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Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research1Dr Sladana Krstic Alexander Towne Liz WorthenUnderstanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniUnderstanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research2DOI:https:/doi.org/10.57884/5P5V-CF57Citation:Krstic,S.,Towne,A.,&Worthen,L.(2025).Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE Alumni.British Council.https:/doi.org/10.57884/5P5V-CF57 British Council 2025,published under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial 4.0 International Licence (https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/)Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research31.Executive Summary.42.Introduction.53.Methodology.64.Findings.8 4.1 Demographics.8 4.2 TNE graduates education experience.10 4.3 TNE graduates career.14 4.4 Local impact.17 4.5 Skills development and use.19 4.6 UK perception and advocacy.24 4.7 Further insights.30 4.8 Feedback and areas for consideration.325.Conclusion.356.References.367.Appendix A.37ContentsUnderstanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research41.Executive SummaryAs transnational education(TNE)continues to expandacross borders,institutions,and delivery modelsso too does the imperative to understand its impact.This extends not only to students and graduates,but also to the local communities in which TNE is embedded.No longer a niche provision,TNE now reaches hundreds of thousands of students worldwide.Yet beyond enrolment figures and the proliferation of institutional partnerships,a critical question persists:What difference does TNE make on the ground?Do TNE graduates feel equipped with the skills,knowledge,and confidence to succeed in the job market?To what extent do they feel connected to the awarding institution or country?And what impact does this model of education have on the locations where its delivered?The research presented in this report seeks to explore these questions through a mixed-methods study involving survey data from 550 UK TNE alumni(taken from the Alumni Voices survey)and in-depth interviews with 27 UK TNE graduates.The study draws on the British Councils Alumni UK network and provides insights into the lived experiences and long-term impacts of UK TNE.While the research focuses specifically on UK TNE,many of the findings are relevant to TNE more broadly.Research Questions The study was guided by three core questions:What is the experience of UK TNE graduates in terms of their education experience and its effect on their career?How does UK TNE align with local skills and employment needs?Does UK TNE foster strong UK links and/or promote universal values aligned with UK ideals?Key Findings The study reveals the substantial impact of UK TNE on graduates and on the local environments where they live and work.At the community level,alumni reported applying their skills to address pressing challenges in sectors such as healthcare,sustainability,and education.In several cases,UK TNE served as a catalyst for social innovation,with graduates founding NGOs,influencing policy,and improving local services.On a personal level,alumni consistently cited the relevance of their UK qualifications and highlighted enhanced skills in areas such as critical thinking,research,and communication.Many described a transformation in their career trajectoriesreporting increased confidence,stronger leadership capabilities,and a more proactive mindset in both professional and civic life.The research also highlights a strong desire among alumni to maintain ongoing connections with the UK,particularly through further study and professional development.Many have become advocates for UK higher educationnot only because of its academic quality,but also due to the inclusive values and global networks they accessed,even without physical mobility.Survey results reinforce this finding:97.3%of UK TNE alumni expressed a willingness to recommend a UK education.96.7%reported recommending the UK as a place to visit within the past year.While physical mobility may deliver deeper personal engagement with the UK,this study demonstrates that TNE also fosters meaningful cultural understanding and positive sentiment towards the UK.Conclusion This study represents a preliminary step in exploring the outcomes and impacts of TNE.While it provides valuable insights,significant knowledge gaps remain.A more robust focus on TNE metrics and longitudinal data is needed to better understand how TNE contributes to specific sectors,communities,and regional development.Enhanced evidence will not only support more effective policy and practice,but also help realise the full potential of TNE in creating equitable and globally connected educational opportunities.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research52.IntroductionTransnational Education(TNE)refers to the deliveryof educational programs by institutions in one country to students located in another,often through partnerships,branch campuses,or online platforms(British Council,2023).The UK has a leading role in the global growth of transnational education(TNE)with 653,570 TNE students across 173 HE providers in 2023/2024 academic year(UUKi,2025).TNE may expand access to quality education but also serves as a strategic tool for international engagement and economic growth(DfE,2021;QAA 2022).However,as with any growing strategies,there may be challenges emerging that need consideration.This research isfocused on trying to understand some of these challenges as well as to highlight successes andlearnings.One of the strengths of UK TNE is its access-expanding function.Students who cannotrelocatedue to cost,employment,family,or visa barriers can gain local access to internationally recognised degrees(Carter,2024).Some research on student experience indicates that TNE cohorts are often older,more part-time,and more likely to combine work and study,suggesting TNE reaches learner groups under-served by traditional mobility(Pulverness&Carter,2024).Reports note generally high satisfaction with academic delivery indicating that TNE can include,rather than exclude,non-traditional learners when well designed(CRAC,2015).UK institutions employ a diverse range of TNE models,including international branch campuses,franchising,validation,joint and dual degrees,and online learning(QAA,2022).This flexibility allows institutions to tailor their offerings to local contexts and student needs.In our study,students encountered a variety of models-from basic access to materials to highly interactive platforms featuring live sessions,recorded lectures,and peer networking tools.This flexibility was reported as a major benefit,especially for those balancing work and family.While local partner institutions offered in-person teaching,direct engagement with UK institutions was often championed for its broader academic exposure and perceived quality.Full findings are presented in the followingchapters.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research63.MethodologyThe purpose of the study was to explore the outcomes of UK TNE graduates and assess the individual and systemic impact of UK TNE,focusingon:Utilisation of UK qualifications Alignment with local skills and employment needs Contribution to graduates career and educationpathways Influence on perceptions and connections withtheUK Promotion of global citizenship and universalvaluesThe key research questions were:What is the experience of UK TNE graduates in terms of their education experience and its effect on their career?How does TNE align with local skills and employment needs?Does UK TNE foster strong UK links and/or promote universal values aligned with UK ideals?Several data sources were used for this research,including data from Alumni UK Network Registration Data and data from longitudinal Alumni Voices 2024-2025 survey(with 550 responses from TNEgraduates).This research conducted included both quantitativeand qualitative data collection and analyses.Quantitative approach used tailored analysis of the Alumni Voices 2024-2025 survey data.Qualitative approach focused on in-depth interviews with TNE graduates to explore their experiences and viewsofTNE.Quantitative data The Alumni Voices(round 2)survey was administered and analysed by ACER UK.The survey went live on 14 November,and ran for just over two months,closing on 16 January.The survey tool used for administration was Qualtrics.Prior to analysis,ACER performed a series of data-cleaning activities including validation checks and the recoding of missing data.ACER then assigned codes for all items and response options,systematically coded missing responses and non-responses,and reverse coded any negative items.All quantitative data was fed into SPSS and analysed using a range of descriptive analyses including cross tabs of survey items against a range of respondent characteristics including region,graduation year,engagement levels and disability.In many cases there was no significant relationship between the variables examined.All participants responses were used as part of this analysis.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research7Qualitative data For this research,there were twenty-seven interviews held across July and September 2025.The average interview duration was around forty-five minutes.Allinterviews were fully transcribed,and transcripts were reviewed and coded section by section.Allparticipants responses were used as part of thisanalysis.With focus on the main themes,the transcripts werecarefully read and re-read to identify recurring ideas,concepts,and themes.Theapproach used inductive coding which meant codes were generated based on the content of the data,allowing for the development of a coding structure that reflected the nuances and richness of the participants experiences and perspectives.Coding qualitative data this way is particularly common in grounded theory methodology,where the goal is to build theory directly from the data.Itemphasises a bottom-up approach,letting the data guide the analysis rather than fitting it into pre-existing frameworks or notions.This approach was well-suited for this research as it excels in exploratory research and where the goal is to uncover new insights and understandings.Key limitations of the studyAs with any study,there are some limitations in thisresearch,in particular when it comes to sample representation.Round 2 of the Alumni Voices survey had 550 respondents who reported as TNE alumni,with a gender imbalance(62 per cent male,37 per cent female),which may not reflect the broader TNE alumni population.The sample was drawn from theAlumni UK database,which may already skew towards more engaged or accessible alumni,potentially excluding less connected graduates.Inaddition,a large proportion of respondents were from Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia,which may limit generalisability to other regions.An effort wasmade to account for some of this underrepresentation,with additional sample ofinterviewees being drawn in order to ensure diversity of insights.Furthermore,there were limited diversity of TNE models represented in the final sample.Mostinterviewees studied via distance learning,with limited in-person UK exposure.The study recruited those who studied for their UK qualification remotely according to the survey data,but we could not distinguish between different models during sampling the stage.Therefore,this study does not capture the full spectrum of TNE models(e.g.blended learning).Experiences of those studying through local partner institutions were also less explored and may differ significantly.While rich in detail,the small sample may not fully represent the diversity of TNE experiences across countries,disciplines,or institutions.Going forward,it would be beneficial to have more diverse respondents from a variety of regions studying through different models of TNE,and to include additional data that can track long-term outcomes in terms of UK engagement and their careers.Mostof these limitations can be addressed in futureresearch.Summary of the findings and insights are shared inthe sections below.