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公司名称 文档标题 文档副标题 The Transformation of Chinas Automotive Industry:Challenges to Skill Development and Vocational Training Authors:Luo Siqi,Ma Jiajun,Hai kenan,Hu Yi,Chen Bing,Huang Jinglei,Lou Anzhe,and the research team at the School of Government,Sun Yat-sen University Contact: This research project was funded by Volkswagen Group(China)and completed by the research team at the School of Government,Sun Yat-sen University Key words:automotive manufacturing,industrial transformation,skill development,vocational training,industrial workers Recommended citation:Luo,S.et al.(2025).The Transformation of Chinas Automotive Industry:Challenges to Skill Development and Vocational Training.Volkswagen Group(China)&School of Government,Sun Yat-sen University.Available at:https:/ I.Introduction.1 II.Restructuring of the Industry and Trends in Labor Skills Supply and Demand.4 1.Changes in Industrial Structure Driven by NEV Production and Sales Growth.4 2.New Industrial Features.7 3.Job Categories and Labor Market Supply and Demand.11 III.Transformation Paths and Skill Regimes for Different Types of Enterprises.14 1.The Old System.14 2.The New World.25 3.Automotive Parts and Components Suppliers.35 IV.Vocational and Technical Education and Training.42 1.Overview of Vocational and Technical Schools in China.42 2.Basic Information of of Three Schools.46 3.Educaiton and Training for Automotive Industrial Transformation.48 4.Relationships Between Vocational Schools and Enterprises in Skill Training.52 V.Discussion and Conclusion.56 1.Skill Training Systems in Different Types of Enterprises and Their Impact.56 2.New Skill Demands and Challenges to Vocational School Training Supply.59 3.Conclusion and Implications.62 1 The Transformation of Chinas Automotive Industry:Challenges to Skill Development and Vocational Training I.Introduction As a flagship manufacturing sector,Chinas automotive industry is undergoing a profound transformation.The New Four Modernizations-intelligence,connectivity,automation,and sharinghave been established as the strategic trajectory for the industrys future development.This paradigm shift has disrupted macro-level industrial structure and micro-level enterprise production systems,amplifying substantial uncertainties in production management,labor practices,and skill supply and demand.China is currently in a critical period of“transiting from traditional growth drivers to new ones”.In the automotive industry,the New Energy Vehicle(NEV)sector,as one of the representatives of“new drivers”,is regarded as a new engine for economic growth.Against this backdrop,the Chinese government has been vigorously advancing intelligent manufacturing technologies,developing a first-rate industrial workforce,and promoting high-quality development.Simultaneously,vocational and technical schools are proactively innovating curricula and promoting school-enterprise cooperation to address industrial changes.Critical questions thus emerge:how has manufacturing restructuring driven by industrial transformation reshaped labor practices,particularly regarding worker skills and vocational training?What would these changes mean for Chinas massive industrial workforce and its path toward industrial transformation and upgrading?For all stakeholders in the industry,enterprises and vocational schools,these questions remain unresolved and are worth further observation and exploration.The impacts of new automotive products and technologies on industry and labor have sparked heated discussions and gradually entered the policy agendas worldwide.Historically,waves of new technologies have often led to widespread concerns about technological unemployment.In particular,digital technologies were viewed as job killers.Accordingly,initial policy responses prioritized unemployment issues,but relatively neglected the needs and potential advantages of training and retraining workers.However,the issue of skill formation has also gradually drawn attention,exemplified by some debates over deskilling versus reskilling in Western countries in the 1970s and 80s.During the current industrial transformation,have people found new answers?Some countries and organizations are 2 exploring new models of future work or strategies for labor.For example,Germany proposed the Work 4.0 concept in response to Industry 4.0.In the practice of Chinas automotive industry,technological unemployment,so far,does not seem to be the most critical problem brought about by industrial transformation.In fact,much statistical analysis shows that the transformation has not caused obvious or large-scale unemployment;instead,more profound changes may be structural,including changes in skill supply and demand.Thus,a pressing question emerges:for both new entrants and incumbents in the automotive industry,will new technology applications and industrial changes enhance workers training access and skill levels,thereby enhancing their job quality,wages and benefits,etc.?Therefore,this study emphasizes a contextualized analysis,focusing on the Chinese practices to explore the impact of the automotive industry transformation on workers actual skills.It also examines whether the existing diverse training systems can effectively meet the challenges of this transformation.Compared with historical waves of automation,the current transformation in the automotive manufacturing industry is more complex,as automation and digitization have intertwined with new technological challenges brought by electrification.The issues of technological change and labor skill in automotive manufacturing are significantly affecting the livelihoods of numerous workers.Different from many Western industrialized countries,Chinas institutions and practices have some unique characteristics.For instance,skill training in China is often formulated by management,but international experience suggests this may not be the only or optimal approach.As a system that involves multiple stakeholders,skill training requires the participation of governments and public sectors beyond enterprises,and interest representatives from both labor and management sidessuch as trade unions and industry associationshave their roles in the German-style coordinated market economy(Hall&Soskice,2001;Wang Xing,2015;Zhang,2021).Indeed,the German vocational education system,commonly regarded as a potential model,has been imitated by many Chinese vocational schools.However,whether this transplanted system can become effectively localized and what practical effects it can produce during the industrial transformation remain to be observed.To a certain extent,the Chinese experience in this study could provide reference for other similar countries,especially many developing countries with a large proportion of manufacturing industries and skill training systems still under exploration.Multiple factors can influence industry and labor during the industrial transformation.As mentioned above,the transformation of Chinas automotive industry occurs in the context of a combination of multiple new technologies and industrial trends;meanwhile,existing institutional factors cannot be ignored,particularly the relationships among governments,enterprises,and schools,as well as the roles of organizations such as trade unions in the process.Specifically,this study explores how the current transformation of the automotive 3 industry is altering workers skill requirements and training needs,and analyzes its implications for Chinas vocational training system.The investigations focus on the Pearl River Delta,one of Chinas key automotive manufacturing clusters.Since 2017,the research team has surveyed more than a dozen automakersincluding three major types of players in Chinas automotive industry:joint ventures,traditional domestic brands,and New force1 automakersas well as parts and components suppliers,especially those producing core components for NEVs,such as battery suppliers,and several vocational and technical schools.This report selects eight factories and three vocational schools that the team conducted in-depth interviews in the summer of 2024 as typical cases.These factories are at the forefront of the automotive industry transformation,and their production and skill profiles reflect the development trends within the industry,thus helping to depict the landscape of Chinas automotive industry transformation.The selected vocational and technical schools include middle and higher vocational colleges subordinate to the Ministry of Education and technical schools under the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security,which have long served as important sources of manufacturing talent for the local automotive industry.The primary materials of this study were mainly collected through in-depth interviews and field observations.Interviewees included enterprise managers,engineers,workers,and trade unionists.Interview questions focused on the status quo of using new technology and equipment,specific changes in skills,training systems,and human resource management as well as the roles of labor unions.Although the limitations in research access often prevented us from fully engaging with all types of personnel within the same enterprises,we supplemented this round of fieldwork with previous observations and interviews conducted by our research team in these enterprises and schools.We also collect various public materials to the best of our ability,including policies and regulations,official website information,and news reports.Thus,based on all primary sources and secondary information triangulated by our research team,this study attempts to explore industry development and labor skill changes.It horizontally compares the similarities and differences in skill demands and training programs among different types of enterprises.It also analyzes the education and supply of qualified workers for the automobile industry in different types of vocational schools.Finally,this study assesses changes of labor skills in the industry and the relationship and contradictions between skill supply and demand during the transition,and accordingly,proposes targeted recommendations.1 New force in the auto-making industry is a new term that became popular in Chinese media in the last 5 to 10 years.It refers to emerging automakers specializing in electric vehicles,and mostly,have no history of producing traditional diesel or gas engine cars.Tesla is an example.In China,Li Auto,Xpeng,and NIO are the leading domestic new forces.4 II.Restructuring of the Industry and Trends in Labor Skills Supply and Demand NEV Research and Development(R&D)has been initiated during the Eighth Five-Year Plan period(1991-1995)as a key part of the national scientific and technological research plan.Since the end of 2008,jumpstarting or leapfrogging2 has been advocated.Centered on technological support,industrial management,fiscal subsidy,and promotion and application,new policies and investments have favored the manufacturing and sales of NEVs.The electrification trend of the automotive industry has accelerated the challenges brought by digitalization and automation technologies,particularly as auto production and products are evolving towards electric drive and high-level intelligence.Although the market shift only occurred more than a decade after the initial policy formulation,it progressed rapidly.At the end of 2016,the Guidelines for Talent Development in the Manufacturing Industry predicted,based on the numbers of talents and the plans of vocational school programs at the time,that among the ten key manufacturing industries,the energy-saving and new energy automobile manufacturing sector alone would have a total of 1.20 million talents by 2025,but the gap would be as high as 1.03 million3.The current rapid development of NEV technology and product markets has catalyzed the process of industrial transformation,intensifying the impact on the supply and demand of labor skills and their structure.1.Changes in Industrial Structure Driven by NEV Production and Sales Growth China currently ranks first in global sales of NEVs.Of the 14.28 million NEV passenger cars sold in 2023,China accounted for 63.5%4.Considering that Chinas NEVs entered the mass production market only in the second decade of this century,this phenomenon represents a radical transformation in the automotive industry.From negligible sales in 2012 to the tipping point in 2021,and then to 8.87 million units sold in 2023,annual growth rates in some years exceeded 350%(Figure 1).In other words,Chinas NEV market achieved a scale leap from zero to one million units within a decade,and from one million to eight million units in less than five years.In 2023,cumulative sales of NEV passenger cars in China increased by 36.3%year-on-year,with a market penetration rate5 of 34.7%.In Guangdong Province,one 2.Science and Technology Daily(2009).Vigorously promoting the leapfrog development of new energy vehicles,http:/ 3 Ministry of Education,Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security,&Ministry of Industry and Information Technology(2017).Notice on issuing the Manufacturing Talent Development Planning Guide,http:/ 4 H(2024).China accounted for 63.5%of the worlds new energy vehicle market share in 2023,https:/ 5 NEV penetration rate refers to the proportion of new energy vehicle sales compared to the total number of vehicles sold within a specific period.5 of the key automotive manufacturing bases,the proportion of NEVs has risen rapidly since 2020(Figure 2).