and local innovation.Meanwhile,in the rest of the world,vehicle market,supported by strategic partnerships or investments.This app-roach follows the pricing of“survival of the fittest”and thus promotes regional independence and local innovation.Meanwhile,in the rest of the world,vehicle manufacturers are still transitioning through traditional structures,with early steps such as software updates underway.Balancing these stages requires tailored partnerships to accelerate commercialization.“Especially for non-differentiating software like ECU operating systems and middleware,collaborating with ecosystem partners enables the industry to speed up innovations and lower costs through standardized infrastructure layers.”Mariella Minutolo,Executive Vice President Sales,ETAS Conclusion 23 Together,we can shape a sustainable,competitive future for the automotive industry The automotive industry stands on the brink of an enormous transformation.Fragmentation of markets,intensifying competition,and mounting cost pressures demand a bold strategic shift.Success will require us to move beyond traditional value creation,embrace localization,and implement cutting-edge technologies such as AI efficiently,while fostering collaborative ecosystems.At the heart of this transformation lies the end customer.The ability to meet evolving consumer expectations is not optional.Instead,it is the driving force behind innovation and growth,and it will determine the industrys leaders.Consumers demand more than just reliable vehicles.They seek seamless connectivity,personalized experiences,and sustainable solutions that match their lifestyles and align with their values.To accelerate and master this transformation,cost reduction is more critical than ever before.To achieve this,we require great innovations for cost-efficient solutions and must drive standardization for non-differentiating technologies to enable global scalability.This can only be accomplished through true collaboration and partnership on an equal footing.We must continuously reinvent the way we work together by rethinking partnerships and collaboration models to drive valuable progress.The automotive industrys future depends on bold decisions,great innovations,and a relentless focus on what truly matters.The time for change is now.Together,we can shape a sustainable,competitive future for the automotive industry.Are you ready to take the next step?Partnering with Bosch 24 Partnering with Bosch:accelerating the automotive transformation With our deep automotive expertise,openness for collaboration(see Figure 6),and innovative capabilities,Bosch is committed to accelerating the transformation together with our existing and future partners.Tailored and scalable solutions Boschs robust global presence and local market expertise enable vehicle manufacturers(together with our partners)to develop tailored,region-specific solutions that address distinct user needs,while ensuring seamless integration into scalable vehicle architectures.We empower our customers to adapt quickly to changing market demands by leveraging our insights and best practices gathered across global markets.Leadership in ADAS and AI integration Our ADAS solutions enhance safety and comfort in real-world driving scenarios,delivering value on every journey.Boschs ADAS strategy is rooted in a modular end-to-end AI approach,which enhances the user experience by delivering best-in-class,high-performance features embedded on cost-effective,state-of-the art SoCs.Our modular designs not only provide scalable solutions but also include innovations,such as the integration of foundation models into ADAS systems.With extensive experience as a global automotive supplier and a strong foundation in AI and software,we assist vehicle manufacturers in building end-to-end AI capabilities on their technology roadmap.Compute solutions for software-driven transformation Boschs compute business focuses on delivering the foundation for the software-driven architectural transformation,offering solutions for all types of E/E architectures.Furthermore,Bosch provides industry-leading,high-performance vehicle computers and complementary ECUs,including cost-optimized enhancements such as advanced zone ECUs and cross-domain fusion,which combines multiple functional domains into one box or even onto one SoC.We accelerate the transformation towards SDV.Our engineers design solutions tailored to customer-specific needs in the areas of safety and security as well as sustainability and reliability.As part of consortium like AVCC Autonomous Vehicle Computing Consortium 9,we bring the industry together to improve automotive computing for the software-defined vehicle by benchmarking and specifying vehicle system architectures,defining cybersecurity,and guiding software-hardware abstraction,portability and interoperability.Comprehensive life cycle support and standardization leadership As a reliable partner,we help to establish industry-wide standards enabling the cost-efficient adoption of new technological components.We support our partners throughout the development life cycle from pre-sales consultation to architecture planning,technology evaluations,and lifetime feature improvement thereby ensuring alignment with their strategic goals and operational needs.Partnering with Bosch 25 Scan for more information.The next step in E/E-architectures Scan for more information.Gear up vehicle powernets for future mobility Cross-Domain Computing Solutions Partner-ships Vehicle manufacturers:Collaboration