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research84.Findings4.1 DemographicsThe Alumni Voices(round 2)survey findings are based on 550 responses of TNE alumni respondents.A greater proportion of men reported studying via TNE than women(62 per cent vs 37 per cent).However,a similar pattern can be observed in non-TNE study,reflecting the fact that a greater proportion of men responded to the Alumni Voices(round 2)survey and reflecting that the Alumni UK database,from which the sample was drawn,includes a higher proportion of men.In terms of region of birth,the following table shows region of birth for TNE students.Table 1:Region of birth for TNE graduatesRegionCount PercentageAmericas417.45st Asia6511.82%EU Europe295.27%Middle East and Africa407.27%South Asia13424.36%Sub-Saharan Africa21438.91%Wider Europe and Central Asia224.00%No available data50.91%Total550100%Table 1 shows data from the Alumni Voices(round 2)survey,from which most TNE students were from Sub Saharan Africa(38.91 per cent),followed by South Asia(24.36 per cent)and least from Wider Europe and Central Asia(4 per cent)and EU Europe (5.27 per cent).A full breakdown of countries for TNE Alumni Voices 2024-2025 survey respondents is included in Appendix A.For the qualitative research,there were twenty-one interviews held during July 2025,and an additional six interviews held in September 2025.Of these 14were female and 13 male participants.Mostinterviewees had studied for a masters level qualification,21 people in total,of whom 10 had studied for MBAs.Of the remaining six,five had taken bachelors level degree and one had taken micro credential at undergraduate level course.One of the masters students had gone on to study a TNE PhD.Most of the interviewees had graduated in the last 10years.Three were yet to graduate,having just handed in dissertations,and the others ranged across this time period,meaning they were able toshare experience pre-,during and post-Covid.All the interviewees had studied in their main country of residence;five had spent some time in theUK as part of their course,for example for a short study visit,to undertake project work,or for dissertation supervision.Two had spent time in another country as part of a partnership institution arrangement.Overall,about half of the interviewee group had visited the UK at some point during their studies,or for graduation or as part of a subsequentcollaboration.The interviewees studied their courses in a variety ofways.Three interviewees(one from South Africa,two from Pakistan)had done bachelors degrees in local approved partner institutions,then undertook their masters qualification remotely.One interviewee(from India)studied in-person,at a local institute with a UK university partnership.Another(from Serbia)undertook a blended programme,with some localclasses.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research9Table 2 shows their current country of residence(and country of birth and country where they studiedTNE if different).Table 2:Country of residence of intervieweesCountry CountColombia1Egypt1Ghana3India1Kenya3Malaysia2Mexico1Myanmar1Pakistan4Peoples Republic of China1Serbia(born in ex-Yugoslavia)1South Africa1Sri Lanka2Trkiye2UAE1UK(born and completed TNE in India)1Zimbabwe1Total27As presented in table 2,the majority of interviewees were Asia(13),followed by Africa(9)and three from Wider Europe,and two from Americas.In addition,the Alumni Voices 2024-2025 survey data show that of these:22 were in paid work for an employer 3 were self-employed/freelancing 1 was engaged in a course of study,training orresearch 1 was unemployed and looking for workIn terms of their declared job levels,most declared they were in“Individual contributor/middle management”(16),followed by“Senior management”(3),and 1“CEO”and 1“Junior role/entry level”.There was no data available for the last six interviewees that were conducted as they did not take part in the survey.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research104.2 TNE graduates education experience A variety of TNE modelsEven under the term that was shared with the interviewees1 there were a variety of TNE models being mentioned,with varying amounts of interaction.Experiences could be mixed depending on the TNE model encountered.Those who studied with private universities with a UK partner were very positive about their experience,to the extent that five of them are now working for that local university(interviewees from Egypt,Malaysia,Sri Lanka and UAE).In particular,partner universities tended to offer contact with UK faculty,for example through visiting lecturers,online meetings,and some even offer students the option of a semester at the UK institution in the UK.However,those who had studied in a local institution with perhaps less direct involvement from the UK awarding university(interviewees from India and Pakistan)had a slightly different experience.They reported appreciating opportunities for face-to-face contact and interaction with tutors and fellow students,and the UK curriculum,but they did not necessarily always have the exposure to a variety of tutors or the quality of teaching that came with direct contact with the UK institution.For distance learners,the flexibility of self-paced,distance study,especially where they were working full-time and balancing family commitments was greatly appreciated.They reported that distance learning provided more flexibility in terms of module choice and learning schedule.Distance learning directly with a UK institution may potentially broaden options,as opposed to just studying in a local partner institution.As one interviewee who experienced both modes explained:I actually liked it remote learning with a UK institution better for it to be an independent one than to be registered,because one,I had the liberty to choose whatever subjects that I wanted to,you know,based on my interest,and I was not bound by the fact that an XYZ Institute,if theyre only offering certain modules,I can only takethose.(Participant from Pakistan)In terms of what attracted interviewees to TNE,themain factors for choosing TNE were as follows:the quality of UK education,as evidenced by university rankings,and wanting the experience ofstudying in a well-renowned institution an affinity or familiarity with UK education systems,maybe due to a historical legacy,or toprior experience of UK study or curriculum the opportunity to gain a UK degree without leaving their home country the perception of UK education as convenient,well-structured and less stressful,with more practical assignments than written exams course options that were not available with localproviders the desire to study abroad and experience adifferent mode of teaching and learning,for example a more practical rather than theory-based approach,with an emphasis on criticalthinking the flexibility of TNE and distance learning,which meant that participants could continue with life at home,work and family commitments recommendations from friends or fellow students the opportunity to gain an internationally recognised qualification,such as a triple-accredited MBA,or Association of Chartered Certified Accountants(ACCA)accountancyqualification.Quality and reputation for high standards stand outas the main attraction,as summarised by theseinterviewees:Definitely the international accreditation and reputation of UK institutions.By far,thats the main reason,and the standards,and just the quality of education.(Interviewee from SouthAfrica)We all know it comes with the prestige when youstudy abroad to specific study systems likethe UK.(Interviewee from Kenya)1.Question was:What model of TNE?Was this with a UK university at a branch campus?/was this entirely online?/Did you have classes in a partner university locally?/Did UK-based faculty travel over to teach you directly?Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research11When it came to choosing an institution,interviewees spoke about practical factors such as the entry requirements and once again,university rankings.Tuition fees were also mentioned by a few as a factor in their decision making.Someuniversities offer scholarships,bursaries orfeereductions to international students which helped in funding(or potentially as incentives).Beingable to pay in monthly instalments was perceived as a benefit,as was a pay-per-modulemodel.Access to a UK degree but at a local cost was alsoseen as widening access,for example:Now with these types of TNE programs,our middle-class and lower-class Malaysians are getting access to the same high-quality education that you would get if you had money.And I think being able to level that playing field interms of education is so important.(Interviewee from Malaysia)Some interviewees were only able to study because they received scholarships,such as the Commonwealth Distance Learning Scholarship.Another was sponsored through their employer,and another won credits to use with Future Learn.Oneinterviewee participated in a UK government-sponsored nuclear security programme.Some interviewees had considered local options but felt that there was an overall cost-effectiveness to the UK distance offer,which gave the opportunity to gain a UK qualification,at a relatively lower cost,because it was online rather than in-person.Also,they found that local options tended to be in-person,and they wanted the flexibility to combine study with work and not be tied to weekend or evening classes.For instance:I think we normally had two months to finish a module so you can pace yourself easily based on your schedule,and then get things done.You get your work done at the same time as your learning was also on course,so it made it so flexible looking at my tight schedule at work,the distance and the module aspect of it was very good.