(Units:10,000 vehicles;YoY Growth Rate:%)Figure 1:Sales Volume Changes of NEVs in China,20122023(Data Source:Prospective Industry Research Institute of China Automobile Industry Association,Sales Volume and Year-on-Year Growth of NEVs in China,2012-2023)(Vehicle output NEV output;Units:10,000 vehicles)Figure 2:Trends in Guangdong Provinces Automobile Production,20002023(Data Source:Guangdong Statistical Yearbook 2024)0100200300400500600200020102020202120222023 6 The drastic change in production and sales is not only in terms of volume,but more importantly,in reshaping the fundamental structure of Chinas automotive industry.In 2023,among the total sales of over 30 million passenger and commercial vehicles domestically,domestic brand cars accounted for 52%of the annual retail market share,a year-on-year increase of 4.6 percentage points.Among the top four manufacturers,domestic brand car companies occupied three positions,with BYD ranking first with annual sales of 2.706 million vehicles,followed by FAW-Volkswagen,Geely,and Changan Automobile.In terms of the penetration rate of NEVs,domestic brands reached 59.3%,while mainstream joint venture brands had a penetration rate of only 7.4%.This indicates that the stable structure of Chinas automotive industry over the past few decades has undergone significant changes for the first time:domestic brand car companies have gained obvious growth in the NEV market,and their export market share is also rising6.Miao Wei,Vice Chairman of the Economic Committee of the CPPCC National Committee,pointed out that in the first half marked by the development of NEVs,Chinas automotive industry has become a pioneer and important practitioner of the New Four Modernizations in the global automotive industry7.A notable difference between NEV and traditional fuel vehicle manufacturing lies in the supply chain structure and the relationships between carmakers and their parts and components suppliers.The R&D of core components is increasingly detaching from carmakers,particularly as power batteries become the most critical component.The three-electric systems(power battery,motor,and electric control system)become dominant in the total cost of a vehicle.The basic cost composition is as follows:power battery accounts for 42%,motor 10%,electric control system 11%,body chassis and others 19%,and tires and interiors 18%8.Traditional auto manufacturers,located downstream in the industrial chains,historically dominated core technologies such as engines,chassis,and transmissions.However,for pure electric vehicles,power batteries,electric controls,and motors are often developed by external specialized suppliers,leaving most carmakers as buyers rather than developers.Some intelligent hardware and auxiliary driving chips also require the carmakers to collaborate with other enterprises.Additionally,new sub-sectors that support the NEV market,such as charging piles and battery swap stations,will assume an increasingly important position in the industrial chains.In other words,the supply chains for auto manufacturing have been shifting from a mechanics-dominated model to a mechatronic one that simultaneously emphasizes electricity,6 National Business Daily(2024).Passenger vehicle cumulative retail sales reached 21.699 million units!Chinas auto industry created miracles in 2023,http:/ 7 Xinhua News Agency(2021).Chinas new energy vehicle industry is speaking with its report card,.https:/ 8 MobTech Institute(2021,).2021 Insights into Chinas New Energy Vehicle Industry Report,https:/ 7 electronics,and mechanics.Traditional auto manufacturers have been relatively slow to develop in the field of electronics,whereas new star players often originate from the electronics industry.For instance,BYD started with producing mobile phone batteries and multiple types of lithium-ion batteries.Consequently,the importance of various electronic components in NEVs has led to the formation of the most concentrated NEV supply chains in regions with highly developed electronics industries,such as Guangdong Province.These electronics enterprises and factories have also brought some long-standing characteristics of their original industry,such as price-driven competition,into the automotive industry.At the same time,in terms of supply chain relationships,traditional carmakers vertical integration strategies face challenges.Some projections indicate that the carmakers control over technologies has dropped from 63%in the internal combustion engine era to 45%in the hybrid power era and is likely to drop to just 15%with pure electric vehicle technology(Yang Yanping et al.,2006).Power batteries,in particular,may account for over 50%of the value of the entire NEV business.Moreover,most NEV assemblersespecially traditional fuel vehicle producersonly have small production volumes and relatively high technical uncertainties,making them difficult to develop internal capabilities of parts and components supply.Thus,the new NEV industrial structure and relationships among key players has increased the dependence of carmakers on their key component suppliers such as battery manufacturers while significantly weakened their control over the supply chains.2.New Industrial Features A new map is taking shape.NEVs have disrupted traditional automotive manufacturing networks and supply chains,with new players that were unimaginable in the traditional automotive industry are now entering one after another.The new industrial landscape shows the division of power into three parts,although the power of each group is uneven.First,supported by early policies,traditional domestic carmakers have taken the lead.Private-owned independent brands such as BYD and Geely are at the forefront,followed by state-owned groups like BAIC,SAIC,and GAC.The second group consists of the new forces,including foreign players like Tesla and a large number of domestic newcomers.High-tech and internet companies,such as Huawei,Baidu,and Xiaomi,have also joined the fray.Riding on the national industrial upsurge,domestic NEV startups generally adopt pure electric vehicle technical routes.Lacking production permits,they often rely on OEM partnerships with traditional auto manufacturers or invest heavily to acquire production licenses.For example,NIO uses Hefeis JAC Motors factory,XPeng previously collaborated with Haima in Zhaoqing,and partnerships like Huawei-BAIC and Baidu-Geely followed similar models.The third group includes the giants of the traditional auto industryforeign joint venture brands.Compared to domestic brands,their NEV initiatives are clearly lagging behind.8 First,domestic brand carmakers have flocked to the NEV match.As early as July 2009,the China Association of Automobile Manufacturers(CAAM)convened a meeting of top executives from the top ten Chinese vehicle manufacturers,including SAIC,Dongfeng,GAC,BAIC,Brilliance,Chery,and JAC to sign the Concerted Action Plan for Electric Vehicle Development.By 2019,there were approximately 80 NEV passenger vehicle manufacturers in China.The top ten enterprises produced 759,000 units in total,accounting for roughly 70%of the NEV production.Among domestic brands,BYD stood out as a pioneer in battery electric vehicles(BEVs)or pure EVs,which relies solely on a battery for power.Leveraging its battery technology strengths,BYD developed its first pure electric vehicle,the F3E,as early as 2006(Wang et al.,2016),with the production reaching 218,000 units in 2019.Represented by BYD,domestic automakers have carved out their own territory in the NEV sector,typically relying on low-cost labor-intensive strategies,specialized imitative innovation or creative imitation,precise channel marketing,and vertically integrated industrial chains.Meanwhile,domestic new forcesnotably NIO,Xpeng,and Li Auto in recent yearshave emerged prominently.Among many startups,these relatively mature enterprises have already launched mass-produced products and earned certain market recognition through their NEV and smart driving concepts as well as innovative after-sales services(Fu,2020).Unlike the long-term backwardness of traditional auto manufacturing,these domestic pure electric vehicle brands are constantly narrowing the gap with world-class companies.Models in the same market segments have approached global leading standards in overall vehicle performance and are gradually forming scale effects through standardized production.In the first half of 2020,eight domestic auto brands accounted for 48.8%of all NEV sales,and the figures were 12.5%for five domestic new forces and 35.9%for seven foreign/joint venture brands including Tesla(Evergrande Research Institute,2020).This ratio is still changing rapidly,with domestic brands led by BYD gaining dominant market advantage.In 2024,BYDs sales exceeded 4.27 million units.Notably,a significant number of domestic auto companies also disappeared rapidly.Among more than domestic automakers that emerged in recent years,only a few have withstood the test and survived,with their market positions exhibiting persistent volatility.Substantial differences in sales persist across firms.SAIC Roewe,an early adopter of NEVs among state-owned automakers,launched hybrid electric vehicles(HEVs)in 2011 and the Roewe E50 BEV in 2012.However,sales were extremely low,averaging less than 100 units per year(Liu Jing,2015).Other NEV New Forces that rushed into the market relying on government subsidies and preferential policies subsequently confronted insurmountable technological and financial risks,leading to market withdrawals,such as Zhidou9 and Zotye10.9 The Beijing News(2018).How much further can ZD Auto go?Consecutive losses,salary arrears,and layoffs plague the new energy vehicle maker,https:/ 10 China Fund News(2020).