for SW processes,methods,and tools to streamline software development and minimize software lead time via our Future Development Collaboration Environment Cariad:Data-driven co-development of modular ADAS software stack WeRide:Joint ADAS solution for premium vehicle segment in China Figure 6:Our partnership landscape to create an ecosystem fit for our customers Tencent,Microsoft&other hyperscalers:Collaboration for selected products and customers.Tencent was the first to establish an autonomous compliance cloud in China,with Bosch as its first customer.SoC players:Collaboration for technology,regional solutions,and flexible ecosystem fit for our customers You can read more on this topic via the following links:Closing remarks 26 Closing remarks The decision to make,buy,or partner is pivotal in the transformative journey of the industry a marathon filled with exciting opportunities and dynamic adjustments.Strategic partnerships are at the heart of this transformation,and selecting the right relationships is crucial for success.The fear of missing out often leads to a relent-less pursuit of the latest trends.However,the unwavering focus on building a sustainable,long-term ecosystem that ensures resilience and growth in our increasingly vibrant market has been the marked difference between those that endure and the many that do not.After speaking to thousands of stakeholders and dozens of ecosystem partners,we can highlight several success factors:Enhance software core competencies through shared innovation Moving beyond rigid,end-to-end control fosters faster time-to-market and impactful,cost-effective solutions.Embracing open-source contributions strengthens our collective ability to innovate and adapt.Accelerate time-to-market through data-driven collaboration Shorter development cycles,achieved by leveraging anonymized end-user data,enable iterative performance improve-ments,seamless feature enhancements,and stronger alignment between product development and marketing strategies.Scale efficiently by streamlining processes and tools Ecosystem collaboration optimizes interfaces and reduces lead times.Goals such as 24-hour bug fixes and bi-weekly software updates ensure operational continuity and enhance the user experience.Foster balanced partnerships rooted in strategic rationale The transactional models of the past no longer suffice.Sustainable growth demands fair and honest collaboration on an equal footing,and this must be built on trust and a shared vision for long-term value creation.As we conclude this discussion,it is clear that partnerships are not just a tactical necessity but instead are the cornerstone of transformation.By prioritizing collabo-ration,agility,and data-driven innovation,we can unlock the full potential of a future-proof,sustainable mobility ecosystem.Join us as we shape this dynamic future.Fedra Ribeiro Executive Vice President with responsibility for Sales of Cross-Domain Computing Solutions Robert Bosch GmbHReferences 27 References 8 Auroralabs,TechInsights,The state of automotive software 2023,https:/ 5 McKinsey&Company,2023 McKinsey China Consumer Report,https:/ 6 AEEmobility,New classification for software-defined vehicles(SDV),https:/aeemobility.de/english-content/blog-new-classification-for-software-definedvehicles-sdv/,2024 7 SAE International,SAE Levels of Driving Automation Refined for Clarity and International Audience,https:/www.sae.org/blog/sae-j3016-update,2021 9 Autonomous Vehicle Computing Consortium(AVCC),www.avcc.org,2024 1 Deloitte,2024 Global Automotive Consumer Study,https:/ 2 Deloitte,Software-defined vehicles:Engineering the mobility revolution,https:/ 3 Roland Berger,Automotive Outlook 2040,https:/ 4 Huck,Achtzehn,Innovations in E/E Architecture:Exploration behind the peak of inflated expectations,Automotive Computing Conference,Munich,2024 Bosch Mobility on LinkedIn Bosch GmbH Cross-Domain Computing Solutions Poststrae 70 71229 Leonberg Germany Learn more on our website www.bosch- us now Get in touch with our expert team.We are looking forward to support you with our expertise to find out more about the future of mobility.Cross-
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VEHICLES ON EUROPEAN ROADSJANUARY 20252 www.acea.autoVEHICLES ON EUROPEAN ROADSFOREWORD KEY FIGURES EUROPE(EU,EFTA,UK)Cars 5Vans 6Trucks 7Buses 8Vans,trucks,and buses 9All vehicle segments 10BY AGECars 11Vans 12Trucks 13Buses 14BY POWER SOURCECars 15Vans 16Trucks 17Buses 18PER 1,000 INHABITANTSCars 19Vans,trucks,and buses 20VEHICLE OWNERSHIPData source:the European Automobile Manufacturers Association(ACEA),based on aggregated data provided by the national automobile associations and S&P Global Mobility.Reproduction of the content of this document is not permitted without the prior written consent of ACEA.Whenever reproduction is permitted,ACEA shall be referred to as source of the information.43TABLE OF CONTENTS213 www.acea.autoACEAs Vehicles on European Roads report is the go-to publication for the latest information on the number of vehicles currently in circulation on Europes roads.Our report includes key data,such as the average vehicle age,vehicle power types,vehicle ownership,and more essential information for understanding our sector.Complementing ACEAs regular car,van,truck,and bus sales updates,this unique report provides a snapshot of what the fleet of vehicles on Europes roads look like.The report is revealing,demonstrating just how the sales data of different vehicle types,such as battery-electric