(Interviewee from Ghana)Furthermore,the UK offered subject choices which were not available elsewhere,for example a masters in humanitarianism,conflict and development,or in social justice and community action.Interviewees also valued the diverse cohort and global exposure of an international degree:If I were to study an in-person business masters,most of my classmates would likely be from China,but I am the only Chinese student of that online course.So my classmates came from India,Africa and the Middle East,Canada and New Zealand and Southeast Asia as well.Very diverse.(Interviewee from China)These positive views are supported by data from theAlumni Voices(round 2)survey.In the survey,respondents were asked to rate the social aspects of their UK education experience,using 0-10 Likert scale.The mean rating amongst TNE graduates was 7.64.Similarly,when considering the relevance of their UK education to the world of work,TNEgraduates mean rating was 8.39,suggesting that the quality of UK education is retained when delivered via TNE.Lastly,their overall experience had a mean rating of 8.39,indicating very high degree of satisfaction with their studies.Whilst for many interviews their experience was verypositive,enabling them with an opportunity to study for international qualification,there were a couple of interviewees who studied before Covid,who reported some downsides.Their course implementation was mainly focused on being given access to materials;and pen drives or textbooks being posted out.For example:There was no live teaching.We had the subject guides uploaded on the portal,and then we had a coursework,or you know the layout that was given within those subject guides and along with the mandatory or the essential readings So that all was there.And then apart from that,I think like I said,there were probably one or two instances where we had the opportunity to engage with the faculty member.(Interviewee from Pakistan)Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research12This has changed over time(possibly even more rapidly due to the Covid experience),with more interactions available through a variety of online tools.For those who studied more recently,their experience reflected having access to fuller online learning platforms,with digital libraries,online discussion forums,or WhatsApp groups for peer networking.Videos,live Zoom or Teams sessions alsofeatured,and the flexibility to revisit recorded lectures,as well as regular opportunities to meet with tutors.This interviewee had an experience which was as close to a real classroom as possible:So the materials,the schools learning platform is called Brightspace.So each week then the learning materials are opened so you are able to access them at your convenient time.Its self-paced,but once every week we get to meet with the tutor.We go through the material for the previous week.If you have any question you can raise,if you are seeking clarification,if there are areas that were not clear,you could raise them there.Then,the way the modules were structured,each week there were focus group discussions where we could meet with other students to discuss Then we had the Brightspace,had a discussion forum where there were some activities you are doing it as an individual rather than group.So it felt like you are in a class,you are having a conversation.(Participant from Kenya)Further studiesMany interviewees express a strong desire to remainconnected to the UK,particularly through further study such as PhD programmes or professional development.They report being attracted by the high quality of UK education,its global reputation,and the cultural and academic familiarity developed during their initial studies.However,practical barriers such as high tuition fees,visa restrictions,and the cost of living can often make relocating to the UK for further education or work unrealistic.In this context,opportunity to study through TNE emerge as a valuable solution,offering a flexible andcost-effective pathway to UK qualifications while allowing learners to remain in their home countries and maintain personal and professional commitments.The attraction to the UK and its culture can be seen by the following examples:I thought that working in UK would be a good thing because there are a lot of automotive manufacturers.So I have tried,and if I get a suitable opportunity for applying there and attending interviews.I think if I work in UK,I get a better work culture and exposure as compared to India.(Interviewee from India)I think its a vibrant country,like its vibrant,especially big cities like London probably.Its like an international hub for employees from all around the world.(Interviewee from Trkiye)However,enthusiasm for both work and study are tempered by practical constraints,such as high tuition fees,the cost of living,visa and work permit difficulties,as well as family commitments at home.As noted:What we need to understand is that nowadays,especially after the Brexit and with the current visa policy of the UK,I am not sure if many countries in Eastern Europe are a target to come to the UK,especially if we speak about the financial services.Lots of activities are concentrated in London,which is quite an expensive city to live in If I would be considering something,this would be London for a limited time,simply because of my profession.But you know,with the inflation and everything getting more and more expensive,Im not sure how realistic it is.(Interviewee from Serbia)Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research13Older interviewees,or those more settled in their careers,were less inclined to relocate but were still open to short-term visits for conferences or collaborative research.For example:Probably if you ask this question five or six years ago,probably yes,because I was thinking to change my location,probably to move to a different country.At this moment,but today I think that not because I am How can I say I have 45 years.Its an age when you dont want to initiate a new life No,I prefer to maintain my life here.My life here is quite good really.(Interviewee from Colombia)For an interviewee with a medical background,theUK doesnt offer appropriate work opportunities as they want to work in the humanitarian field,in developing countries.Using their medical degree would be a challenge because of the requirement topass a linguistic assessment.As noted:Professional Linguistic Assessment board for the GMC,general medical council registration.So I need to sit this kind of examination to work in the UK.With my masters degree I dont think I can work.I cannot work because you know,for me,Iwill need the visa sponsorship.That will be the most challenging thing.(Interviewee from Myanmar)The majority of interviewees are considering oractively pursuing PhD studies,with three respondents currently undertaking or having completed PhD programmes.There is a strong preference for continuing with UK institutions due tofamiliarity with the system,but as mentioned,costand funding availability are significant barriersto further study.Some highlights:I would like to do more study,but cost is a big investment,and then I just found out that it would cost something like 66 to 67 million Pakistani rupees,and if we invest that much and then come back in the same job,there will be no return on investment.(Interviewee from Pakistan)Ive applied to several PhD opportunities.But in the UK though Ive not been able to securefunding.(Interviewee from Kenya)A couple of interviewees cited difficulty finding a supervisor or appropriate PhD course;this seems tobe a problem particularly for those wanting to undertake DBAs(Doctorate of Business Administration).One interviewee from UAE is now studying with a French university,having been unable to find a UK supervisor.Another,based in a Sri Lankan TNE university,is actively seeking a UK TNE doctorate opportunity,but has been unable tosecure something affordable and appropriate.Some interviewees have undertaken or are considering short courses,or industry-specific training.One respondent has secured international fellowships which support their PhD studies.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research144.3 TNE graduates career The Alumni Voices(round 2)survey respondents data provided some insight into a wide range of TNE graduate careers.TNE graduates primary occupation is summarised in the Table 3.Table 3:Primary occupation Which one of these options best describes your primary occupation or activity?CountPercentage Caring for someone(unpaid)61.09veloping a creative,artistic or professional portfolio193.45%Doing something else81.45%Engaged in a course of study,training or research336.00%Paid work for an employer27750.36%Retired91.64%Running my own business7012.73%Self-employment/freelancing8916.18%Taking time out to travel(not short-term holidays)00.00%Unemployed and looking for work264.73%Voluntary/unpaid work for an employer132.36%Total550100%Table 3 shows that over two-thirds of TNE graduates were working at the time of the Alumni Voices(round 2)survey,mostly in a paid job for an employer(50.36 per cent),or being self-employed(16.18 per cent or running their own business(12.73 per cent).Less than 5 per cent were unemployed and looking for work.Respondents were very positive about using the knowledge they had learnt during their UK education in their current work,with mean agreement rating of 8.0,indicating that TNE has a high degree of relevance to local and global labour markets.76 per cent of respondents reported needing their UK qualification for their job.In addition,TNE graduates were positive about their current work role fitting with their future plans,with mean rating of 7.52.From the qualitative study,nearly all interviewees stayed in the same location during and after their UKstudy.A number of the interviewees were already set on a career path(such as law,medicine,dentistry,banking and accountancy),but their TNE study enabled career progression,for example transitioning from technical roles to managerial positions.One graduate from Ghana,sponsored by her company to do an MBA,has stayed with the same company but shifted focus from food product development to sustainability:I was doing product development up to now,but after completion my mind and my path is kind of changing into the waste,energy,food-security path.The passion is diverting to that side more than the food development.So,the career path is changing.Its more towards renewable energy.Sustainability than further development in food.(Interviewee from Ghana)Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research15For some interviewees,their TNE experience has developed into a career.Five interviewees are now working at the private university they studied with.Two were taken on as teaching assistants based on their undergraduate performance(Egypt and Sri Lanka),one of whom has now progressed to a role ashead of department.I would say from my TNE experience,the fact that I was able to get this job,that was the best thing because I was always looking for something that would be very close to my heart and where I could give my 100 per cent focus for it and have a lot of passion,but I was able to get this through my education basically.So that was like one big change.