$5.1 billion burned!Li Ka-shings heavily funded new energy vehicle venture collapses,https:/ 9 Even for the currently prominent domestic NEV New Forces,their money-burning development models,i.e.heavily relying on venture capital and the stock market to sustain R&D and subsidize consumers,can cause operational hazards.Many are reported to continue suffering financial losses.Industry analyses frequently highlight the high debt-to-equity ratios of these firms,and even the Big Three market leaders,commonly referred to NIO,XPeng,and Li Auto,faced hundreds of millions of yuan in net losses each year11.The relative market share erosion of mainstream joint ventures contrasts sharply with the ascendancy of domestic automakers and the few successful new entrants.While automotive powerhouses including Germany,Japan,South Korea,and the United States have implemented substantial policies and R&D investments to develop NEVs(Chen et al.,2014),their measures and degrees of intervention diverge markedly from China(Lu et al.,2014;Zhang,2015).In China,the joint venture automakers adopt different strategies in the NEV transition,but all have moved slow.Their long dominance in the traditional combustion engine car markets makes them content to the status quo.More importantly,the structural constraints,such as the division of manufacturing and R&D with foreign partners,protracted technology transfer negotiations,complex organizational hierarchies,and the difficulties of re-building pure EV supply chains,frequently cause inefficient decision-making in these joint ventures and,to some extent,the loss of market opportunities(Fu,2020).Such situations started to change around 2018,especially after the Dual Credit Policy,which imposed mandatory NEV production quotas,was implemented.This policy compelled lagging joint ventures(e.g.,FAW-Volkswagen,SAIC-GM)to purchase NEV credits from EV manufacturers,thereby catalyzing substantive strategic realignments.Nevertheless,more significant impetus for transformation originates from Chinas rapidly expanding NEV consumer market.After earlier criticism over perfunctory ICE-to-EV conversion models designed merely to comply with Chinese policy mandates and some conceptual vehicles that remained on drawing boards,these joint ventures have finally begun to make genuine efforts.Notwithstanding their latecomer status in electrification,traditional joint-venture vehicle manufacturers retain substantial competitive advantages derived from accumulated manufacturing expertise and financial reserves.For instance,the North and South Volkswagen joint ventures(FAW-Volkswagen and SAIC-Volkswagen)sold 30,500 pure EVs in December 2023,which accounted for 50%of the total BEV market of major joint ventures.While this number fell short to the sales of domestic leaders like BYD,the competitive landscape of the industry is evolving through two critical mechanisms.First,Chinas preferential industrial policies have been extended to joint ventures.Second,joint ventures maintain enduring superiority in process engineering expertise,sedan platform technologies,11 Sohu Auto(2021).XPeng Motors narrows annual net loss;CEO He XPeng announces Q4 delivery of third model,https:/ 10 and vehicle reliability metrics(China Journal of Highway and Transport Editorial Board,2017).For EVs,the integration of high-voltage battery systems and increased vehicle mass necessitate enhanced crash safety standards,coinciding with Chinese consumers growing emphasis on refined product attributes including driving dynamic handling and NVH(Noise,Vibration,Harshness)performance12.Although NEV architectures have disrupted conventional vehicle structure and design,the technological divide in core manufacturing competencies between domestic and joint venture manufacturers is unlikely to change in the short term.Finally,the supply chains are undergoing tremendous changes.Among traditional auto parts and components suppliers,divergent trajectories have emerged.Some suppliers that manufacture new parts or functionally upgraded components,such as batteries,electric motor control units and smart connectivity software,can reap important growth opportunities.In contrast,other suppliers,such as producers of mufflers,transmissions,fuel tanks,and associated powertrain components,may not survive as their technologies and products become obsolete for NEVs13.This shift has precipitated systemic restructuring of the traditional vehicle manufacturers supply chains.Historically,most Chinese auto suppliers lacked proprietary core technologies.However,this has changed.Domestic auto suppliers have rapidly developed the three core EV technologies of battery,electric motor,and electronic control,and established supply chain networks across Chinas principal automotive manufacturing hubs,particularly in the Pearl River Delta,Bohai Rim,and Yangtze River Delta regions.The most remarkable advancement manifests in power batteries.While major manufacturers such as Changan Automobile,BAIC Group,and Geely Holding Group have intensified R&D investments in BEV technologies through mergers,acquisitions,and strategic partnerships,few have replicated BYDs success in maintaining vertical integration strategies across battery production and vehicle manufacturing(Huth et al.,2013).BYDs blade battery and CATLs sodium-ion battery technologies represent cutting-edge innovations in the industry.Notably,CATL has emerged as a global leader since surpassing Panasonic and BYD in 2017 and established joint ventures or technical collaborations with all major vehicle manufacturers in China.Its rapid ascendance reflects the synergistic effects of continuous capacity expansion and the integration of upstream and downstream segments within Chinas EV battery sector(Wang and Zhao,2024).12 Editorial Department of China Journal of Highway and Transport.(2023).Review on Chinas Automotive Engineering Research Progress.China Journal of Highway and Transport,36(11):1-192.13 Nikkei Asia.(2021).Shift to electric cars speeds restructuring of parts industry,https:/ 11 3.Job Categories and Labor Market Supply and Demand The transformation of the automotive industry and firms directly affects the labor market,especially as the expansion of the NEV sector increases the demand for human capital.According to the 2023 NEV Talent Development Report jointly published by the China Center for Information Industry Development(CCID)and China EV100,the automotive industry exhibited 5%year-on-year growth in job postings during 2023,with the positions of general workers and technicians accounting for 23%of the total vacancies,followed by sales jobs.Notably,NEV-related job postings surged by 32%,with technical positions exhibiting the most pronounced recruitment growth.State-owned vehicle manufacturers predominantly sought design and manufacturing engineers,while private firms prioritized technician recruitment.Different from those traditional manufacturers,the New Forces demonstrated higher proportions of sales positions.Geographically,Shenzhen,home to BYDs headquarters and several factories,had a strong demand for vehicle manufacturing talent,whereas Changchun,as an established traditional automotive assembly base,mainly recruits in the field of auto parts manufacturing14.The competition for high-end professionals,especially R&D personnel,has been particularly fierce.The Chinese automotive industry has cultivated and accumulated some R&D talents.For instance,Guangdong Province,as the largest province in Chinas automotive production and sales,has the most auto industry R&D engineers,approximately 247,000.Jiangsu Province ranks second with 140,000 and Zhejiang Province has 118,00015.However,compared to the demand,the numbers are small.Chinas traditional independent brand-name manufacturers usually had low R&D investment rates,and the figures were even lower for domestic suppliers,e.g.,an average investment rate of 2%in 2018.Similarly,foreign-invested manufacturers in China had limited R&D activities.It is different in the NEV sector.Tesla,domestic New Forces,and newly established electrification divisions within traditional joint venture vehicle manufacturers have emerged as new magnets for talenttheir establishment and expansion fundamentally rely on aggressive recruitment campaigns characterized by disproportionately higher ratios of R&D personnel compared to traditional automotive manufacturers.What is most scarce is electronics-related talents that were previously lacking in the automotive industry.Traditional auto manufacturing relies on mechanical and process engineers,whereas NEV production and increasingly digitized and automated manufacturing systems necessitate the integration of sophisticated software and hardware,driving surging demand for electrical and electronics engineering professionalsparticularly in the R&D of 14 China Center for Information Industry Development(CCID)&China EV100(2024).2023 development report on new energy vehicle talent in China,https:/ See above 12 three core systems(battery,motor,electronic control),intelligent vehicle software and architecture.As current industry data shows,53,300 R&D persons are engaged in intelligence-connected vehicle development,but a shortage of 13,000-37,000 is estimated in 202516.In-vehicle software development positions require advanced programming capabilities,with CATIA and AutoCAD being key skills for application.As demand increases,the number of job seekers in the NEV sector has also significantly grown.Nevertheless,the supply is still insufficient to meet the escalating demand.In 2023,NEV-related job seekers exhibited 30%year-on-year growth,yet this expansion rate lagged behind the increases in hiring demand during the same period.Technical jobs maintained high entry barriers,and the competition for non-core technical positions was also intensified.As labor market analyses revealed,job seekers applying to joint venture vehicle manufacturers faced the fiercest competition.Young applicants demonstrated marked preferences for these employers,while advanced-degree holders disproportionately favored state-owned enterprises.The groups of R&D personnel and senior executives had the highest turnover rates in the industry.The majority of them switched jobs to foreign-invested and joint venture enterprises,27%and 63%respectively,and the rest of around 10%to domestic firms.Notably,the two groups in New Forces exhibit particularly high mobility as many of them flowed in and,simultaneously,many flowed out17.The hypercompetitive dynamic of the labor market has brought extraordinary salary premiums for specific groups of professionals.All types of automotive enterprises are vying to attract R&D personnel.According to the same SAE-China report,in 2023,the average salary of in-vehicle software R&D positions increased by 18%,and the monthly income of analog chip designers was nearly 50,000 RMB.Overall,the salaries of highly-educated talents in the industry have increased significantly,with the average monthly salary of masters and doctoral degree holders exceeding 25,000 RMB.Notably,New Force vehicle manufacturers are snatching talents with high salaries,e.g.,offering a monthly wage of more than 35,000 RMB for in-vehicle software R&D,which is higher than the normal standards in the industry.According to the calculation of the Automotive Talent Professional Committee of the China Talents Research Society,there were at least 1.142 million automotive R&D engineers in vehicle and parts manufacturing plants in the automotive industry,and in the sub-sectors of intelligent connectivity parts and new energy components,the proportions of R&D personnel in the total workforce were 47.7%and 21.4%respectively,which were much higher than the average levels of 15%in vehicle manufacturers and 11%in traditional parts and components suppliers18.16 SAE-China(2021).Report on talent demand forecast for intelligent and connected vehicle industry,http:/www.sae-china.org/news/society/202103/4245.html 17 See above 18Sohu News(2024).Data analysis:Chinas automotive industry employs no less than 22.28 million workers,with R&D engineers exceeding 1.142 million,http:/ 13 Not just in the market,but also within the automotive enterprises,the workforce composition is undergoing changes.A 2020 survey of Chinas top 15 automotive conglomerates(representing 86%of sectoral revenues)revealed stabilized proportions of R&D and sales personnel at 10.5%of total employment19.However,workforce reductions occurred in two categories:non-core contractual personnel(e.g.,interns and dispatched laborers)and production-line workers substituted by automation and other technologies.Consequently,the percentage of non-managerial/non-technical positions in their total workforce declined from 51%(2016-2019 average)to 49.9%in 2020(China Automotive News,2021).The survey further projected limited growth in R&D staffing related to traditional mechanical professionals,as current ratios in these enterprises had approximated the levels of international OEMs,but other professional categories,particularly of big data analytics and intelligent connectivity specialists,are anticipated to expand.Consequently,Chinas automotive workforce demonstrates relative stability in aggregate terms,but its structural compositionparticularly regarding higher-skilled and specialized talent poolshas undergone substantive changes under industrial transformation.On the one hand,conventional skills in vehicle design and manufacturing are still important,evidenced by sustained recruitment demands for general production workers and technicians.There are also demands of sales and maintenance persons.On the other hand,professionals with electronics-related expertise,particularly in electronic components,software development,and digital platform integration,are especially favored by the labor market.These structural shifts have intensified labor market competition and volatility,precipitating the surge in labor mobility,not only among auto enterprises of divergent ownership structures(state-owned,private,joint ventures)or