vehicles(BEVs),tell a very different story to the actual makeup of vehicles on Europes roads.Despite battery-electric cars now being the third most popular choice for new car buyers,with a market share of 13.6%of EU registrations,they only represent 1.8%of passenger cars on EU roads,showcasing just how further we must go to make zero-emission mobility a reality.The data underlines a very important fact:it can take years,even decades,for older vehicles to be replaced by newer models that are equipped with cleaner and greener technologies.Older vehicles typically possess less efficient technologies that produce more emissions and pollution than modern models.This emphasises the importance of ensuring that these older vehicles are swiftly replaced by the greenest,cleanest,and safest models that our industry has been investing heavily in.Once more,this years edition found that the average age of all vehicle types,except buses,is gradually rising,while the number of vehicles on roads has increased once again.There were 249 million passenger cars on EU roads in 2023,a 1.4%increase from the previous year.The number of vans,trucks,and buses on roads is also rising,reinforcing the importance of also accelerating the uptake of battery-electric and other zero-emission models in Europe for these vehicle segments.Of all vehicle types,buses lead the way,with almost a 2.5%share being battery-electric vehicles.The car continues to build on its popularity as an important means of transport,with the number of cars per 1,000 inhabitants growing yet again.In fact,the data has been consistent in showing that the majority of European households still own a car in the countries studied.The report demonstrates that while legislative targets can help steer change,this is only one small part of the puzzle that is the decarbonisation of road transport.Europe needs a realistic pathway to decarbonising the automotive industry.The transformation in Europe is not progressing at the pace required.The ecosystem as a whole must become more attractive to customers and the current regulatory framework should be revised to foster a broader set of enabling conditions,such as charging infrastructure and purchase and tax incentives,to stimulate demand for new models and replenish vehicles on Europes roads with the cleanest and greenest models.You can be sure to hear more about all this from us throughout 2025.In the meantime,we wish you insightful reading.VEHICLES ON EUROPEAN ROADSFOREWORDSigrid de VriesACEA Director General4www.acea.autoVEHICLES ON EUROPEAN ROADS In 2023,the EU passenger car fleet grew by 1.4%compared to 2022,reaching almost 249 million cars on the road.Nearly all EU countries experienced fleet expansion,with Croatia recording the highest growth( 4.3%).There were 30.1 million vans in circulation across the EU,with half being concentrated in three countries:France(6.5 million),Italy(4.5 million),and Spain(4 million).There were 6 million medium and heavy commercial vehicles on EU roads,marking a 0.8%increase compared to 2022.Nearly half of these could be found in three countries:Italy(978,039),Germany(977,673),and Poland(832,294).A total of 679,802 buses were in operation across the EU,more than half of which could be found in Italy(100,078),France(93,928),Germany(84,628),and Poland(81,754).EU cars were on average 12.5 years old.Greece had the oldest car fleet(17.5 years),and Luxembourg the newest(8 years).The average age of light commercial vehicles in the EU was 12.7 years.Among the EUs four major markets,Italy had the oldest van fleet(14.8 years),followed closely by Spain(14.4 years).Trucks were on average 14.1 years old in the EU.Greece had the oldest truck fleet(22.6 years),while the newest ones could be found in Austria(6.8 years)and Luxembourg(7.5 years).Buses on EU roads were on average 12.2 years old.Greek buses were the oldest in the region(17.6 years),closely followed by Romania(17.5 years).Only seven countries in the EU had a bus fleet that is less than 10 years old.Despite the strong increase in sales seen in recent years,electrically chargeable cars(battery electric and plug-in hybrid)still made up only 3.9%of the total EU car fleet.In the EU,only four countries had a share of battery-electric cars higher than 4%.Diesel-powered light commercial vehicles remained dominant in the EU with 90.5%of the fleet running on diesel and just 1.1%of vans being battery electric.96.4%of all trucks in the EU ran on diesel,while petrol fuelled 0.6%of the fleet.Only 0.1%of trucks on EU roads had a zero-emission powertrain.Diesel buses accounted for 89.2%of the EU fleet,with only 2.5ing battery electric and 2.2%hybrid electric.However,significant shares of electric buses could be found in the Netherlands(17.7%),Luxembourg(14.7%),and Ireland(13.5%).The EU counted 563 passenger cars and 83 commercial vehicles and buses per 1,000 inhabitants.Italy had the highest car density in the EU(694 per 1,000 people),while Cyprus had the highest density of commercial vehicles and buses(138 per 1,000 inhabitants).In contrast,Latvia had the lowest density of cars(381 per 1,000 people)as well as the lowest density of commercial vehicles and buses(50 per 1,000 inhabitants).In Denmark,nearly 40%of households did not own a car,while 31%of French households had two passenger cars.The average annual distance travelled in the countries covered was 12,346 kilometres.KEY FIGURES567811121314151617181920215 www.acea.autoCARS ON ROADS 120192020202120222023%change23/22Austria5,039,5485,091,8275,133,8365,150,8905,185,006 