(Interviewee from Sri Lanka)Some graduates are seeking changes in their careerpathway,for example a move from project management and administration into community-based arts,or from market research into a role morefocused on policy making,sustainability and organisational justice.In terms of financial benefits,interviewees were hesitant to directly attribute these to their UK qualification.Some interviewees who received promotions following their study made the point thataqualification from their own or another countrycould lead to the same benefits:But I dont know if the UK compared with other universities change a lot of the salary.If you make the MBA at UK or USA or Germany,probably its the same.(Interviewee from Colombia)I would say it is not differentiated,doing the UK degree does not mean that Im doing better,but as a masters degree I think that I have benefited.Maybe if I would have done the masters from India also it would have been considered a degree and it would have helped me.(Interviewee from India)Some were more positive that they had financially benefitted,or that the qualification had opened up beneficial opportunities.For example:Yeah,of course financial.Of course it came with the promotion,but again also it came with the networking because as it is now,Im also able to get engaged in proposal writings.Which I think before this qualification I was not able to do.Andnow with all those proposal preparations,sometimes I also get funds outside the employment.In terms of consultancy and all those kinds of arrangements.(Interviewee from Kenya)Others expressed their belief that the UK qualification boosted their credibility,or would create future possibilities,with its value recognised across borders:I think yes,it provided me better opportunities,because if I say Im graduated from Trkiye,this university or that university,no one will know the name in Europe or in the US,but when I say Kings College,they will know even if I am in China.So I think in this regard it will have some implications when I have this full-time job in my capacity in nuclear security profession.(Interviewee from Trkiye)Im optimistic that it will open more doors,as I said,locally and internationally.(Interviewee from Kenya)Where international degrees are not always recognised,the financial benefits can be harder to come by.As one interviewee stated:The job Im working,I told you I got it from the local degree The UK qualification does not open that much of a high-paying job.(Interviewee from Pakistan)Overall,reported financial benefits varied considerably by country,sector,and individual circumstances.Benefits came through career progression and new professional networks rather than immediate salary jumps.One interviewee from South Africa had taken on volunteering opportunities to support others with disabilities in the workplace and felt that their MBA had just really broadened my horizons to the international business world.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research16Several interviewees reported receiving promotionsafter their UK qualification,as well as improved professional capabilities such as enhanced research skills,critical thinking,presentation abilities,and problem-solving approaches.Interviewees also spoke about utilising management skills around leadership,people management and strategicthinking.Some interviewees have been able to apply specialist skills developed through their study,forexample in dementia care(India),or in waste management practices(Ghana).Another spoke about using their film analysis skills to challenge misrepresentations of indigenous groups(Malaysia).One interviewee started their own NGO as a result oftheir studies,with others seeking social impact through community-focused projects.My masters has helped me to take or consider things in a more systematic way with critical thinking it motivated or encouraged me to be more creative,more analytical in that way.(Interviewee from India)It opened my mind,to see things differently.Andalso to interact with different people from different backgrounds.China,when I was in Africa,Europe.So it made me gain exposure outside of my home country.And even now Ive got a network with people from outside.So its helped me to gain more experience and to have colleagues out there who can even assist me in certain things.(Interviewee from Zimbabwe)Some respondents have only recently graduated or are yet to graduate,so the impact of the qualification has not been fully realised.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research174.4 Local impact UK degrees are consistently viewed as having higher status than local qualifications across multiple countries.They provide competitive advantage in some contexts,giving an edge in job applications and recruitment processes.As noted here:But generally we placed much premium on the UK education,and it goes even to some of our leaders who have governed the country because we know that the kind of quality tuition that came from the UK.So generally that is it,but I cannot specifically say that because of my UK qualification I had a promotion.(Interviewee from Ghana)Here in my country specifically,they appreciate the British education rather than any other education,more than say for example,the American,the Canadian.We appreciate the British education more than any other.(Interviewee from Egypt)However,some countries require formal recognition or nostrification of international qualifications,which can be a barrier to local use and recognition.Aninterviewee from Serbia explained that getting their degree recognised would entail a process with the Ministry of Education,which they described as apain and something they never wanted to do.Also,ifthey wanted to do a PhD in Serbia,its unlikely that their MBA would be recognised,so this would be a barrier to further study.Similarly,an interviewee from Pakistan spoke of the need for an equivalency certificate from the Higher Education Commission if applying for government jobs with a foreign degree,or even to join the army.This situation has lessened the prestige of international qualifications.In addition,interviewees consistently identified ways their enhanced skills address local challenges.For example,a dentist who teaches has recognised the research gap in oral health policy in their country:Theres a dearth of research and work which is being done in oral health in Pakistan before I started pursuing a degree in dental public health,even though Ive been working here in the field of dentistry for the past I think almost 12 to 15 years,I still was not aware of how much research needs to be done in this field So theres a lot ofpotential.(Interviewee from Pakistan)Another health professional,based in Kenya,has identified the benefit of prevention and is now more focused on preventative,holistic healthcare,as well as the need for better services in rural areas:So you see people in the rural areas are marginalized.They dont have the same equipment or a facility or a human resource as people in the urban area.So I want to bridge that gap,so that all health system is strengthened and people have access to quality and accessible health care.Thats the career path Im taking.(Interviewee from Kenya)Other examples of local relevance include a banker developing financial products for informal sector workers previously excluded from banking services,an automative engineer whose contribution to cleaner vehicle technology addresses environmental concerns,and a law graduate who is using their research skills to get to grips with emerging issues around crop science and food security.One interviewee spoke about using their university role to retain talent in the face of a Sri Lankan braindrain:Ive been able to convince quite a lot of youth tounderstand that the grass,the grass is not always green on the other side I am so happy that Ive been able to bridge students with the right companies that could support them so theyre not missing out on time with family So,retaining talent.So that was a major,majorissue that the country was facing.(Interviewee from Sri Lanka)One MSc graduate and doctor set up their own NGO after their studies,to promote awareness around dementia in India and provide therapy.A student of biology and psychology from Malaysia has gone onto do PhD and post-doctoral research into ageing and brain health;drawing on learnings from colleagues in the UK institution,they now integrate theatre-based community practices into their work.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research18Another was able to reduce rates on infection inthecommunity through waste management andrecycling projects.During my thesis,it made me do a rethink.Because when we did the projects of digesting waste and turning it into useful resources,we had fertilizer that was very good for the soil,it improved yield and all that.And then the benefits in one community where we did the project,diarrhoea,cholera incidence was,I would confidently say,was stopped.It was reduced drastically because of the intervention that webrought in.(Interviewee from Ghana)For some,the impact comes from being able to apply different approaches to challenges arising intheir community or organisation.For example:I was now able to come up with new approaches to solving administrative challenges I was able to do certain things strategically.Of course,using minimal resources and ensure that we utilize resources that are available to us and alsocoming up with innovative ideas.(Interviewee from Kenya)Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research194.5 Skills development and use Beyond financial impact,TNE education has changedhow graduates approach their professional lives.Several interviewees described gaining new perspectives that impacted their career or personal development,giving confidence,enhanced problem-solving approaches,or access to new networks.Toillustrate:I think its also given me this confidence that I canreally pursue higher learning So I think its really boosted me up in a way that Im able to go search for degree programmes instead of maybe something else like normal,the smaller courses.Ithink its really guiding me higher.(Interviewee from Ghana)I must say that every single experience that I hadin my UK education has shaped me one way or the other in my career path.I will attribute my growth,I will attribute it to the fact that I was exposed in the UK,that I always seek to learn more.I seek to acquire knowledge,to know something different so that I can also impact Ithas opened me up to how to analyse issues,soI can say my analytical skills are in my careerpath.(Interviewee from Ghana)It just hiked my career graph.Without any question.So there is no level of question that what it can help me:financially,occupationally,personally,my character,everything is changed.