production specializations(traditional vehicle manufacturers and New Forces),but also cross-industries,particularly from the electronics and ICT sectors into the automotive industry.Therefore,can Chinas existing labor skill development and vocational training system adapt to the changes brought by industrial transformation?Or,are the ongoing talent competition and high turnover rates partly resulted from the systems inability to meet the industrial changes?This study selects case studies of auto manufacturers and vocational-technical and,based on these cases,analyzes the changes that industrial transformation brings to enterprises,the relationship between enterprise demand and skill training supply,and their potential challenges.19 China Automotive News(2021).Workforce dynamics|Restructuring and adjustment:Did the total number of auto talent decrease last year?,http:/ 14 III.Transformation Paths and Skill Regimes for Different Types of Enterprises The rapid technological change and market expansion of NEVs are profoundly impacting the traditional automotive manufacturing industry,triggering turbulence in R&D,production systems,and workforce dynamics,while also posing challenges to the existing skill development system.As a pivotal manufacturing hub,South China exemplifies these nationwide transitional pressures.On the one hand,traditional joint venture vehicle manufacturers and their suppliers are experiencing employment fluctuations,including small-scale layoffs.On the other hand,domestic NEV brands and New Force firms which are gaining momentum in the NEV market are accelerating the recruitment of both top professionals and assembly-line workers.Apparently,different types of vehicle manufacturers and their suppliers are in divergent production and operation states,and their internal skill formation and training trajectories are heterogeneous.The contrasting realities will have a profound impact on the reconstruction of labor skills and the development of the industry itself.1.The Old System Compared with the domestic vehicle manufacturers,major Sino-foreign joint ventures have become latecomers in Chinas NEV sector,particularly in BEVs,with their core suppliers exhibiting similar strategic delays.As representatives of German and Japanese automotive brands,joint ventures A and Bs foreign parent companies are both global automotive giants and have formed multiple partnerships with Chinese domestic automotive groups.Plant A is a South China branch of its mother group.Company B and C are joint ventures of a regional auto group in South China and two Japanese brands.Among them,B was established the earliest,in the late 1990s.All of them have long been popular among Chinese consumers.Responding to policy and regulatory shifts,these manufacturers initiated strategic pivots toward electrification in 2018,commencing mass production of BEV models between 2019 and 2020.The transition has not only changed the supply chain and their own production but also affects labor conditions and skill requirements.1.1 Basic Information of Production and Workforce After more than a year of implementing its NEV platform project,Plant A has evolved into an intelligent manufacturing facility exemplifying the joint ventures cutting-edge electrification strategy,serving as a benchmark for electrification and digitalization transformation.The 15 plants advanced equipment enables mixed-line production of both ICE vehicles and BEVs on the same lines.A total of eight distinct models can share the highly automated,intelligent,and flexible production lines.This optimizes production flexibility,particularly suited for BEV manufacturing characterized by small batch sizes,design diversification,and volatile market demand.Furthermore,Plant A has added a battery pack workshop alongside conventional stamping,welding,painting,and general assembly workshops.This battery workshop customizes procured battery cells into platform-specific battery packs,tailored to the proprietary electric vehicle architecture.B has progressively refined its hybrid technology,currently offering a product portfolio encompassing ICEVs,HEVs and BEVs.On a single flexible production line,mixed models of ICEVs and HEVs could be seamlessly manufactured.The only difference in the manufacturing of multiple car models is the addition or removal of a small number of components.Company B also built a battery workshop alongside conventional workshops in its new NEV factory,which was put into operation in 2022.This factory extensively deploys industrial internet of things(IIoT)and industrial automation technologies to manufacture pure EVs,with an annual production capacity of 200,000 cars.Company C has similarly constructed a pure EV production line with designed annual capacity exceeding 100,000 cars.However,prior to the facilitys scheduled operational launch at the end of 2024,the company faced declining sales in the Chinese market.Accordingly,it decided to close down a relatively older production line with the capacity of 50,000 cars and another factory in Central China.Company Cs long-term plan includes gradually shutting down some of its traditional ICEV production lines and restoring its total capacity to more than a million vehicles through the new EV facility under construction.In the three enterprises,the widespread use of automation and digital technologies has significantly affected labor.The dependence of production processes on digitization and automation has been continuously increasing,especially in EV plants.New workshops are equipped with more machinery and have higher automation rates,and new battery workshops initially have fewer workers than others.Older production and jobs have also been changed by new technologies.The welding workshop required 3,000-4,000 workers in 2012,but only needs 400 workers now.Previously,headrest inspection was a manual labor process that a worker could check 300 units per day,but now,with visual inspection technology,the number has risen to 3,000.Smart warehousing systems,such as automated storage and retrieval systems,have also significantly reduced manual labor.Logistics vehicles previously required manual handling and operation,but now automated equipment can place items in designated locations.However,some complex production processes still rely on manual labor.A technician pointed out,The assembly line for doors and covers still relies on manual work.xxx was once automatically assembled,but later they switched it back because any problem in 16 this process had too great an impact on production.They had no choice.These enterprises have relatively mature wage and compensation structures,and their employees incomes are relatively stable.Over the years,the labor incomes in Factory A have often been the highest,while those of B and C are slightly lower.However,B and C have generous year-end bonuses and benefits,which make their total compensation at the upper-middle level among all vehicle manufacturers in China.The annual incomes of ordinary workers range from 130,000 to 160,000 RMB,excluding housing provident fund.Technicians earn 10,000 to 20,000 RMB more than ordinary workers,and engineers are paid no less than 250,000 RMB.Every year,these enterprises issue corporate social responsibility reports,sustainable development reports,and so forth.Among them,A is often the most popular and has continuously won the title of Best Employer recognized by both graduates and incumbent employees for many years.Companies B and C also frequently rank among the top in the outstanding employer lists.In addition,these joint-venture plants all have trade unions,with established work institutions and groups.Enterprise unions often take the lead in organizing skill contests,mobilizing employees to develop skills,and improving labor competencies through such competitions.The unions also sign collective contracts with management,which cover topics such as work safety education and pre-job training for employees to ensure that employees have the necessary work safety knowledge.In recent years,the headcount of these three OEMs has remained relatively stable or slightly declined.But in 2023 and the first half of 2024,all three companies saw relatively large-scale layoffs or voluntary resignations affecting hundreds to two thousand employees.This is rare in the decades-long history of auto joint ventures.The compensation standards of each company complied with or exceeded Chinas legal requirements.Some severance packages received widespread public attention as they were significantly higher than the statutory N 1 compensation model(where N equals years of service).The company similarly explained their layoffs as a result of continuous declines in vehicle sales,which have necessitated major changes in production structures and plans within the companies and thus led to employment adjustments.This reflects the huge impact of electrification,automation,and digitization trends on the traditional joint-venture manufacturers.Table 1:Total Number of Employees in Three Joint Ventures Enterprise*Year of 2021 2022 2023 A 4,967 4,694 4,590 B 17,672 17,258 16,982 C 13,066 13,265 13,049(Data source:The data of Factory A is from the insurance participation information of Aiqicha,which 17 only includes full-time workers who pay the five social insurances and one housing fund;the data of B and C are cited from corporate social responsibility reports,representing the total number of employees in the companies.)1.2 Skill Development and Training Programs All three joint ventures maintain comprehensive training systems.Factory A exemplifies this through a dedicated institutional framework:the A Academy,which operates a standalone training facility,and each workshop has specialized training rooms for basic and applied skills.The Training Division is structured into two core units:the Management Training Section,responsible for non-technical competency development,and the Technical Training Section,overseeing professional skill training and new product project-related education.The curriculum resource library is systematically categorized into three domainsGeneral Management,General Technology,and Professional Courseswith annual updates to align with evolving job requirements.A notable trend is the digital transformation of training delivery:hundreds of internal online courses are now accessible via the enterprises official learning platform,with mobile access supported through the corporate WeChat account.Concurrently,offline training programs also use the online system to collect demand and make plans accordingly.At year-start,the Human Resources Department collects data and identifies the competency needs,and coordinates between the A Academy and each workshop to design tailored development plans.The Academy has over 80 full-time internal trainers and a network of part-time instructorstypically technical specialists or departmental leaderssupplemented by a robust external training network of over 600 experts from external partners.In 2019,the entire corporate group recorded an average training duration of 29.32 hours per employee.Similarly,Company B set up a Talent Development Center at the beginning of its establishment,and later constructed a specialized training building.Each year,the company allocates substantial investments to employee development.In addition to the initial investment of hundreds of millions of RMB in the Center,at least 10 million RMB has been spent annually in recent years to support approximately 5,000 participants,with an average training time of over three weeks.To date,B has nurtured 250 officially awarded technical experts and model workers at the national,provincial,municipal,and district levels.More than 12,800 persons have obtained corporate group-level skill certifications,with over 60%of employees holding vocational qualification certificates.Company C maintains a robust training framework,offering structured curricula of internal courses in management and technical domains.Through cross-departmental collaboration,Company C has developed over 2,000 training programs,covering more than 160,000 participants.Additionally,it has implemented the new apprenticeship system and deployed multiple channels such as internal 18 skill assessment systems and in-house certification stations to improve the skill levels for thousands of workers every year.These enterprises have adopted the Japanese kaizen(continuous