0.7Belgium5,813,7715,827,1955,851,6825,877,9495,963,882 1.5Croatia1,728,9111,733,7271,794,3521,836,0161,915,521 4.3Cyprus572,501578,158592,156601,131625,625 4.1Czechia5,989,5386,129,8746,293,1256,425,4176,597,838 2.7Denmark2,650,2412,720,2852,781,8712,794,0592,819,583 0.9Estonia794,926808,689825,936849,294660,737-22.2Finland2,720,3072,748,4482,755,3492,740,3932,756,015 0.6France38,422,42838,468,86138,817,35038,970,77139,258,632 0.7Germany47,715,97748,248,58448,540,87848,763,03649,098,685 0.7Greece5,247,2955,315,8755,408,1495,495,9275,613,164 2.1Hungary3,809,6703,918,9234,017,5744,091,9754,164,241 1.8Ireland2,172,0982,215,1272,266,4792,292,7482,362,055 3.0Italy39,545,23239,717,87439,822,72340,213,06140,915,229 1.7Latvia656,875672,116696,175704,302717,838 1.9Lithuania1,264,0841,285,7431,326,2461,347,5481,364,490 1.3Luxembourg429,008435,989443,301448,133457,435 2.1Netherlands8,938,5729,049,9599,142,2779,233,1079,413,692 2.0Poland18,302,44318,593,94519,160,87819,516,15220,031,723 2.6Portugal5,205,0005,300,0005,410,0005,560,0005,750,000 3.4Romania6,901,2367,274,7287,611,0397,865,1868,106,570 3.1Slovakia2,391,3552,444,4782,645,7852,721,2522,803,356 3.0Slovenia1,249,3641,253,9841,202,5471,221,7021,245,558 2.0Spain24,966,92225,129,15225,344,77625,644,36726,020,504 1.5Sweden4,887,9044,944,0674,986,7504,980,5434,977,163-0.1EUROPEAN UNION237,415,206239,907,608242,871,234245,344,959248,824,542 1.4Iceland223,999219,628227,801236,824246,631 4.1Norway2,768,9902,794,4572,848,0332,876,3132,849,580-0.9Switzerland4,572,1884,728,4444,779,3044,768,8434,805,660 0.8EFTA7,565,1777,742,5297,855,1387,881,9807,901,871 0.3United Kingdom35,168,25936,454,66536,728,64937,050,77537,754,481 1.9EU EFTA UK280,148,642284,104,802287,455,021290,277,714294,480,894 1.41.Data for Bulgaria and Malta not available6 www.acea.autoVANS 2 ON ROADS20192020202120222023%change23/22Austria440,582458,253493,387498,325507,996 1.9Belgium798,942829,277861,148868,994884,545 1.8Croatia145,750152,923162,644169,976181,453 6.8Cyprus101,528102,951104,216107,070109,936 2.7Czechia587,186596,481610,405620,192635,007 2.4Denmark379,985376,228373,258364,644355,933-2.4Estonia91,26695,24699,094103,03786,472-16.1Finland330,671338,389343,927343,715343,976 0.1France6,269,0656,260,5866,386,7536,428,3216,481,734 0.8Germany2,856,6762,999,4163,141,6433,222,7063,338,922 3.6Greece906,798921,776944,308955,997879,487-8.0Hungary470,454485,582501,553510,754521,387 2.1Ireland395,379397,702404,521409,453421,721 3.0Italy4,172,9814,231,9284,318,8404,403,4304,533,586 3.0Latvia52,97050,22157,52859,49661,874 4.0Lithuania50,62852,79956,01258,51859,681 2.0Luxembourg37,33339,13040,97142,41343,944 3.6Netherlands1,021,2251,031,0101,057,0841,082,8291,105,927 2.1Poland2,215,2882,222,7292,292,2292,328,9792,381,057 2.2Portugal1,135,0001,140,0001,150,0001,163,0001,177,000 1.2Romania811,286850,998842,847886,802909,659 2.6Slovakia263,913268,000285,860292,116299,235 2.4Slovenia88,36191,33194,85098,531102,709 4.2Spain3,752,0523,828,5043,898,1953,955,9084,042,499 2.2Sweden585,091595,580605,668608,871614,916 1.0EUROPEAN UNION27,960,41028,417,04029,126,94129,584,07730,080,656 1.7Iceland22,99522,80023,79424,86226,535 6.7Norway521,949528,916535,454542,509543,155 0.1Switzerland391,490417,517426,290435,604443,551 1.8EFTA936,434969,233985,5381,002,9751,013,241 1.0United Kingdom4,527,7245,141,9095,323,2555,453,6395,624,434 3.1EU EFTA UK33,424,56834,528,18235,435,73436,040,69136,718,331 1.92.Light commercial vehicles up to 3.5 tonnes7 www.acea.autoTRUCKS 3 ON ROADS20192020202120222023%change23/22Austria73,33673,37874,47375,17174,955-0.3Belgium139,136138,415137,152137,467139,106 1.2Croatia47,53648,62151,07252,58155,483 5.5Cyprus13,01613,32913,71013,82514,356 3.8Czechia186,881185,602186,905187,035188,370 0.7Denmark42,58242,26343,22543,48943,449-0.1Estonia39,84840,10641,01441,15626,880-34.7Finland95,14194,69194,77192,63390,086-2.7France611,569608,576617,181621,614624,938 0.5Germany951,481952,285964,696973,432977,673 0.4Greece226,913225,216225,571224,719194,892-13.3Hungary96,10994,30695,96496,27296,580 0.3Ireland48,31147,27348,15848,87549,892 2.1Italy946,393949,967960,284969,488978,039 0.9Latvia27,85122,49328,62428,87828,786-0.3Lithuania67,11169,78073,01980,42483,666 4.0Luxembourg13,09513,45913,83714,29014,479 1.3Netherlands160,608157,638158,108161,829165,522 2.3Poland749,484741,097773,171799,261832,294 4.1Portugal132,500134,000135,000135,800138,800 2.2Romania296,489346,911348,517366,693376,695 2.7Slovakia81,08378,95983,34182,86783,110 0.3Slovenia37,28537,67437,95138,46338,852 1.0Spain558,090566,362571,927581,892596,581 2.5Sweden84,15384,33385,55486,06085,431-0.7EUROPEAN UNION5,726,0015,766,7345,863,2255,954,2145,998,915 0.8Iceland7,9548,0118,2548,5028,762 3.1Norway86,06987,63887,79186,10585,234-1.0Switzerland59,63461,23161,41060,20762,116 3.2EFTA153,657156,880157,455154,814156,112 0.8United Kingdom607,998727,913740,568758,841780,919 2.9EU EFTA UK6,487,6566,651,5276,761,2486,867,8696,935,946 1.03.Medium and heavy commercial vehicles over 3.5 tonnes8 www.acea.autoBUSES ON ROADS20192020202120222023%change23/22Austria10,14810,06410,13610,37310,632 2.5Belgium16,39016,45116,60616,38316,467 0.5Croatia6,1104,8275,1365,7035,977 4.8Cyprus3,1512,6552,7742,8893,099 7.3Czechia21,70519,66120,48921,22821,716 2.3Denmark8,9408,5468,6848,6248,571-0.6Estonia5,2215,2355,3275,3653,666-31.7Finland12,48112,5779,95511,11511,000-1.0France92,32992,90894,52094,17993,928-0.3Germany81,36475,54880,22582,93284,628 2.0Greece27,98828,19628,03427,66227,410-0.9Hungary19,45016,95817,72317,62817,424-1.2Ireland10,9446,4046,7586,7276,922 