(Interviewee from India)I have been significantly involved in volunteer work actually and volunteer events at both Heriot-Watt Alumni Association and at the British Council as well for empowering students with disabilities and disability inclusion in industry and in education.(Interviewee from South Africa)In addition to new perspectives,interviewees highlight a number of skills gained through their study,such as problem-solving,analytical thinking and research skills.Critical thinking features strongly;several interviewees highlight how UK education emphasises questioning assumptions,evaluating multiple perspectives,and thinking outside the box.This wasnt merely academic interviewees describe applying these skills to workplace risk management,problem-solving andcommunity challenges.Some examples:Critical thinking is the slogan And always the MBA emphasises that you have to think about all the options that you have before you take a decision,look around,validate all the alternatives and decide.(Interviewee from Colombia)OK,definitely critical thinking skills and analytical skills.Problem solving,definitely by far.I mean,theres a lot of those skills involved in project management due to the deadlines and work breakdown,structure and all of that.Those skills are very,very important.(Interviewees from South Africa)Many interviewees also highlighted gaining strong research abilities and how these translated into community contributions.For example,one interviewee joined their colleges research cell,andanother has now co-authored research on visual impairment healthcare.These skills appear particularly valuable in contexts where there is notmuch research available or being carried out,allowing graduates to fill important knowledge gaps in their local environments.For instance:Research skills a lot,because this is what we are deficient in,and being in a teaching role I can inculcate knowing now how a good research needs to be conducted.I can inculcate in my students as well and among my colleagues by doing certain workshops,which Im already doing as well now.(Interviewee from Pakistan)I grew in the depth of research,understanding research and the depth of it;ethical practices in research and things like that.enhancing those skills has been key for me.For instance,in relation to my dissertation,there were key findings that ignited a deeper quest to make changes in certain areas,and I understand the way to make changes is now finding how to contribute further,maybe through research,maybe through recommendation of better practices,policies and all that.(Interviewee from Kenya)Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research20One participant,who worked in healthcare before studying for their MBA,has developed a research formula to analyse health metrics,as follows:We developed this formula related to calculating the loss of life due to occupational fatalities Itwont be possible without my understanding ofthe economy and my MBA degree.(Interviewee from UAE)Several respondents mentioned improved time management and self-organisation skills due to balancing coursework,deadlines and employment alongside studies.Digital literacy is also referenced,alongside the leverage of AI tools;such skills are useful for navigating changing work environments and the implementation of new technologies.Asnoted:First of all,the time management,and the second I learned a lot of AI technology during my online courses.I learned it by myself and put it into my assessment and work and now it becomes part ofmy dissertation,I think its quite useful.(Interviewee from China)When I started with Future Learn,it was just something new having to study online and learning to be manageable with your time,andalso being able to share your opinions its also helped me to learn how to use a lot of tools online,because of the learning platform and how you can navigate around those platforms.It also gave me this interest in learning how to do surveys and testing websites.(Interviewee from Ghana)For interviewees whose courses did not offer much in the way of in-person contact or interaction with lecturers,resilience was also required.As one interviewee stated:One key skill that might not be so obvious is resilience.Yeah,resilience.I feel like my studies required a lot of resilience and perseverance.And flexibility.Being able to handle different multitask.Like I have work,I have family,I have studies.So I was able to plan more,planning and organising because now everything had to fit into my schedule.(Interviewee from Kenya)Leadership,collaboration,and interpersonal communication are commonly cited,especially among MBA and business students.These are seen as crucial for thriving in group projects and organisational roles.Many interviewees experienced significant personal transformation,particularly inleadership confidence.One interviewee who previously avoided speaking up now volunteers forleadership roles,while another deployed risk management skills to navigate a potentially tricky supervisor change.Others speak of how experience of UK educational culture has enabled them to overcome hierarchical barriers and advocate forother people.But yes,my confidence level has improved so much.You come from a background where possibly in a classroom,you may not feel that comfortable,kind of challenging your lecturer Because of this confidence level that has developed through my exposure in the UK education,Im able to speak up.So,in my day-to-day,especially when it comes to meetings,Im able to speak or advocate for my team in negotiations,Im able to speak for my team as well.(Interviewee from Ghana)For some,study has brought new organisational understanding which has enabled them to develop in their career.One interviewee spoke of how they have a new awareness of their institution as a whole,and how the different parts interact:Its like a tunnel vision.I only see my teachings,or my patients.But I dont understand the full picture of the different departments and how they operate across each other,or how to get funds and how their funds are done and the economy behind this industry.Its mind-blowing.But you only get it when you get to study the part of it,MBA.(Interviewee from UAE)Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research21Global citizenshipNearly all interviewees spoke positively about how their TNE experience had shifted and enhanced their global thinking.Several interviewees talked about their realisation that despite surface-level cultural differences,people share fundamental similarities.To illustrate:now I see that even from different countries,were not very different from each other.The challenges,the aspirations for ourselves,the dreams,everything,and the daily chores we are doing or how we are navigating ourselves,its almost the same for everybody from different cultures.(Interviewee from Pakistan)You see that everybody has the same problems,but different ways to solve,the approach probably are different,and you start to learn about different things that you can do to solve that I think that it opened my eyes a lot really.(Interviewee from Colombia)I believe Im a global citizen.(Interviewee from Kenya)We were taught how to see ourselves not just locally,but on a global platform.How can we contribute towards the national economy,but also the international,like the global economy?Because at the end of the day,we are all connected.Its like one big thread that is connecting everyone.So,our actions can actually contribute to the wider community.(Interviewee from Sri Lanka)Another interviewee speaks of feeling like they are part of one global village(interviewee from Kenya),another of how their study opened my mind in terms of global issues(interviewee from Zimbabwe),and another of how we are all humans (interviewee from Trkiye).The interviewee undertaking research into ageing talked about insights gained from collaborating with researchers from the UK and around the world:You really understand that even though were halfway across the world and the larger systems might be different,at its core,the issues are the same and the sentiments are the same.also understanding that there is no this is only for me type of thing,because anything that were doing,as long as were collaborating and sharing,it will benefit all of us who are involved.(Interviewee from Malaysia)Others speak of having their minds opened to morecritical ways of thinking,and the opportunity for sharing knowledge.For example,an interviewee from China speaks of how they can see the difference with friends who have never studied abroad and only think about the good things aboutChina.Another shares how their increased awareness of international issues makes them morealive to injustice and unfairness:So unfortunately,there are key issues now that my study helped me realise the developing countries,they need to choose certain hard measures for them to at least progress,and that also affects relations with other countries,like even including the UK.For instance,things like visa application processes which I have been affected by,like I was to come last year,I was denied a visa,things like that.My studies have helped me query more the advocacy side would want to question why these things happen(Interviewee from Kenya)Similarly,an interviewee from Myanmar found that the course generated an interest in other countries which they didnt have before.They learned about geopolitical issues and conflicts,including recent civil war and genocide in other South-East Asian countries,which they previously knew nothing about.There were only two interviewees who felt things hadnt changed for them at all;both were studying UK curricula via local institutions,so did not experience international interactions.As an interviewee from India put it:there was not much exposure on the global things.Maybe it would have been better if I wasinUK.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research22The most frequently mentioned value shift was toward greater tolerance and inclusivity.Interacting with people from different countries meant learning how to balance different dynamics of peoples ways of doing things,peoples values,and allowing inclusivity(interviewee from Kenya).Another interviewee noted the importance of payingattention and listening carefully,patience andacceptance.One interviewee was impressed with how accommodating fellow-students were during theirprojects and had an amazing time with them.Theywondered if it was because everyone wantedtobe on their best behaviour when representing their country:everybody was way too nice!