improvement)philosophy,continuously engaging frontline employees in daily enhancements to production environments and operational workflows.Company B is exemplary,in which 100%of employees participated in kaizen activities.Inside the workshops,there are numerous employee-driven improvement initiatives.For example,the part of windshield installation is now automated via robotic systems,and gravity-assisted lifting devices are designed to reduce physical exertion when handling heavy components.To date,Company B has received over 700,000 employee suggestions.The company also set up specialized awards for safety and environmental proposals.Proposals are graded into three levels,A,B,and C,each with different monetary rewards.Factories A and C have similar improvement programs.For different categories of employees,these enterprises offer tailored training programs.First,there is comprehensive onboarding training for new hires.For interns who typically only operate on production lines,the enterprises provide basic orientation training,such as safety protocols and some basic skills,which often takes only three days.It is different for new employees that must participate in specialized onboarding programs.In Factory A,for example,all employees are divided into 15 job categories,ranging from frontline operators to managers,and,in each category,there are more detailed segments,e.g.,technicians in specialized roles such as mold maintenance,electromechanical repair,pre-painting rework,post-painting rework and quality inspection.Targeted training trajectories are then designed for each subgroup,featuring multi-year plans that deliver instruction in a structured,progressive manner.In Companies B and C,graduates of secondary vocational and technical schools typically enter the factories as frontline operators.Their onboarding training takes two to three weeks,which focuses on work safety,corporate culture,and other foundational topics.Afterwards,they begin on-the-job training to gradually build skills.Frontline worker training emphasizes general skills,such as problem-solving and execution,with work safety constituting the core component.As stated in Company Cs 2024 Sustainable Development Report,training programs include basic skills,System Safety Assessment(SSA),equipment operation,occupational safety and health management systems,and middle management training.Safety training activities occurred regularly,with 79,854 participations recorded in 2023.Company B employs a comparable approach:alongside institutional,equipment,and workplace safety measures,it delivers comprehensive safety education,including three-tiered safety training and specialized programs for hazardous operations.In 2023,the number of people receiving various safety-related trainings reached 255,000,with a 100%employee coverage rate.19 The training systems aim at cultivating talents internally.In these joint-venture factories,many technical workers are selected from frontline operators.In factory A,since 2016,frontline operators who have worked for two years and achieved a certain performance ranking can participate in the selection of technical apprentices.When the workshop needs electromechanical technicians or equipment maintenance technicians,the workshop supervisor would submit a demand to the human resources department,which organizes examinations.If being selected,the operators become technical apprentices and start a three-year training program planned by the training department,covering equipment maintenance professional knowledge such as electrical and mechanical fundamentals,general equipment maintenance training including power supply networks,robotics,and control technology,and finally separate training combined with specific workshop equipment.For technicians of different work categories,the first two stages of training are similar,whereas the third stage is specialized.Trainers include both teachers from the training department as well as technical experts from each workshop as part-time trainers for applied technology training.For some skills that cannot be fully trained internally,external partner agents may be invited to provide training.After the three-year training,the company will re-examine the workers,who can only become qualified technical workers upon passing the examinations.When introducing NEV products,these complete vehicle manufacturers also provide training for employees.As Company B produces HEVs on the same production line with traditional internal combustion engine cars,it offered workers simple training.Workers mainly improve their skills during on-site assembly work.In fact,traditional cars still account for a larger proportion in the mixed-model production,and the differences between traditional and hybrid vehicles are minimalonly adding the three components of battery,motor,and electronic control unit.Accordingly,assembly workers simply install pre-selected and configured components,which is not much different from assembling traditional vehicles.In this sense,the labor changes brought about by HEVs resemble those brought about by the introduction of a new car model.At Factory As pure EV platform,safety training is prioritized,with high-voltage safety protocols being one of the basic courses.Training content varies according to the different technical levels of the positions,such as simple operators,maintenance persons,and experts.Operators must complete the high-voltage safety course before working on the NEV production line.Training for NEV equipment and products primarily targets maintenance technicians,while frontline production requires relatively little additional training.Similar to those in Companies B and C,manufacturing managers in Factory A also believe that the assembly work of pure EVs is simpler than ICEV assembly as engines and exhaust pipes are no longer needed,and the new content for electronic components mainly involves high-voltage electricity,software installation,and testing work.In the career hierarchy within these companies,there is a clear boundary between skilled 20 technicians and engineers.These joint venture companies typically implement a dual-career ladder system,offering parallel pathways in management and professional skillsoften visualized as an H-shaped framework.In Factory A,for example,a worker may upgrade from team leader to supervisor if following the management track,or from junior to senior technician through skill certification in the technical professional track.Employees may freely choose the tracks according to their own specialties and interests.There are qualification standards and requirements for different ranks in the technical professional track.For instance,a maintenance worker must work three years as a full-time electromechanical technician(jigong)before he or she could apply for the positions of skilled technician(jishi),and must obtain national technician or senior technician certification and pass internal competency assessments to actually become an in-company skilled technician.A skilled technician receives comparable base salaries to supervisors(gongzhang),but their bonus structures are differentproject-based incentives for skilled technicians versus management-related bonuses for supervisors.Usually the compensation of the employees scales with their ranks.Skilled technicians earn significantly more than entry-level workers.Notably,whereas technicians and operators are predominantly recruited from vocational colleges,engineering and management positions target the graduates from 985 Project universities,mostly holding masters degrees.Although rarely subsidizing tuition fees directly,these companies facilitate employees academic upgrading through partnerships with educational institutions,offering group enrollment discountsparticularly for team leaders and people at other key positions.Those who complete advanced degrees may gain enhanced prospects for promotion.However,vocational school or college graduates rarely break through the hierarchical barriers and become engineers or managers,except for a very small number of talents.The training for technicians mainly involves technical management,on-site planning,standard setting during new product introduction,and process design for operators.In Company C,internal training focuses primarily on cultivating innovative and digital talent,organizing annual digital skills competitions,and promoting the companys digital transformation.For example,the 2023 Digital Skills Camp focused on digital robotics,product management,and data analysis,with courses designed to enhance employees capabilities in using digital tools.Factory A has established three innovation studios in its workshops,specializing in press technology innovation,digital and intelligence bases,and skilled talent development.To cultivate skilled equipment maintenance technicians,A has also founded a welding workshop technician training camp.The factory implements paired training,establishing one-on-one mentoring relationships between key team members and high-potential technical personnel,formulating work plans to address key issues in the workshop,and promoting education,patent applications,paper publications,and professional title evaluations.Management training is very different.For instance,the factory emphasizes 21 improving problem-solving capabilities and communication influence of the managers.The joint ventures traditionally had limited R&D personnel and activities in China,but these have increased in recent years,particularly centered on the trend of New Four Modernizations.Factory A has begun to cultivate an internal technology R&D culture in recent years.When its NEV plant was under construction,there was a shortage of external commissioning engineers in charge of adjusting the purchased equipment.At the time,the engineers and technicians inside the factory took on the tasks.Since then,the core technological teams have regularly conducted technical exchanges and discussions,engaging in cross-departmental and cross-functional teamwork in automated production,digital transformation and other fields to solve complex technical challenges.Currently,the teams primarily explore efficient and low-cost technical solutions,such as using inexpensive everyday cameras for visual inspection and data collection.Additionally,Factory A actively learns from industrial practices and advanced technologies by benchmarking with neighboring assembly plants,participating in forums to understand technical trends and implementation experience,and in some cases purchasing external solutions or equipment for analysis and re-innovation.It encourages employees to attend external training to learn the latest industrial technologies and knowledge,and also invites experts to conduct internal training sessions.Companies B and C have also become more active in R&D than before.In addition to the wholly owned research institutes established by their foreign parent groups,the Chinese sides are also actively promoting research and technical cooperation with local top-tier local universities in fields such as smart transportation,vehicle design,and artificial intelligence.These joint ventures all have their own internal skill evaluation systems,where employees skills are assessed by company experts and chief engineers.The internal evaluation systems provide employees with career promotion channels.Workers can apply for certifications or professional titles at different levels;if they succeed,the company will deploy them to corresponding positions matching their capabilities.If an employee resigns or leaves the company,his or her professional qualifications or titles granted by the internal systems may not be recognized by other employers.Instead,other employers may require the person to apply for professional qualification accreditation from the Ministry of Human Resource and Social Security,which usually has lower pass rates.Similarly,there are two types of certifications for skilled technicians,either inside the companies or from the national system.Those who want to become master craftsmen(gongjiang)must also pass the verification process of the local government.The companies facilitate employee participation in external vocational certification exams,covering all national levels from primary-level to chief technician.Participation is voluntary but applicants must prepare exams in their own spare time.Generally,obtaining a national qualification certificate means 