2.9Italy100,14999,883100,199100,014100,078 0.1Latvia3,9793,4963,4433,5483,507-1.2Lithuania7,6468,1458,0697,9898,044 0.7Luxembourg2,2202,3222,4262,5472,649 4.0Netherlands10,0329,7749,3169,0239,079 0.6Poland83,11780,32880,36380,04581,754 2.1Portugal16,80017,00017,30018,20018,900 3.8Romania52,72954,17054,35154,71355,994 2.3Slovakia8,9297,8658,2828,7028,953 2.9Slovenia2,9052,3822,5022,1222,201 3.7Spain60,30260,91060,99861,51262,881 2.2Sweden14,91413,48913,59414,23914,322 0.6EUROPEAN UNION679,943659,794667,210673,462679,802 0.9Iceland2,0991,1011,7101,8411,961 6.5Norway15,64415,87615,55815,44515,303-0.9Switzerland13,7498,5799,2249,4469,760 3.3EFTA31,49225,55626,49226,73227,024 1.1United Kingdom82,44879,50181,65283,04281,042-2.4EU EFTA UK793,883764,851775,354783,236787,868 0.69 www.acea.autoTOTAL VANS,TRUCKS,AND BUSES ON ROADS20192020202120222023%change23/22Austria524,066541,695577,996583,869593,583 1.7Belgium954,468984,1431,014,9061,022,8441,040,118 1.7Croatia199,396206,371218,852228,260242,913 6.4Cyprus117,695118,935120,700123,784127,391 2.9Czechia795,772801,744817,799828,455845,093 2.0Denmark431,507427,037425,167416,757407,953-2.1Estonia136,335140,587145,435149,558117,018-21.8Finland438,293445,657448,653447,463445,062-0.5France6,972,9636,962,0707,098,4547,144,1147,200,601 0.8Germany3,889,5214,027,2494,186,5644,279,0704,401,223 2.9Greece1,161,6991,175,1881,197,9131,208,3781,101,789-8.8Hungary586,013596,846615,240624,654635,391 1.7Ireland454,634451,379459,437465,055478,535 2.9Italy5,219,5235,281,7785,379,3235,472,9325,611,703 2.5Latvia84,80076,21089,59591,92294,167 2.4Lithuania125,385130,724137,100146,931151,391 3.0Luxembourg52,64854,91157,23459,25061,072 3.1Netherlands1,191,8651,198,4221,224,5081,253,6811,280,528 2.1Poland3,047,8893,044,1543,145,7633,208,2853,295,105 2.7Portugal1,284,3001,291,0001,302,3001,317,0001,334,700 1.3Romania1,160,5041,252,0791,245,7151,308,2081,342,348 2.6Slovakia353,925354,824377,483383,685391,298 2.0Slovenia128,551131,387135,303139,116143,762 3.3Spain4,370,4444,455,7764,531,1204,599,3124,701,961 2.2Sweden684,158693,402704,816709,170714,669 0.8EUROPEAN UNION34,366,35434,843,56835,657,37636,211,75336,759,374 1.5Iceland33,04831,91233,75835,20537,258 5.8Norway623,662632,430638,803644,059643,692-0.1Switzerland464,873487,327496,924505,257515,427 2.0EFTA1,121,5831,151,6691,169,4851,184,5211,196,377 1.0United Kingdom5,218,1705,949,3236,145,4756,295,5226,486,395 3.0EU EFTA UK40,706,10741,944,56042,972,33643,691,79644,442,146 1.710 www.acea.autoALL VEHICLES ON ROADS20192020202120222023%change23/22Austria5,563,6145,633,5225,711,8325,734,7595,778,589 0.8Belgium6,768,2396,811,3386,866,5886,900,7937,004,000 1.5Croatia1,928,3071,940,0982,013,2042,064,2762,158,434 4.6Cyprus690,196697,093712,856724,915753,016 3.9Czechia6,785,3106,931,6187,110,9247,253,8727,442,931 2.6Denmark3,081,7483,147,3223,207,0383,210,8163,227,536 0.5Estonia931,261949,276971,371998,852777,755-22.1Finland3,158,6003,194,1053,204,0023,187,8563,201,077 0.4France45,395,39145,430,93145,915,80446,114,88546,459,233 0.7Germany51,605,49852,275,83352,727,44253,042,10653,499,908 0.9Greece6,408,9946,491,0636,606,0626,704,3056,714,953 0.2Hungary4,395,6834,515,7694,632,8144,716,6294,799,632 1.8Ireland2,626,7322,666,5062,725,9162,757,8032,840,590 3.0Italy44,764,75544,999,65245,202,04645,685,99346,526,932 1.8Latvia741,675748,326785,770796,224812,005 2.0Lithuania1,389,4691,416,4671,463,3461,494,4791,515,881 1.4Luxembourg481,656490,900500,535507,383518,507 2.2Netherlands10,130,43710,248,38110,366,78510,486,78810,694,220 2.0Poland21,350,33221,638,09922,306,64122,724,43723,326,828 2.7Portugal6,489,3006,591,0006,712,3006,877,0017,084,700 3.0Romania8,061,7408,526,8078,856,7549,173,3949,448,918 3.0Slovakia2,745,2802,799,3023,023,2683,104,9373,194,654 2.9Slovenia1,377,9151,385,3711,337,8501,360,8181,389,320 2.1Spain29,337,36629,584,92829,875,89630,243,67930,722,465 1.6Sweden5,572,0625,637,4695,691,5665,689,7135,691,832 0.04EUROPEAN UNION271,781,560274,751,176278,528,610281,556,712285,583,916 1.4Iceland257,047251,540261,559272,029283,889 4.4Norway3,392,6523,426,8873,486,8363,520,3723,493,272-0.8Switzerland5,037,0615,215,7715,276,2285,274,1005,321,087 0.9EFTA8,686,7608,894,1989,024,6239,066,5019,098,248 0.4United Kingdom40,386,42942,403,98842,874,12443,346,29744,240,876 2.1EU EFTA UK320,854,749326,049,362330,427,357333,969,510338,923,040 1.511 www.acea.autoCARS BY AGE202320222021202020192018201720162015201410 yearsTotalAverage age(in years)Austria216,719201,801226,522242,152319,388335,689350,904326,268297,573279,5612,388,4295,185,0069.3Belgium461,223357,703380,990401,411468,469432,190389,811361,539305,578273,2862,131,6825,963,8829.9Croatia45,03452,08541,71540,19265,39374,43078,73982,02880,59879,3471,275,9601,915,52113.4Cyprus14,08012,32612,70415,38624,02120182014 