(Interviewee from Pakistan)A Kenyan interviewee described how exposure to LGBTQ issues and diversity training opened their mind:tolerance was in me,but now its at agreater extent.Several interviewees mention becoming more accepting of different sexualities,cultures,and ways of being.For example,changing attitudes to women in the workplace:partly because of the UK qualification and partly because the overall culture itself is changing(Interviewee from Pakistan)An interviewee from Malaysia spoke of how the open way in which gender and sexuality were discussed and taught in their UK degree has given them the confidence to consciously create a safe space for their own students.These insights from the interviews are supported by similarly positive findings from the Alumni Voices(round 2)survey.The survey asked which skills and attributes have been developed by a UK education,and which skills and attributes are important for career development.The following figure shows results for TNE graduates.As Figure 1 shows,broadly all skills and attributes scored highly(a mean score of 8 out of 10).Self-Confidence,Communication and Global Citizenship(all 8.4)were rated particularly highly as attributes developed by a UK education.In terms of perceived importance of skills,all skills were perceived as important for their career(average 8.8),with a close match in the ratings between how they were perceived to be developed and their importance.Skills used by graduates in their careerSkills developed in UK educationFigure 1:Skills development vs ImportanceGlobal citizenshipIntercultural skillsProject planningCollaboration/teamworkAdvanced digital skills relevant to your field of studyBasic digital skillsLeadershipCommunication skillsCritical thinkingSelf confidence77.758.59.2510Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research23Alignment with local needsThe majority of interviewees feel their newly acquired skills match well with the demands oftheirlocal job markets,particularly research,digitalliteracy,and problem-solving.However,afewrespondents noted gaps between their academic experience and local requirements,oreven tensions between their internationally acquiredskills and thehome context.For example,an engineering masters graduate fromIndia felt that on reflection,their course had been too broad in scope,whereas more specialisation would have enabled them to change focus towards electric vehicles a local need.Another graduate feels the mismatch between English skills and the local culture:We have a different,totally different culture here.So,if you are learning the soft skills from a UK qualification,thats its like,OK,these are English skills,but locally you have to like,make some adjustments here and there there is not that much application of these skills in the job.(Interviewee from Pakistan)Another interviewee spoke about a negative impact on a personal level,because the people around them werent thinking critically and questioning things in the way they did.They said:So that would trigger you and maybe upset you time to time.So its challenging at a personal level.(Interviewee from Trkiye)The interviewee whose university didnt want them using their skills has had to be resourceful in finding other networks and unofficial ways to continue carrying out research.These more negative experiences suggest that skill transfer may depend on post-graduation employment contexts,local capacity and the presence of professional communities that can recognise the value of international qualifications.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research244.6 UK perception and advocacy UK connectionsA number of interviewees reported gaining valuable links with supervisors,lecturers,and peers,or support services such as the careers team.Theseconnections have led to:Invitations to contribute to research(e.g.,bookchapters,joint papers)Ongoing collaborations,including conference participation and project work Use of tutors as referees or professionalendorsements.For example:I have a couple of friends in the UK,and I have,should I say,a good relationship with some of my lecturers up to now.That I could call or send an e-mail to them with any issue or problem Sothat open relationship is still there.(Interviewee from Ghana)However,for some the remote nature of the learning experience and the global cohort has meant fewer opportunities for UK connections.As one stated:To be honest,I dont have a lot of classmates from UK,they are all from other countries.I dont think well stay in touch with tutors,because we only meet the tutor every two weeks,and each module we have a new tutor.So we are not quite familiar with our tutors.(Interviewee from China)But the development of global connections beyond the UK is a theme that comes through strongly.Because many programmes were online or had international cohorts,interviewees often report building supportive networks across multiple countries.For example:Ive established a lot of links with the people,not just in the UK,but in the world as general,because with the program,we were so many students from different part of the world.So,I was able to establish literally,right now I can say I have friends,some of whom majority weve never met in person,from every continent of the world,because we go from the US,from Brazil,India,Australia,and the majority are in the UK,Ireland and the other neighbouring countries in the Europe.(Interviewee from Kenya)Three interviewees(from Ghana,Serbia and SouthAfrica)talked about staying in touch with theirinstitutions through mentoring programmes and finding value in supporting other students.Asone stated:I found it is extremely rewarding to stay connected,and to simply pay it forward to the young generation.(Interviewee from Serbia)Alumni associations,professional associations(such as IATEFL)and LinkedIn also emerge as tools for maintaining relationships and accessing career-related opportunities.Seven interviewees mention British Council activities,attending events in person or online,or being active network members or recipients of alumni grants.To illustrate:British Council helped us a lot just after graduation.I was surprised how they managed to contact us,you know,just after graduation,and they put us in the community of Turkish alumni from the UK university.(Interviewee from Trkiye)I have actually participated in the British Council alumni networking events,and their professional development courses as well.In the last two years,and that is something I feel was actually much more enlightening,plus also the fact that the audience or the participants in those networking events are very diverse So that was something that I enjoyed and was able to build some meaningful connections or networking from that.(Interviewee from Pakistan)Interestingly,while those who had studied at partner universities tended to have strong links with their UK institution,some had not developed connections with the British Council,or were not informed about British Council activities.There hasnt really been a pathway or any type of route for me to become involved.So even though as you can see,Im very passionate about it and you know,I have so much to say about it,Ive actually never engaged with the British Council,and this is actually the first time that I am doing this.(Interviewee from Malaysia)Those who studied with Commonwealth Scholarships find that brings networking opportunities too;one interviewee from India mentioned being an ambassador for the Commonwealth Scholarship Commission.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research25Maintaining links over time becomes harder.Aninterviewee from South America who studied foran MBA 10 years ago has found that connections fade over time as fellow students become more involved in their own work and lives:unfortunately we lost focus,and we lost contact with the people(Interviewee from Colombia)One interviewee would like to see more channels formaintaining connections:I think University of Sheffield is trying to keep this connection,but we also need to understand it is not enough,because there is not something as a local alumni group.Also,I heard that the British Embassy organized an event,maybe 7-8 years ago,but nothing has been happening so far.So I am not sure if the embassy as such is interested in making a community.(Interviewee from Serbia)However,many other interviewees reported staying connected in alumni activities.Furthermore,62.5 per cent of the Alumni Voices(round 2)survey respondents reported to have contacted or met someone they first encountered during their TNE experience in thelast 12 months.Responses were more mixed regarding business connections.For some,for example those in medical careers,it simply didnt feel relevant.Others are open to links or actively pursuing them,for example connecting with UK companies,seeking jobs via LinkedIn,finding consultancy opportunities or seeing the potential with their own company to relocate to the UK.In general interviewees were open to the opportunity to work with or for UK companies,butits not something they are currently doing.A sense of connection to the UK through their institution of study came through strongly with interviewees.There is a sense of affinity,even an emotional connection,because of their education experience.As one interviewee noted:Im always proud that I did my masters from a UK university.(Interviewee from India)This is reinforced for those who are interacting through alumni networks and British Council activities.Several interviewees spoke of groups they are part of,which could be professional or research bodies,or something as informal as a WhatsApp group,as well as events they have attended,and the value of ongoing relationships and opportunities,for example to access LinkedIn learning through the British Council.For those who are not actively interacting with UK contacts or groups,the sense of connection seems likely to diminish over time and distance.Forinstance:Unfortunately with UK I dont have a strong connection now.I would like to do it.Probably Im planning to visit the university the next year.Really.I want to goMy local connection,of course in my field,not related with people in the Manchester University,but with people alumni from UK.Yes,I have two or three,four people that say frequently we talk.We have a WhatsApp group.When we communicate so the events and other things really.But of course you know that now we are everyone is focusing on their lives and sometimes its not easy to have enough time to do these events,right?(Interviewee from Colombia)Global connections,as evidenced elsewhere,are strong.Interviewees speak of connections with the classmates,their growing global awareness,and again some are strengthening these connections through alumni and professional groups,or their volunteering brings them into contact with students from around the world.In terms of the local community,what the TNE experience has given some interviewees is a desire and determination to effect change in their locality,to provide service and to have an impact.As one interviewee explains,their education has equipped them with the knowledge and power they need toimprove systems:So Im connected with my people,my environment,my community,my country.Because we want to improve the way things are done,and the only better way of doing that is go get information,knowledge and all the power you can from people who have succeeded in doing things right.And thats where the education comes in.