1、1Norwegian Consumer CouncilJune 2023Ghost in the machineRunning headerGHOST IN THE MACHINEAddressing the consumer harms of generative AIJUNE 2023TABLE OF CONTENTSEXECUTIVE SUMMARY 51 INTRODUCTION 61.1 An overview of generative artificial intelligence 7 1.1.1 Examples of generative AI models 81.1.2Th

2、egenerativeartificialintelligenceactorchain111.1.3Opensourceorclosedsourcemodels 12 1.1.4 General purpose AI 121.2 Consumer applications 132 HARMS AND CHALLENGES OF GENERATIVE ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE 142.1 Structural challenges of generative AI 152.1.1IdentifyingtheconcreterisksofgenerativeAI 152.1.

3、2Technologicalsolutionism 172.1.3Concentratingpowerinthehandsofbigtech 172.1.4Opaquesystemsandlackof accountability 192.2 Manipulation 222.2.1Mistakesandinaccurateoutput222.2.2ThepersonificationofAImodels 232.2.3Deepfakesanddisinformation252.2.4DetectingAI-generatedcontent 272.2.5Generativeartificia

4、lintelligenceinadvertising282.3 Bias,discrimination,and content moderation 29 2.3.1 Bias in training data 29 2.3.2 Content moderation 302.4 Privacy and data protection 312.4.1Privacychallengesrelatedtodatasetsusedformodeltraining312.4.2Privacychallengesrelatedtogeneratedcontent322.5 Security vulnera

5、bilities and fraud 322.6 Replacing humans in consumer-facing applications with generative AI,wholly or in part 33 2.6.1Challengesrelatedtocombininghuman-andautomateddecision-making33 2.7 Environmental impact 342.7.1Climateimpact34 2.7.2 Water footprint 362.7.3Greenwashing&hopesforGreenAI37 2.8 Impac

6、t on labour 372.8.1Labourexploitationandghostwork372.8.2Labourautomationandthreatstojobs 38 2.9 Intellectual property 383 REGULATIONS 403.1 Data protection law 45 3.1.1Datasubjectrights 46 3.1.2TheItalianDPAsdecisionconcerningChatGPT 47 3.2 Consumer law 483.2.1ConsumerlawinaU.S.setting 49 3.3 Genera