133,199413,909625,625Czechia217,436179,752182,575183,154241,011259,063265,772247,177225,616204,0094,392,2736,597,83816.2Denmark152,069130,475173,679173,579182,626188,375199,276193,757183,737164,8471,077,1632,819,5839.6Estonia21,22320,71221,23118,85728,48530,18929,83526,99625,75126,188411,270660,73713.0Finland86,39085,177105,108108,077124,443133,612139,068138,238125,335115,9291,594,6382,756,01513.2France1,682,0651,474,0061,648,4061,665,7992,268,2592,068,1822,067,3241,941,4021,814,6921,679,50820,948,99039,258,63211.2Germany2,636,2012,341,3612,283,7712,468,8593,116,8882,970,8962,904,8972,763,8012,550,4372,328,40922,733,16549,098,68510.3Greece134,154106,791102,64584,240123,683119,305111,740113,263112,97799,3934,504,9735,613,16417.5Hungary89,79185,21288,140101,232135,098128,090121,598111,559108,295105,2413,089,9854,164,24115.0Ireland116,616101,527103,54292,075128,018154,347180,162203,080180,371154,165948,1522,362,05512.0Italy1,718,0541,457,5651,579,2191,464,1581,994,7781,938,8771,965,9531,811,7981,540,9231,296,37424,147,53040,915,22912.8Latvia18,50916,08913,72312,83318,48019,22021,15719,92920,47421,591535,833717,83814.4Lithuania26,69524,22624,66222,89332,86736,35940,83340,40542,98442,1021,030,4641,364,49014.7Luxembourg44,68539,11240,97339,51240,30833,64929,47725,38220,48419,241124,612457,4358.0Netherlands378,943367,880420,295456,977551,546537,378499,385456,254474,064430,8714,840,0999,413,69211.9Poland471,273408,453431,555421,146575,539589,733594,217577,281573,271567,65114,821,60420,031,72315.1Portugal188,483162,130157,508157,851245,407268,312279,741267,673257,324212,2643,553,3075,750,00013.6Romania20232022 265,64220212019 428,66820182014 866,0036,546,2578,106,57015.4Slovakia86,29274,43670,26875,828108,937111,452114,200109,837101,39395,3411,855,3722,803,35615.1Slovenia43,02438,79538,74141,71964,81971,63075,04073,07367,68958,306672,7221,245,55811.5Spain938,989791,710801,380792,4011,135,7661,212,0911,148,2721,073,849970,372800,67616,354,99826,020,50414.2Sweden215,834252,937236,641214,810260,646264,586295,059314,715286,400254,5882,380,9474,977,16311.0EUROPEAN UNION12.5Iceland17,36018,23015,57410,80812,62119,31823,34220,13314,47310,01084,762246,63110.0Norway124,969174,730180,163144,032141,741151,233160,398154,897153,928145,4431,318,0462,849,58011.1Switzerland175,827223,168244,771242,559314,193294,853303,050301,902301,695272,4642,131,1784,805,66010.3United Kingdom2,020,1371,626,4871,630,0661,565,4282,233,6172,260,6272,391,2102,518,4242,438,6302,256,41516,813,44037,754,48110.612 www.acea.autoVANS 4 BY AGE202320222021202020192018201720162015201410 yearsTotalAverage age(in years)Austria28,98621,27258,40735,82442,13141,41036,85532,25928,20725,584157,061507,9967.0Belgium63,75953,31968,24866,36173,65666,56061,18451,73144,50337,666297,558884,5459.2Croatia5,5136,1306,1996,8828,9949,75810,08510,6179,7408,32499,211181,45311.6Cyprus2,0462,0181,9491,6932,46020182014 14,04385,727109,936Czechia22,18916,38919,32616,99021,61721,91221,24321,87119,21216,541437,717635,00714.6Denmark25,13726,54330,35029,39729,12027,25726,59925,48020,94217,15797,951355,9338.1Estonia3,7973,6104,0793,3454,5985,2325,1434,9764,7234,14542,82486,47210.6Finland10,88411,26213,05813,10015,51916,45116,99815,73613,73412,766204,468343,97613.7France359,528332,270405,982364,059415,803354,392324,470293,443258,056239,6643,134,0696,481,73410.9Germany244,445221,329251,728246,093265,378240,000218,878196,366171,657161,1771,121,8713,338,9229.6Greece10,0709,72010,2797,1439,2549,72511,70711,77212,38713,090774,340879,48721.1Hungary17,34314,89118,50217,70123,00820,58420,14122,62320,91719,671326,006521,38713.2Ireland27,17823,04128,17921,36426,27127,82328,53533,80030,88924,304150,337421,7218.8Italy207,322169,693186,475160,104185,149176,228183,679185,228119,952105,1482,854,6084,533,58614.8Latvia2,6352,2742,3952,0212,8082,5882,8042,9103,1213,13735,18161,87411.4Lithuania2,7763,0383,0032,4653,2523,2213,3323,0942,9192,66829,91359,68113.5Luxembourg4,6993,9814,5913,9554,0503,2642,9212,5522,2071,7339,99143,9447.0Netherlands70,66461,39072,98165,81583,95585,79677,45171,42156,13147,613412,7101,105,92710.3Poland62,18355,80869,09660,14374,78578,01675,69280,07979,31489,0711,656,8702,381,05714.7Portugal25,99823,79829,13027,80939,36020182014 175,067855,8381,177,00016.0Romania8,49915,1888,2088,96220,39919,73419,91325,11721,97319,134742,532909,65916.3Slovakia9,0567,4948,2506,5798,8669,3028,7799,1588,5397,081216,341299,44513.7Slovenia6,2035,4916,0635,4127,3357,8727,7776,6695,4644,43439,989102,70910.4Spain143,958116,690146,092150,704204,745206,123192,726166,758149,563109,0592,456,0814,042,49914.4Sweden35,07242,28938,88234,93952,89154,19957,37853,14243,54837,134250,873700,3479.4EUROPEAN UNION12.7Iceland1,8501,8351,4241,1771,5402,1272,3301,9701,5311,0439,70826,5359.9Norway29,34728,91333,28130,83535,84734,89733,76433,60630,50027,217224,948543,1559.9Switzerland20,49725,22829,60428,23734,64931,05730,20127,62327,73523,884164,836443,5519.7United Kingdom362,073288,585359,078290,829358,370343,300339,635344,277332,283276,9652,329,0395,624,4349.84.Data for Germany and Sweden includes trucks13 www.acea.autoTRUCKS BY AGE202320222021202020192018201720162015201410 yearsTotalAverage age(in years)Austria6,6435,5205,6615,0756,8466,4745,9105,3074,2163,87419,42974,9556.8Belgium9,5948,2927,8107,21210,7889,8868,5297,5466,0375,37958,033139,10616.5Croatia1,6861,6871,4091,0031,8052,1122,4222,6942,4862,20435,97555,48314.5Cyprus16596809211820182014 1,01712,78814,356Czechia9,9808,5428,1426,3888,4778,0757,9957,5066,6115,114111,540188,37018.4Denmark4,4514,3013,8103,2764,2033,7433,1822,7822,0381,36310,30043,4498.4Estonia8799467905111,0321,1111,1231,05898993717,50426,88015.2Finland3,7283,1613,4133,2053,8523,7753,2863,2122,9132,92856,61390,08614.9France50,95544,21143,26940,35453,23348,14641,41834,28726,64921,986220,431624,9389.4Germany88,92871,41173,01266,34276,65766,00157,53551,30543,43936,670357,866989,16610.6Greece8947256045795445508611,1481,7402,282184,965194,89222.6Hungary6,2675,5814,3442,6284,4584,6634,3423,8634,0023,26253,17096,58012.4Ireland2,7442,2392,3552,0832,5612,6292,8153,4022,7672,51823,77949,89210.7Italy33,18431,37832,32225,09728,22730,11829,45528,54318,78414,677706,254978,03919.5Latvia1,8111,4749065339451,3301,3491,5141,09799516,83228,78613.4Lithuania10,5639,3236,6192,6234,7344,5584,4154,1253,0522,39631,25883,6669.5Luxembourg1,7051,4121,3871,2511,4001,1499637484804593,52514,4797.5Netherlands14,96911,76210,6809,73514,51315,00912,79412,2309,4746,30248,054165,5229.9Poland36,37036,10133,93121,99833,17838,08838,84440,64736,63631,019485,482832,29413.2Portugal6,3204,9124,6514,2425,36920182014 