(Interviewee from Kenya)Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research26This service does not just have to be local.Oneinterviewee spoke passionately of how their mission to provide better support for those with dementia gives a global purpose and common senseof humanity:Human nature is one.Because in Africa they have dementia,India,Pakistan,they have dementia People are people.Humans are human.As a doctor,I cant differentiate patients by religion.By their prosperity,who is poor,who is rich?No,Icant.Whoever in front of myself,I will be happy to serve them.(Interviewee from India)Perceptions of the UKFor some interviewees,their perceptions around the UK havent changed much;this is because they had a positive outlook to start with,or the remote nature oftheir study means they havent experienced much of UK life beyond the university.For example this participant,who particularly struggled with speaking about perceptions of the UK,studied at a local institution,and therefore didnt have exposure to aglobal cohort or UK tutors:I havent got any perception about the UK qualification I knew like it was an international qualification.So,I knew like it is worth it so theres like no perception.So basically,I heard like in UK there has been a lot of inflation.Thats what Ive experienced.(Participant from Pakistan)In addition to other benefits TNE offers,generating greater mutual understanding of different cultures was highlighted as an important one.A number do report positive shifts in their views of British people and culture,and a countering of negative perceptions or stereotypes especially where interviewees have visited the UK in person.As one interviewee,who visited the UK in a personal capacity after their programme,honestly shares:I thought British people were arrogant.And like looking down on people;in the past,this was my impression.But it wasnt the case.spending time with them,you know,from 10 months,its something different and I visited them in London So I was lucky that I really met gorgeous people,and it changed my perspective towards humanity,not only for British people.So we have more common things than we have all our differences.(Interviewee from Trkiye)An interviewee from Kenya told of their surprise at encountering honest,helpful taxi drivers in both Liverpool and London,which gave them a different perspective on the UK when visiting for their graduation.And an interviewee from Ghana,who spent eight weeks in the UK for project work as part of their masters degree,was happy to experience the comparative peace of English streets,where drivers dont constantly blare horns.These findings are supported by the Alumni Voices(round 2)survey where 97.3 per cent respondents indicated willingness to recommend the UK education experience and further 96.7 per cent have reported recommending the UK as a place to visit.Therefore even though physical student mobility may be more likely to have a deeper personal impact in terms of national perceptions,TNE still creates positive cultural understandings.Colonialism cropped up in several conversations as an influencing factor in relationships and perceptions potentially both positive and negative.One interviewee spoke of the long history between Kenya and Britain,and how Kenyans and British are more or less brothers and sisters(interviewee from Kenya).Similarly another interviewee referred to the long history,the colonial history,whatever between the UK and Pakistan:So,there is a perception there.It wont go anywhere.But now its like,its good we are interacting as well,so it is a positive.My perceptions have improved like we are interacting now before it was OK,OK.The UK is a white country.They ruled us.We are using their language,before it was like that.Now we are interacting.So its become more like personal and deeper.(Interviewee from Pakistan)Another interviewee was positively influenced by a sense of joining a community of students and alumni(and their liking for UK rock bands):Maybe its since Im a political science sociology graduate,I always tend to be,I criticise the biggest players like the UK,United States,Russian Federation,whatever they were the big players in the world.I was critical about,lets say,the exploitation process,like historical processes,you know,what has been done in India,Pakistan,et cetera.Theres a negative.I had a negative impression about the country,unfortunately,but afterwards,with the universitys perception,it Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research27really changed,especially with British Councils efforts to put us in the alumni groups and etcetera,I felt that OK,I belong to this community.I dont know how and why,but I felt like I belong to this community,even though I criticise things,they still accept me.(Interviewee from Trkiye)Other benefits mentioned by interviewees include enhanced access to international networks,for example through alumni groups,conference participation and connections with classmates from around the world.Improved confidence and credibility are also mentioned,as well as higher expectations.These are all themes that recur in response to other questions,as noted:It gives you more room to be able to approach and do things,and then it gives you the room also to be put in decision-making roles.So its been very advantageous.Its much recognized at my work and anyone that I come into contact with itputs like a credibility on you.(Interviewee from Ghana)And also one thing that UK education taught me is that you do not settle for less You need to strive for the best,and that has also helped me inmy delivery of my task as a manager.(Interviewee from Ghana)The Alumni Voices(round 2)survey data also show that,generally,those who studied through a TNE model reported very positive perceptions of the UK and its place in the world.In the Alumni Voices(round 2)survey,respondents were asked to rate their agreement with the following statements on a scale of 0 to 10,with 0 being strongly disagree and 10being strongly agree:1.The UK has world leading universities and academic research.2.People from the UK are open and welcoming.3.The UK has world leading arts and cultural institutions and attractions(e.g.classical/popular music,digital arts,theatre,literature,visual arts,film,museums and galleries).4.UK government contributes its fair share to aiding development in poorer countries.5.The UKs government works constructively withother governments around the world.TNE graduates showed high average ratings for allstatements,as presented in the chart below.Figure 2 shows that TNE graduates report high level of positive views of the UK.Perhaps unsurprisingly,since these were UK graduates,perception of the UK having world leading Universities and academic research had the highest rating(8.96).Figure 2:Overall perceptions of the UK in the world by TNE graduatesThinking about the UK,to what extent do you agree or disagree with the following statements:UK is a force for good in the worldThe UKs government works constructively with other governments around the worldUK government contributes its fair share to aiding development in poorer countriesThe UK has world leading arts and cultural institutions andattractions(e.g.classical/popular music,digital arts,theatre,literature,visual arts,film,museums and galleries)People from the UK are open and welcomingThe UK has world leading Universities and academicresearch8.968.147.927.858.448.162046810Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research28Advocacy Interviewees expressed strong confidence inidentifying themselves as advocates for UK education,citing a range of factors that contributed to this stance.These included their own positive experiences and a longstanding belief in the quality and value of UK education.Many highlighted how ithad benefited them both professionally and personally and spoke of an affinity with UK culture.They also pointed to the better value offered compared to countries such as the USA and Australia,as well as the ease of access and usability.The practical approach and emphasis on application-based learning were seen as key strengths,along with a perception of higher quality compared to educational offerings in their home countries.Forexample:its not complicated.You dont have to spend extra hours trying to get involved or get into the flow.Its the onboarding.Its so smooth and easy and friendly(Interviewee from Ghana)So the difference of quality of education,the way we were taught,the way we were assessed,the way the teachers interacted with us,it was quite different to what I have experienced here in Pakistan.So yeah,a big advocate for our studying from there UK.(Interviewee from Pakistan)When highlighting benefits to others,interviewees spoke about the high standard and quality of education and research,as well as the opportunity for greater exposure to international or global thinking,which broadened their experiences and allowed them to interact with people from diverse cultures.They appreciated the ease of access,particularly through the use of the English language and,for some,the compatibility with their home education frameworks.This was particularly the case for interviewees who had studied iGCSEs and A levels:they wanted to continue with a British education,for example:I grew up reading Enid Blyton.So,so I think from my childhood itself,I was just fascinated by the British culture.(Interviewee from Sri Lanka)Another interviewee spoke about the encouraging,positive attitude endemic in British education,which contrasted with the rankings and exam-focused localenvironment:I am a person who used to be a very average student at school,and at school what they told that you know,you need to focus on grades Butwhen I sat for my Edexcel O level and A level exams,I realized that I was not that bad.And then when I came to my university,I realized that I was never bad.So,like,you know,it was just a cultural factor that was keeping on calling mebad.(Interviewee from Sri Lanka)A calm and well-structured learning environment,supported by effective systems,was also noted as akey advantage.A leaning towards practical assignments rather than written exams,and the useof real-world scenarios or case studies,was appreciated.Interviewees valued the wider range ofstudy options available and emphasised the focus on critical and analytical thinking,rather than rotememorisation.For example:Well,we live in a globalized world thisintercultural awareness,it is essential given the times we are living in,for every field,in every profession.And yes,for me the structure has been important.I mean I feel like at ease because things are like well-structured and I know what to do,where to when to do it.Andsometimes in my country,thats not that easy.Things change rapidly and communication is not that good.