22 receiving some governmental subsidies,and senior technicians may receive extra subsidies for visits.For instance,in a typical manufacturing workshop of Factory A,50 to 70 workers hold national senior technician certificates,while the other 11 have internal technician competency certifications.Clearly,the role of frontline workers has undergone significant changes as traditional production line operators are gradually replaced by higher-skilled workers and technicians.The proportions of equipment and maintenance personnel have increased.Technicians account for around 30%of the total workforce,mainly responsible for maintenance and mold repair.What the factories need is no longer just workers who can operate machinery but skilled persons capable of maintaining automated equipment,participating in quality control,and optimizing process.As a result,some workers may get promoted through training and selection,while others may be required to upgrade their skills,and if they fail to do so,they may have to switch their jobs or leave the factory.This trend has been more pronounced in recent years.For example,in Factory A,such employees are assigned to a newly established Person-Post Center,which essentially provides flexible temporary job arrangements.In the short term,if the company has suitable positions and needs,employees can be reassigned to jobs matching their skill levels;however,if there were no viable placements,employees would receive a minimum base wage for up to six months,after which they may be dismissed and receive statutory N 1 months of severance pay.If employees are dissatisfied,they can file a complaint,and the company will handle it according to the procedures.Generally,there are clear standards for various skill assessments,including technical proficiency and specific process operation capabilities.The companies require employees to continuously learn to adapt to job changes and technological advancements,otherwise they will be eliminated.Nineteen people were out this year,an employee mentioned in the interview.Amid industrial transformation,some employees increasingly prioritize technical upskilling,leveraging public platforms such as CSDN,open source projects,MOOCs and Bilibili for self-directed learning.1.3 The Relationship between Labor Recruitment and Vocational Schools These joint ventures primarily recruit on campus,and social recruitment is only a supplement.Workers are mainly graduates from technical and vocational schools or colleges,while engineering and management positions typically target graduates from 985 Project universities,mostly of whom have masters degrees or even higher.In Factory A,nearly all frontline employees are required to have a college degree or above,mainly from full-time junior colleges and technician colleges,majoring in engineering disciplines such as mechanics,electronics,automation,information and communication technology,automotive technology,and hydraulics.In Companies B and C,most employees are secondary technical 23 school graduates.In Company B,nearly 70%of all employees have an education level below junior college,and about 28%hold junior college or bachelors degrees.Normally,students who are about to graduate will have an internship of six months to one year.The factories conduct assessments at the end of the internship and hire a certain proportion of them as full-time frontline operators.During the recruitment process,simple interviews are conducted to primarily evaluate applicants communication and expression skills and check their career aspirations and basic health information.Meanwhile,the factories usually inform applicants about the fundamental nature of factory work,such as shift work and repetitive tasks.Social recruitment is different.It does not target frontline workers but positions with high technical content and experience requirements such as electromechanical technicians and mold repairers.The number of recruits is also very small.Specifically,school-enterprise cooperation serves as a crucial method for recruiting technical school graduates.In the past,Factory A recruited students from schools outside the province,but in recent years,it has believed that there is sufficient student supply within the province.Therefore,it now collaborates with over 40 institutions within the province or even in the same city.The close geographic proximity between the factory and schools not only reduces costs for equipment transportation and adjustment but also facilitates long-term and stable cooperation.Factory As collaboration with vocational schools exemplifies the typical industry-education integration model in China.The factory provides equipment and curriculum support to the schools,and both sides develop various cooperative programs such as customized training classes and teacher certification projects.Customized training classes are targeted training classes established for specific corporate needs:students receive specialized training from the company while they are still in school and join the company directly after graduation.Teacher certification projects refer to technical training provided by the enterprise for school instructors,helping them master the latest industrial technologies and improve teaching quality.The enterprises also develop curricula and deliver technical training for schools.For instance,experts from companies regularly teach the teachers how to operate robots,maintain and adjust complex equipment on production lines,and then teachers integrate knowledge and theory into their teaching to students.Additionally,the enterprises donate old equipment to vocational schools and colleges to build production lines similar to those in the factories,enabling students to obtain hands-on technical training and gain early exposure to industry equipment and technologies.When selecting cooperation content and methods,the enterprises customize approaches based on each schools professional characteristics and needs.For example,Factory A provides welding equipment and digital production equipment to electromechanical-focused colleges,while offering smart manufacturing and IoT-related equipment to schools emphasizing intelligent manufacturing.Companies B and C are also actively collaborating with technical and vocational schools.24 Company B has established customized training classes with multiple schools nationwide.Training is conducted by the schools according to the companys standards,and the main instructors are teachers certified by Company B.The company also selects senior employees with rich practical experience to participate in teaching.After completing the customized training and passing the companys assessment,students in these special classes have internships within the Company B or engage in electromechanical maintenance,technical innovation,service marketing,and other work at the 4S stores of the companys national dealers.In addition,B donates vehicles to vocational schools in different regions as teaching tools and establishes school-enterprise co-built training centers,among other initiatives.Similarly,Company C collaborates with vocational and technical colleges in multiple regions across the country to jointly offer courses and build internship and training platforms.Through long-term systematic targeted training and short-term employability training,it acquires talent across multiple fields,including production,sales,electromechanical maintenance,bodywork and painting,and marketing.In general,school-enterprise cooperation involves the collaboration between schools and enterprises in multiple areas such as enrollment and employment,teacher training,and teaching seminars.Through customized training classes,a school usually delivers dozens to 200 graduates to each specific enterprise every year.As students learn enterprise-targeted courses at school,and the school teachers work with enterprise mentors in curriculum instruction,the transition time from classroom to workplace may be shortened.Such cooperation may enable enterprises to achieve economic benefits,enhance their brand image,strengthen social responsibility,and reduce tax burdens.Simultaneously,schools can improve teaching standards and increase graduates employability and competitiveness,thus achieving a win-win situation.However,this is only the ideal state.In reality,these joint-venture vehicle manufacturers do not fully rely on school training.Instead,after the students graduate and become new employees,the enterprises provide them with systematic in-house training.In particular,due to historical reasons,most vocational colleges in the province have limited accumulation of expertise in newer or non-Japanese manufacturers,their education is even less useful for non-Japanese vehicle manufacturers like Factory A.The facilities of these school-enterprise cooperation institutions are not tailored to our company,and they have relatively more Japanese-centric content,commented by a manager of Factory A.Thus,the factory intended to contribute some training resources to schools and integrate them into the school curricula.However,the current curricula,teaching methods,and technologies of the vocational schools are far from meeting the production needs of the enterprises.Many machines and equipment,after being donated to vocational schools,fail to serve their intended purposesdue to the complexity of the machines themselves or teachers unfamiliarity with operation and maintenance,they may become mere 25 decorations.Consequently,the managers of these factories commonly believe that the students school background is not that important:The key lies in whether individuals are willing to learn.Training in the real-world factory production cannot be substituted by(vocational school education).2.The New World Chinas domestic automotive enterprises are in a period of rapid ascension,with some emerging as rising stars.Represented by BYD,Geely,and a host of state-owned automotive groups,traditional domestic manufacturers were among the first to embrace the transformation toward NEVs.Meanwhile,domestic New Force firms are emerging.For example,Wei,Xiao,Li(NIO,XPeng,Li Auto),which had no prior vehicle manufacturing experience,have gained fame for disrupting the industry with new technologies and products and often benchmark against Tesla.Among many new force firms,some originate from electronics or smartphone manufacturing,such as Xiaomi and Foxconn,while others may have shifted from the financial or real estate sectors into the automotive industry.This group is highly unstable,as numerous firms are flooding in while many others are swiftly being eliminated.Unlike the old regime represented by joint-venture vehicle manufacturers,domestic brand manufacturers exhibit greater diversity,with more unstable production and labor conditions.As of September 2024,there were a total of 85 NEV brands in production and sales in China.The D,E,and F brand companies here are all Chinese domestic vehicle manufacturers actively involving in NEV manufacturing,but they represent independent auto brands,state-owned enterprises,and new forces without any traditional auto manufacturing history,respectively.2.1 Basic Information on Production and Workforce Company D is a typical flagship manufacturer among domestic independent auto brands.Having entered the automotive market for more than 20 years,D has eight major production bases and multiple factories nationwide.The lithium-ion batteries produced by Company D are widely used in various consumer electronics and new intelligent products.It is based on its deep foundation in the electronics industry that Company D has developed advanced power batteries and led the global automotive power battery sector.With a massive business scope,the company is currently renowned in the industry for its NEVs and power batteries,but at the same time,it continues its business in many fields such as mobile phone components and assembly,secondary rechargeable batteries,and photovoltaics.Company D has a large workforce and in recent years,with the rapid growth of sales,26 the number of employees has increased significantly.The company expanded from 2019 to 2023,with the total number of employees increasing from 400,000 to 700,000,and currently even exceeding 900,000.Many of these employees were recruited around 2022 or 2023.In 2023 alone,D hired over 30,000 fresh graduates from China and abroad as well as 33,000 interns,and new factories under