26,62786,679138,80015.5Romania3,5426,4833,5513,7347,9228,2368,74811,0679,6498,344305,419376,69516.2Slovakia4,3693,6173,1092,0803,3624,1503,9163,7523,2322,37850,32184,28615.9Slovenia2,5692,3782,0531,5222,6383,0112,9612,8822,5132,09214,23338,85210.0Spain27,53422,80620,80318,40123,05622,87824,48024,57422,19116,129373,729596,58114.9Sweden-EUROPEAN UNION14.1Iceland4803453543074085535984282872664,7368,76214.2Norway6,3525,4915,7085,5286,6455,7424,7324,1273,2572,96134,69185,23412.4Switzerland3,4953,7733,9233,8914,4784,4854,5794,0143,7853,65422,03962,11610.0United Kingdom56,14846,53443,86738,23253,97746,88646,48746,23740,93829,629331,984780,91911.614 www.acea.autoBUSES BY AGE202320222021202020192018201720162015201410 yearsTotalAverage age(in years)Austria1,1779318488661,1079679748225924341,91410,6325.8Belgium7246019528131,3251,0448717649901,1387,24516,46711.6Croatia77250901533052803152732512553,7285,97712.0Cyprus29461152412220182014 2852,1813,099Czechia1,0731,1669881,3631,2441,2477958071,18191310,93921,71615.0Denmark5056676482735695898657405754522,6888,5718.4Estonia1513072672302291672151591791521,6103,6669.8Finland2554053872615724765556216297226,11711,00013.1France6,0735,7226,7596,0526,6525,9696,0506,0766,5575,01633,00393,9287.8Germany5,3694,6436,1796,1876,0715,9925,9315,8095,0854,45428,90884,6288.1Greece24331251437950249848357252869022,68927,41017.6Hungary8018111,1437188558008246026936509,52717,42411.3Ireland276211416833524153643673632713,8046,92211.5Italy5,4943,9283,8453,4574,8254,8983,8943,3482,7222,24161,426100,07813.8Latvia139274247831011181821532131481,8493,50710.9Lithuania201568117426529412159591341,6933,13712.8Luxembourg2272881682143132132401832331274432,6496.5Netherlands3822382916389295578558293235763,4619,07910.4Poland1,7311,2121,3801,5082,3662,7022,2972,1812,1022,19562,08081,75416.2Portugal8051,54468247474620182014 2,79211,85718,90013.9Romania20232022 2,715 20212019 3,61220182014 7,99741,670 55,99417.5Slovakia7713845432782833364143613443893,4647,56710.9Slovenia9411773361371271671601381929602,20110.0Spain3,7592,4731,9612,1873,5443,7623,9773,6812,9152,08532,53762,88111.7Sweden8421,1177121,7691,2908911,0571,1101,0729643,49814,3227.0EUROPEAN UNION12.2Iceland1715863281191602062681151016721,96110.9Norway1,0416081,0951,4172,2631,0051,0801,2987606914,04515,3039.9Switzerland4184937416906957447437197786453,0949,7608.6United Kingdom2,9162,0261,7151,6062,7043,0503,5934,2384,1363,67351,38581,04216.015 www.acea.autoCARS BY POWER SOURCEPetrolDieselBattery electricPlug-in hybridHybrid electricNatural gasLPGOtherUnknownAustria42.2I.9%3.0%0.0%4.8%0.0%0.1%0.0%0.0lgium54.14.7%3.0%4.6%2.6%0.3%0.3%0.0%0.3%Croatia38.1V.0%0.4%0.2%2.1%0.0%3.1%0.0%0.0%Cyprus73.6!.1%0.3%0.0%4.9%0.0%0.0%0.1%0.0%Czechia56.99.2%0.3%0.2%0.2%0.3%1.6%0.0%1.2nmark59.9$.3%7.1%4.4%4.4%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%Estonia46.1F.7%0.9%0.0%6.0%0.4%0.0%0.0%0.0%Finland66.1%.2%3.0%4.9%0.0%0.6%0.0%0.2%0.0%France40.6P.7%2.2%1.5%4.4%0.7%0.0%0.0%0.0%Germany61.6(.8%2.9%1.9%4.1%0.2%0.6%0.0%0.0%Greece88.4%8.9%0.2%0.3%1.9%0.1%0.1%0.0%0.2%Hungary62.01.6%1.0%0.8%4.0%0.0%0.7%0.0%0.0%Ireland35.6T.0%2.5%1.4%6.2%0.0%0.0%0.3%0.0%Italy43.3A.0%0.5%5.4%2.3%7.4%0.0%0.0%Latvia28.6b.6%0.9%0.2%0.0%0.1%1.7%0.0%6.0%Lithuania23.1X.4%0.8%0.5%4.5%0.0%0.2%0.2.3%Luxembourg43.2A.5%4.9%3.3%7.0%0.0%0.1%0.0%0.0%Netherlands76.5%8.4%4.9%3.0%6.1%0.1%1.0%0.0%0.0%Poland44.49.0%0.3%0.2%3.4%0.0.7%0.0%0.0%Portugal36.0W.1%1.8%1.7%2.3%0.0%0.0%1.2%0.0%Romania54.7A.9%0.4%0.1%1.0%0.0%0.5%0.0%1.3%Slovakia49.3C.6%0.3%0.3%2.8%0.1%1.9%0.0%1.7%Slovenia45.7P.0%1.0%0.3%2.2%0.0%0.7%0.0%0.0%Spain39.4T.2%0.6%0.8%4.7%0.1%0.4%0.0%0.0%Sweden48.32.3%5.9%5.5%3.8%0.7%3.5%0.0%EUROPEAN UNION50.09.5%1.8%2.1%3.2%0.6%2.6%0.1%0.2%Iceland41.71.7.0%8.9%6.0%0.6%0.0%0.0%0.0%Norway26.96.4$.2%7.2%5.3%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%Switzerland62.0&.9%3.2%1.8%5.9%0.2%0.0%0.0%0.0%United Kingdom57.22.9%2.9%1.5%5.4%0.0%0.0%0.1%0.0%SHARE|202316 www.acea.autoPetrolDieselBattery electricPlug-in hybridHybrid electricNatural gasLPGOtherUnknownAustria5.0.7%1.9%0.0%0.1%0.2%0.1%0.0%0.0lgium6.7.1%0.8%0.0%0.1%0.6%1.4%0.3%0.0%Croatia2.8.0%0.4%0.0%0.0%0.1%0.7%0.0%0.0%Cyprus6.2.5%0.1%0.0%0.3%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%Czechia12.3.1%0.2%0.0%0.0%0.8%1.2%0.0%2.5nmark9.0.0%2.1%0.4%1.5%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%Estonia10.2.0%0.3%0.0%0.1%0.4%0.0%0.0%0.0%Finland2.6.0%0.9%0.1%0.0%0.3%0.0%0.0%0.0%France4.3.4%1.6%0.0%0.4%0.3%0.0%0.0%0.0%Germany5.2.3%2.4%0.0%0.1%0.3%0.7%0.0%0.0%Greece38.5B.9%0.1%0.0%0.1%0.1%0.0%0.0.3%Hungary3.1.0%0.5%0.0%0.1%0.1%0.2%0.0%0.0%Ireland0.6.2%1.0%0.1%1.2%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%Italy4.8.9%0.4%1.2%2.1%1.6%0.0%0.0%Latvia2.9.6%0.3%0.0%0.0%0.1%0.7%0.0%6.4%Lithuania1.6.3%0.7%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.1%8.3%Luxembourg3.8.6%2.1%0.0%0.0%0.1%0.1%0.3%0.0%Netherlands3.6.6%2.2%0.0%0.1%0.4%2.1%0.0%0.0%Poland5.8.8%0.2%0.0%0.0%0.1%3.8%0.0%0.2%Portugal0.2.3%0.4%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%Romania8.4.4%0.1%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%1.0%Slovakia12.7.3%0.2%0.0%0.0%0.2%1.1%0.0%1.6%Slovenia3.5.4%0.4%0.0%0.1%0.1%0.4%0.0%0.0%Spain4.8.8%0.6%0.0%0.4%0.2%0.3%0.0%0.0%Sweden6.9.5%3.4%0.1%0.0%1.3%0.9%0.0%EUROPEAN UNION5.9.5%1.1%0.2%0.2%0.5%0.8%0.0%0.7%Iceland12.8.2%3.9%0.0%0.1%0.9%0.0%0.0%0.0%Norway3.7.7%5.5%0.1%0.0%0.1%0.0%0.0%0.0%Switzerland13.1.4%1.8%0.0%0.1%0.6%0.0%0.0%0.0%United Kingdom4.0.3%1.2%0.1%0.3%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%VANS BY POWER SOURCE%SHARE|202317 www.acea.autoPetrolDieselBattery electricPlug-in hybridHybrid electricNatural gasLPGOtherUnknownAustria0.2.3%0.3%0.0%0.0%0.1%0.0%0.0%0.0lgium1.8.0%0.1%0.0%0.0%1.0%0.1%0.0%0.0%Croatia0.0.9%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%Cyprus0.1.9%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%Czechia0.5.3%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.5%0.0%0.0.8nmark0.6.5%1.0%0.0%0.0%0.8%0.0%0.0%0.2%Estonia3.4.3%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.3%0.0%0.0%0.0%Finland2.6.5%0.1%0.0%0.0%0.6%0.0%0.2%0.0%France0.1.7%0.1%0.0%0.0%1.6%0.0%0.4%0.0%Germany1.4.1%0.3%0.0%0.2%0.6%0.1%0.2%0.0%Greece0.1e.9%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.04.0%Hungary0.6.2%0.1%0.0%0.0%0.1%0.0%0.0%0.0%Ireland0.1.6%0.1%0.0%0.0%0.2%0.0%0.0%0.0%Italy0.7.2%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.7%0.2%0.1%0.0%Latvia1.6.9%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.6%0.4%0.0%8.4%Lithuania0.4.5%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.1%0.0%0.0%4.9%Luxembourg0.3.9%0.4%0.0%0.0%0.2%0.1%0.1%0.0%Netherlands0.7.0%0.9%0.0%0.1%1.0%0.2%0.0%0.0%Poland0.4.3%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.8%0.2%0.0%0.3%Portugal0.0.6%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.3%0.0%0.1%0.0%Romania0.1.7%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.1%0.0%0.0%0.0%Slovakia0.1.3%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.3%0.0%0.0%3.2%Slovenia0.1.6%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.3%0.0%0.0%0.0%Spain0.0.7%0.1%0.0%0.0%1.1%0.0%0.0%0.0%Sweden1.0.3%0.6%0.0%0.0%3.0%0.1%0.0%EUROPEAN UNION0.6.4%0.1%0.0%0.1%0.8%0.1%0.1%1.8%Iceland2.3.1%0.2%0.0%0.0%0.4%0.0%0.0%0.0%Norway2.5.6%1.3%0.0%0.0%1.5%0.0%0.0%0.0%Switzerland0.3.1%1.0%0.0%0.0%0.4%0.0%0.1%0.1%United Kingdom0.9.1%0.4%0.0%0.2%0.2%0.0%0.1%0.0%TRUCKS BY POWER SOURCE%SHARE|202318 www.acea.autoBUSES BY POWER SOURCEPetrolDieselBattery electricPlug-in hybridHybrid electricNatural gasLPGOtherUnknownAustria0.0.2%2.3%0.0%2.5%0.8%0.0%0.1%0.0lgium0.7.8%1.9.7%0.2%0.0%0.6%0.0%Croatia0.0.6%0.1%0.0%0.2%2.1%0.0%0.0%0.0%Cyprus0.2.5%1.3%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%Czechia7.3.8%0.7%0.0%0.2%9.0%0.0%0.0%0.9nmark0.3.9.8%0.0%0.0%1.8%0.0%0.0%0.2%Estonia0.7y.1%0.0%0.0%1.2.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%Finland0.2.2%5.9%0.0%0.0%0.6%0.0%0.0%0.0%France0.0.4%2.4%0.0%3.8%8.1%0.0%0.2%0.0%Germany0.1.6%3.1%0.1%7.1%0.9%0.0%0.1%0.0%Greece0.0y.6%0.0%0.0%0.0%4.3%0.0%0.0.0%Hungary0.2.9%1.1%0.0%0.4%2.2%0.2%0.0%0.0%Ireland0.0.4.5%0.0%4.1%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%Italy0.4.1%1.3%1.0%6.0%0.2%0.1%0.0%Latvia0.1.9%2.9%0.0%0.0%1.7%0.0%0.0.3%Lithuania0.3.9%6.6%0.0%1.4%5.4%0.0%0.0%0.4%Luxembourg0.2u.3.7%0.8%6.3%2.7%0.0%0.0%0.0%Netherlands0.1s.9.7%0.0%2.4%5.2%0.0%0.7%0.0%Poland0.2.6%1.4%0.0%0.8%1.5%0.1%0.3%0.1%Portugal0.1.5%2.3%0.0%0.1%4.1%0.0%0.0%0.0%Romania0.2.2%1.5%0.0%0.7%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.3%Slovakia0.4.0%0.6%0.0%0.0%2.8%0.0%0.0%3.0%Slovenia0.0.4%0.9%0.0%0.0%4.8%0.0%0.0%0.0%Spain0.1.4%1.5%0.2%4.8%5.8%0.0%0.0%0.0%Sweden0.2r.0%8.5%1.1.9%0.2%0.0%EUROPEAN UNION0.4.2%2.5%0.5%2.2%4.2%0.0%0.1%0.8%Iceland1.9.9%1.6%0.0%0.0%0.5%0.0%0.0%0.2%Norway1.0.1%9.2%0.0%0.0%4.6%0.0%0.0%0.0%Switzerland0.3.4%3.5%0.0%8.8%0.8%0.0%0.0%0.2%United Kingdom0.3.7%9.5%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.0%0.5%0.0%SHARE|202319 www.acea.autoCARS PER 1,000 INHABITANTS20192020202120222023Austria569572575574569Belgium508506506506508Croatia436441461475497Cyprus654651661664680Czechia562573600611609Denmark456467476476475Estonia600609621638484Finland493497498494495France571570573573576Germany575580584586582Greece489496506525539Hungary393404416426434Ireland440442447445448Italy661666672681694Latvia342352368375381Lithuania450458472480478Luxembourg699696698694692Netherlands517520523525529Poland482490517529545Portugal504511520534547Romania355376396413425Slovakia439448485501516Slovenia600598570580588Spain532531535540541Sweden478479480477473EUROPEAN UNION541545553559563Iceland627603618629636Norway520521528530519Switzerland535549551546545EFTA532540544542538United Kingdom528546548548553EU EFTA UK53954555355756120 www.acea.auto20192020202120222023Austria5961656565Belgium8385888889Croatia5052565963Cyprus134134135137138Czechia7575787978Denmark7473737169Estonia10310610911286Finland7981818180France104103105105106Germany4748505152Greece108110112116106Hungary6062646566Ireland9290919091Italy8789919395Latvia4440474950Lithuania4547495253Luxembourg8688909292Netherlands6969707172Poland8080858790Portugal124124125126127Romania6065656970Slovakia6565697172Slovenia6263646668Spain9394969798Sweden6767686868EUROPEAN UNION7879818383Iceland9388929496Norway117118118119117Switzerland5457575858EFTA7980818181United Kingdom7889929395EU EFTA UK7880838497VANS,TRUCKS,AND BUSES PER 1,000 INHABITANTS21 www.acea.autoVEHICLE OWNERSHIP 520232023202320232023202320232023202320192022202320232023AustriaBelgiumCroatiaCzechiaDenmarkFinlandFranceIcelandLatvia Luxembourg NetherlandsNorway PolandSwedenHouseholds with no car#.037.815.714.027.0Households with at least one carw.062.284.386.073.0Households with one 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