construction in multiple locations are expected to create tens of thousands of more NEV-related jobs.In 2023,there were 100,000 R&D personnel,about 15%of the total workforce;and 76,000 employees held a bachelors degree or above,including 11,000 with a masters degree or higher.According to public reports,the total labor costs of D Company account for approximately 14.84%of the companys turnover.Company E was established in 2017,renamed after spinning off from a NEV project of a local automotive group.In its early days,the company built a factory with an annual production capacity of 200,000 vehicles.As demand in the NEV market continued to grow,it expanded to construct a NEV industrial park with a total investment of over 45 billion RMB.Currently,Es three production bases have a designed annual capacity of 600,000 vehicles.As a state-owned enterprise,Company Es NEV exterior designs are developed by the research institute of its parent group,while the R&D and production of batteries,motors,electronic controls,and drivetrains are handled by its subsidiary companies.These key suppliers are located nearby,providing fully assembled battery sets to Company E for final assembly.Due to its short establishment time,Company Es factory is very new and is a highly automated and intelligent production base,with an automation rate of over 80%in key processes.Since 2021,Company Es annual sales have grown explosively,reaching 480,000 vehicles in 2023,which was ranked only after BYD and Tesla China.However,because nearly half of the companys products are sold to the ride-hailing market,the company is facing increasing sales pressure as the ride-hailing market in multiple cities approaches saturation.The high degree of automation has resulted in significantly fewer employees in Company E compared to traditional joint-venture vehicle manufacturers.The current workforce is less than 7,000approximately half that of comparable traditional auto manufacturers.Among them,frontline workers account for about 60%,primarily composed of graduates from secondary technical schools,intermediate vocational schools,and junior colleges.There are more than a dozen grades for regular employees,with most workers currently at the second grade,demonstrating limited experience and skill proficiency.Employees are generally young,particularly frontline operators whose average age is around 23 years old.One of the representatives of domestic New Force firms,Company F,was founded in 2015.It is dedicated to the design,R&D,production,and sales of smart EVs.In its early days,Company F relied on contract manufacturing,but since 2017,it has established three factories.These new factories adopt advanced manufacturing systems,combined with IoT technologies 27 and monitoring technologies throughout the entire production process,to achieve the visualization of production,equipment,process,and quality information.After further expansion,the three factories are expected to have a total annual production capacity of 420,000 vehicles.Among them,a new factory put into operation at the end of 2022 secured 4 billion RMB in financing from a local government.This plant has five workshops:stamping,welding,painting,final assembly,and battery pack,equipped with more than 260 intelligent industrial robots.Recently,Company F also announced a strategic technical cooperation with a traditional international auto brand firm to jointly develop EVs and explore future EV platforms,software technologies,supply chains,and other issues.In recent years,the number of employees at Company F has grown rapidly but with significant fluctuations.According to data from Es Environmental,Social,and Governance(ESG)Report,the total number of employees in 2023 exceeded 13,000,but this was more than 2,000 fewer than in 2022 and also lower than in 2021.The number of newly hired employees was less than half of that in previous years.At the same time,the turnover rate is very high,especially in 2023,when the turnover rate exceeded 30%.In terms of workforce composition,Company Fs R&D team has more than 5,400 members,accounting for 40%of the total workforce.Over 97%of engineers hold a bachelors degree or higher.Company F primarily relies on social recruitment.In fact,it hires many experienced persons from other automotive manufacturers.For example,among more than 600 employees in one factory,78%were from mainstream vehicle manufacturers,and 74%had more than five years of work experience.The three companies offer similar wages to frontline employees with relatively similar compensation structures.In Company F,frontline workers earn between 4,500 and 6,000 RMB per month,a range comparable to that of Company D.For state-owned Company E,ordinary workers have an annual incomeincluding base wages,bonuses,and other benefitsof around 80,000 to 100,000 RMB.According to Es managers,this falls into the upper-middle range among automotive manufacturers in Guangzhou city.Relatively speaking,E has a higher proportion of performance-based bonuses,with specific amounts often tied to employees performance,and it also pays additional subsidies for overtime work.However,due to intense market competition and significant sales fluctuations,production instability seriously affects overtime hours and total incomes.For example,Es management has noted a decrease in overtime opportunities in recent years.Company D also offers numerous incentives.For instance,it has set rewards from the corporate level to production-unit level to recognize employees achievements in developing vehicle models,applying patents,quality control,etc.,with cumulative bonus payments exceeding 3.3 billion RMB.Another similarity is the high turnover rates among production workers in these enterprises,which exceed 20%in most years.As one manager explained:Part of the reason is that young people are less 28 willing to endure the hardships of factory work,while other production workers may choose to pursue higher education,switch to other career opportunities,or start their own businesses.On the one hand,the attractiveness of manufacturing jobs is indeed declining;but on the other hand,these domestic companies have significantly higher turnover rates than traditional joint venture vehicle manufacturers,making them more like those in the electronics manufacturing industry.By contrast,non-production positions have much lower turnover rates,around 4%in state-owned enterprise E,while Companies D and F experience more mobility.Table 2:Total Number of Employees in Three Domestic Vehicle Manufacturers Enterprise*Year of 2021 2022 2023 D/703,500(900,000 in 2024)E/6,909 F 13,978 15,829 13,550 The intense competition for talent through social recruitment is a major drive behind the high labor mobility.Frontline workers in these domestic enterprises generally earn less than those in joint-venture factories,but the salaries offered to poach skilled workers and R&D personsespecially by New Forces like Company Fare extremely high.For example,the annual salary for maintenance technicians can reach 360,000 RMB,far higher than the industrial average.Many employees with technical backgrounds switch to New Force manufacturers primarily for higher pay.These new manufacturers particularly emphasize the employees professional and technical capabilities.They usually poach electrical technicians,equipment adjustment technicians,and supervisors above team leader level,who are expected to train new hires after joining.For those talents,these New Forces may offer 30%-50%higher salaries than traditional domestic independent brands like Company D.However,high salaries come with high risks.Some employees who join New Forces from traditional joint ventures complained of excessive overtime:Some colleagues regretted their job change after the first week,finding the overtime extremely long and the work environment highly stressful.Whether you have work or not after hours,you must stay until after 8 PM because everyone else does.Some domestic firms are worse.After exploiting employees technical expertise,they may reduce benefits or impose restrictions that may hinder ones career development.XX Companys salary isnt actually that high nowit was valid just at the beginning.The key problem lies in unstable salary structures,where high incomes heavily rely on performance bonuses and dividends.Its not like signing a contract for a fixed 29 300,000 RMB salary.Earnings are composed of various efficiency bonuses,performance awards,profit-sharing,and other incentives.This means when corporate profits decline,salaries drop accordingly.An employee even felt exploited,because the compensation gradually decreased after skills were utilized.After informed comparison,some employees believed that joint-venture factories could offer more stable wages and longer-term career paths.As a result,a part of employees of the joint ventures choose not to switch jobs,and some who have already left for domestic brands may leave again or even return to their original companies.Compared with E and F,the overall salaries offered by Company D to highly skilled talents are lower.For example,digital product engineers in Company D earn just over 8,000 RMB per month with few welfare benefits.As a result,relatively fewer technicians jumped from joint-venture factories to D,or there are simultaneous inflow and outflow.Some employees compare it to Foxconn in the electronics industry.It really has extremely high labor turnover,just like Foxconn.For scarce skills,however,Company D also offers salaries significantly higher than the applicants original levels and promises promotion.But the work is hard.According to one employee,They claim its a five-day,eight-hour workweek.but you may have to work overtime until 7 or 8 PM,and possibly work one day on weekends.Against the backdrop of intensified industry competition,domestic enterprises often cut employee benefits and increase workloads to control costs and maintain competitiveness.2.2 Skill Development and Training Programs Company D,a traditional domestic independent brand enterprise,has a comprehensive training system.According to the 2023 Corporate Social Responsibility report,D delivers training through both online and offline channels,adopting various methods such as face-to-face instruction,case studies,skill competitions,and practical simulations.The cumulative investment in training exceeds 100 million RMB,with 100%coverage of all positions.Company Ds training system targets different groups,including new employee training,management development,post-doctoral cultivation,and specialized talent programs.Among them,new employee training covers courses on management systems,corporate culture,product introduction,and technical skills.Frontline workers receive training in corporate culture,safety education,and on-the-job operations,primarily through job skills training and fire safety training.For management,the company has established a specialized curriculum to replicate and inherit excellent experiences through case studies.The company has also set up a post-doctoral workstation.Specialized talent programs target sales,quality management,procurement,and technical persons.For skilled workers,an internal talent supply chain is built through the pathway of cultivating skills,completing internal training,assigning independent posts,and enhancing skills.Additionally,Company D has established 30 various internal academic review committees.Tens of thousands of professionals have obtained professional titles that are certified and approved by the committees.The company has also established standards for certifying skilled talents with multiple job types and levels.Due to the rapid expansion of market scale,Company D has recruited a large number of technical workers from society.Most recruitment requirements specify a high school or secondary technical school diploma,with a small portion accepting junior high school education,but all require more than one year of work experience.Official recruitment information shows,for example,that a car accessories factory is simultaneously hiring over 300 technical workers.Among them,product assemblers and injection molders have no educational restrictions,with monthly wages ranging from 5,000 to 10,000 RMB and some benefits such as accommodation and canteens.Positions involving more complex skills such as surface treatment,coating,and advanced adhesives usually require relevant professional background and work experience,with correspondingly higher wages of 16,000 to 25,000 RMB.Generally,those with high educational requirements are concentrated in technical jobs such as machine maintenance and cycle improvement.The managers believe that education is not the core factor affecting workers job performance.Those with better education may understand faster,but it is not absolute.As for R&D personnel recruited from society,many of them can start work directly.After entering the department,they are typically assigned a mentor for three months to help them become familiar with the environment and specific job responsibilities.As a NEV branch of a large state-owned automotive group,Company Es training system clearly bears the imprint of its parent group.Since its inception,Company E has received support from the group,which directly sent technical personnel to assist,and other sister enterprises within the group,such as joint venture automotive manufacturers,also seconded some technical backbones to help the construction of the new factory.In fact,Company Es technical and management teams are basically composed of senior personnel from within the group.They guide and train newly recruited young employees from schools through a mentorship approach.Company E has also established various training programs ranging from new employee training to category-specific programs for different employee groups.All new employees receive safety education and other basic training.After spending about one week familiarizing themselves with the work environment and safe operation procedures,they receive specific on-the-job training based on their assigned departments.When new persons arrive at the production line,experienced employees provide guidance.The entire training process lasts 2 to 3 months.Interns from vocational schools who perform well can be transferred to full-time regular employees.Those with average performance but still wishing to stay may be transferred to temporary or dispatched positions.Temporary workers also have annual evaluations,and the 31 company usually sets a certain promotion quota for them.In Company E,if frontline workers want to be promoted to team leaders,they must not only possess problem-solving and production coordination skills but also be very familiar with the entire production line.Part of a team leaders responsibilities involves assisting with employee job rotations and substituting for absent staff to operate equipment,which requires mastery of all positions on the line.For workers,the highest promotion level is usually team leader,and they rarely have the opportunity to enter management.Although Es high-level automation has reduced the need for frontline workers,the demand for highly skilled technicians,particularly those proficient in battery and electric drive system maintenance,automated equipment maintenance,etc.,has significantly increased.Most of the frontline workers come from secondary schools or technical schools,and some are junior college graduates.Workers can independently operate after a few months of training,but complex machine maintenance and repair require at least one year of experience to handle alone.Cultivating experienced technical masters(shifu)takes five years or more.However,once trained,these experts are often poached by other emerging car manufacturers.The recruitment sources and training paths for engineers are vastly different from those of frontline workers.Engineering positions require higher academic qualifications and professional technical backgrounds and are usually recruited through university recruitment.Company E often recruit from non-local universities.It generally requires applicants to hold a bachelors degree,but usually focuses on the graduates from 211 Project and 985 Project universities.A manager believed that engineers not only need to understand deep technical principles but also possess strong innovative capabilities,so they are generally not trained from frontline workers.Company E has established a skill evaluation system within its group,authorized by relevant provincial-level associations.The company provides financial support for employees to improve their skills,which is also a typical part of trade union benefits in SOEs.After completing academic advancement,employees positions and salaries are not immediately upgraded.Promotions still depend on the companys evaluation system and internal quota.Every year,Company E recommends a certain proportion of candidates for promotion,and employees benefits and job titles would be upgraded correspondingly after promotion.Operational positions in the factory are divided into intermediate and senior levels.These titles mainly reflect the companys internal recognition of employees skill levels and seniority,which differ from the official national professional title system.Company E supports employees in participating in various national skill contests and keeps pace with the governments master craftsmanship spirit initiatives.Some employees have won national championships.Meanwhile,the company organizes employees to take various skill certification exams annually,including work permits and operation permits.Before the exams,32 the company collaborates with vocational schools and external training providers to help employees prepare through skill enhancement programs on campus.Company F is different from D and E.As a domestic startup,F faces a brand new start.Most of its early founders and managers were long-term practitioners in the auto industry.At the time of its establishment,F headhunted senior executives in the industry.It gradually established company rules and regulations.According to the 2023 Environmental,Social,and Governance(ESG)report,Company F has relatively regulated its training work,from policy consultation,online registration,to training organization,with a training coverage rate of 98.6%that year.F has developed multiple training programs for different types of employees,established a management system,and implemented full-process management of performance appraisal.The evaluation mainly focuses on three aspects:the employees past development,peer relationship,and work improvement.The evaluation is regularly conducted,directly linking the results to annual compensation reviews,annual promotions,year-end bonus distributions,and other aspects.Company F has also launched technician-level certification assessments.Hundreds of employees have passed the skill assessments and obtained skill level certificates.For frontline workers,Company F has established a standardized training process with different modules,encompassing onboarding and job-specific training,skills development,vocational advancement,and management training.Managers believed that this was a standard four-part training package,with little difference between each enterprise.The management has divided frontline workers into three categories.The first category is ordinary operators,who do not need experience but only basic skills.Secondary vocational school or junior college students can do this kind of jobs.The second category is special types of work with specific requirements,such as high-altitude operations,live-line operations,and welding.These jobs require special certificates authorized by the state,so workers need to take exams as required to obtain the state-issued special operation certificates.Generally speaking,if vocational training and the relevant institutions and process are relatively smooth,the certificates can be obtained within three months.The third category is employees with slightly more skills,such as those responsible for handling disputes among frontline workers,specialized safety management,quality management,etc.For this category,the employment strategy is to recruit some from the market and cultivate the rest by selecting from existing workers.But ultimately,the managers perceived that the skills required for workers in NEV manufacturing are relatively simple,and only R&D talents and core management personnel are scarce.Of course,NEV manufacturing requires some basic skills,and maintenance work is not all standardized,particularly in high-voltage system handling.However,most shop-floor operations are neither complex nor require factory-specific adaptation.Therefore,33 social recruitment is common.In the job postings of Company F,basic positions such as technicians,safety monitors,and operators generally require a secondary vocational school education or above but ask for working years and rich experience in production work.For example,when recruiting welders,a secondary vocational school education and more than 3 years of work experience in the welding workshop of the automotive industry are required.When recruiting welding production team leaders,it requires a junior college education or above,more than 4 years of work experience in the welding workshop of the automotive industry,more than 2 years of personnel management experience,and strong on-site production management,team management,communication and coordination skills,problem analysis and solving skills.Preferential consideration is given to those with welding team leader experience.Engineering positions generally require a bachelors degree or above.For example,when recruiting senior welding process engineers,a full-time bachelors degree or above and more than 5 years of welding process planning experience,familiarity with industry standards,etc.,are required.For management,Company F initially also hired through social recruitment.Only after achieving scale,did it start a small proportion of campus hiring,which was a deliberate shift to foster internal value alignment.Managerial training is divided into grassroots and middle-level management,covering standardized courses on how to manage business,quality,and communication.Some training needs to be conducted externally,while others may involve employees taking certification courses on their own.For the latter,the company provides supportive policies or organizes participation in external exams by professional committees.However,training for senior executives is limited.A manager frankly stated,Senior executives are not produced through training.but by creating battles for them to fight,and seeing who survives after the battles.2.3 The Relationship Between Labor Recruitment and Vocational Schools The surging market share of domestic NEVs has triggered rapid production expansion and consequent labor demands of these companies.The labor supply from vocational schools cannot match their demand.In fact,while Company D builds new factories across the country,it has also developed extensive cooperation with technical and vocational schools and established NEV-related school-enterprise cooperation projects in various regions.There are numerous vocational schools that have signed contracts with D to organize customized training classes.Usually,the vocational schools cooperate with many enterprises,such as having customized classes with both Company D and Company F.These enterprises also establish collaborations with universities,such as exploring integrated transportation solutions for new energy and rail transit,as well as vehicle-mounted computing platforms and intelligent driving hardware,etc.34 Unlike Company Ds long-standing and extensive school-enterprise collaborations,Company F has recently begun to build cooperative relationships with vocational schools,primarily those located within the province.The partnerships are tailored to the strengths of each school,for instance,offering order-based training or customized classes for frontline workers and after-sales technical service personnel at Company F.They also jointly build production training centers and industry-university cooperation projects.Fs order-based classes select students from the final semester of their four-year program.The company provides technical support or establishes scholarships,and invests in R&D training equipment.Students have the opportunity to join short-term internships at the enterprise.A two-way selection process occurs at graduation.In this regard,the managers identified three primary incentives for school-enterprise cooperation:first,the government used to offer subsidies to enterprises for hiring new graduates;second,on-the-job training and school-enterprise cooperation,as the companys brand building activities,could enhance the visibi
2025-08-19
69页
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