(Interviewee from Mexico)A number of interviewees mentioned their activeinvolvement in promoting UK education,through alumni networks(the British Council andCommonwealth Scholarship network)and alsoprofessionally,in their roles as academics oruniversity recruiters.Despite positive experiences,a few interviewees identified obstacles to access,such as cost:Everybody around me,everybody wants to study from the best university,its just the finances and the cost,which is a barrier to them being not able to come and or to study there the UK.So the cost is only barrier.(Interviewee from Pakistan)Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research29Another interviewee,also from Pakistan,felt that theonline nature of courses was off-putting for somepeople,with a little bit of low perception ofUKqualification being completed abroad.Furthermore,they noted that the local institution they had attended had now closed,suggesting awaning interest in UK accredited degrees.Theyfeltthat the cost of UK courses possibly outweighed the benefits,when they wouldnt necessarily be recognised locally:why should wepay higher for just a good environment when itisnoimpact later on?Another interviewee felt that there wasnt a strongenough network post-graduation to provideemployment support:Although the UK education system I prefer it very much,you are simply not having a network that would help you find jobs this is one of the things that I find a bit different,especially now after Brexit.You know,it may be a disadvantage,Idont know.But times have changed and also having a regional network or a local network that would support you in your job search would be something which is definitely very valuable,and one of the reasons why I opted for the MBA is exactly that because you have a network of peers that you also have developing and this comes very handily.Unfortunately this network was mainly local but having more peers or more contacts in the UK would definitely be helpful.(Interviewee from Serbia)The Alumni Voices(round 2)survey data supports these views and indicates that 97.3 per cent respondents indicated willingness to recommend the UK education experience.Furthermore,96.7 per cent have reported recommending(or being willing to recommend given the opportunity)the UK as a place to visit in the last 12 months.Additionally,the survey data shows that overall favourability towards the UK from TNE graduates is 8.33,indicating very high levelof favourability overall.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research304.7 Further insights Interviewees had put these values into practice in their professional lives in ways that gave rise to greater inclusivity and cultural sensitivity.A couple of interviewees spoke of how they were now much more careful about using inclusive language,and they were demonstrating this in their interactions with the public,or in their essay writing.Several interviewees explained how they are now more ready to listen and take time in their interactions with others,speaking of values such asgreater patience,willingness to put themselves inothers shoes,being more considerate of others needs and recognising cultural differences.Forinstance:You understand the diversities of why they might not want things done in certain ways,then youre able to bring ideas to the table,discuss them,and then find a balance that everyone feels included in.(Interviewee from Kenya)For some,there were practical implications for business development,such as considering different countries as options for activity,or simply making use of an enhanced understanding of global economic factors and how they might impact their industry.Punctuality was also mentioned as a value gained from UK education experiences,time management skills and a stronger commitment to meeting deadlines.For one interviewee there was a pedagogical impact.They noticed how their UK tutors were interacting with me as friends,and that is something which I have not learned in my culture(interviewee from Pakistan).They were more used to a hierarchical relationship with their students,but havestarted to break this down,for example by being more proactive in sharing materials.Theyappreciated how the more informal relationship made them feel more motivated and wanted to do the same for their own students.Another spoke of how they encourage their students to have fun and not be solely focused on exams and grades.Astheyphrased it,I got my traditional mindset off(interviewee from Sri Lanka).Greater confidence and a readiness to take on challenges was a theme that emerged in many responses when talking about change.Interviewees described a journey of personal growth marked by increased maturity,broader thinking,and a transformed perspective on the world.They reported gaining greater confidence,particularly indecision-making and acting independently,accompanied by enhanced self-belief and optimism.Many expressed a newfound readiness to voice their opinions and assume leadership roles,driven by adesire to make an impact,take initiative,and advocate for others.Additionally,there was a growing appreciation for the importance of networksand teamwork,with interviewees noting improved networking skills and a stronger sense ofconfidencein engaging with others.For example:I think what really came out of my UK experience was the soft skills,being able to communicate and work with and coordinate and lead.(Interviewee from Malaysia)Its made me more proactive because now I want to venture into problem-solving issues,rather than just stay in my corner and wait for things tocome to me I want to be involved and make much greater impact than just a small one.(Interviewee from Ghana)So it totally changed my life.You know this pressure process totally changed my life.Tobelieve in myself actually,because after thatnobody is there to help me to open my NGO.Noone is there.I am the founder of my NGO.(Interviewee from India)When speaking about the most transformative aspects of their study,interviewees echoed themes found in other areas of their experience.Theydescribed a shift toward more critical thinking,which they could apply both professionally and in everyday life,such as being more questioning when reading the news.Many felt more prepared to research,problem-solve,analyse situations,and find solutions.They also reported enhanced transferable skills,including presentation,communication,andnetworking abilities.A clearer sense of future purpose and direction emerged,alongside increasedflexibility,patience,adaptability,andtolerance,particularly in engaging with people fromdifferent cultures,and overall,interviewees expressed greater confidence both personally andprofessionally.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research31Two interviewees spoke about the transformative impact of technology.Engaging in online learning through content,eBooks and the interaction with students and faculty was a new experience for one of them and is now part of their professional life too as they work for a company which provides training.Another was highly appreciative of the support received from staff and the effective use of technology,with good management and engagementstrategies.The opportunity to collaborate with and learn from tutors and peers was seen as highly valuable.Threeinterviewees talked about a particular tutor or supervisor as the most transformative aspect of their experience,a testament to the impact of personal connection.These were people who took time to talk with the interviewees,gave encouragement,feedback and the impetus to strive further.In two ofthese cases the interviewee met with the tutor in person;one was remotely.Some highlights were:The feedback given by my dissertation supervisor was really transformative for me,because she was pushing me really hard to write something scientific and critical she pushed me a lot,like she always was giving me feedback and telling me that,you know,you need to change it,you need to restructure.It was hard,a bit difficult,but it was really transformative.(Interviewee from Trkiye)During the course and then in the thesis phase which ended in the project,I met one fantastic professor.his level of coming down,sit with us in the bars,have a conversation with you,try to know what you want to do,the experiences youve gone through and how he would even advise you.And that has really transformed and shaped my life,if Ill put it this way.It gave me more confidence to go for things that in the past I would have sat down and thought about it and closed my mind and told myself that I cant do it.Now I feel theres nothing that I cannot do.So its really changed my perspective,changed the way I do things,changed the way I see things,and Im more inclined to venturing into projects,into issues than just stay back and then look on and hope that somebody will come and do it.(Interviewee from Ghana)Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research324.8 Feedback and areas for consideration There were some challenges and perceived barriersthat were mentioned by the interviewees.Localcontexts and world events can make following a career path difficult.A masters graduate in humanitarianism,conflict and development from Myanmar planned to apply their skills in the border area with Thailand,but lack of funding could thwart that aim.As noted:There are a lot of funding gaps for the NGOs and also the US Aid.So,right now I worry.I worry for the future.The limited support or limited humanitarian system for all the refugees or IDPs internally displaced person in my country,so that might be a factor for my career goal.So previously I thought this might be the stepping stone for my career goal.I will have the better role or career in the organisation at that time.Ican make or I can apply many proposals for theneedy people,especially the IDPs in the border area for the humanitarian response,like distribution of food,water.Thats what I thought previously,but right now Im not sure about this.(Interviewee from Myanmar)Another interviewee has been put off working in the UK by economic and visa conditions.This issue can be seen here:I also have opportunity to work in the UK,but the problem is the currency increased a lot.And the visa requirement also increases.So we dont think UK is a good destination at the moment.Italked to some of my friends,they all can see Hong Kong and Singapore will be more attractive.And the job opportunities at the moment,because economy in the whole Europe is not thatgood.(Interviewee from China)In addition,local conditions can mean that finding employment which utilises degree skills is a challenge.For one respondent,even with a UK MBA,it was really difficult to secure any employment whatsoever due to South Africas severe economic crisis.For another respondent,while they are keen to put their qualification in international development to impactful use,they have not yet secured a higher-level role.Changes in US government policy have potentially contributed to this:I think the only issue that came in was the US aid funding cuts,which was unfortunate,but I think this greatly and still continues to impact the job market within my country.(Interviewee from Kenya)Similarly,another respondent is finding it difficult toswitch sectors:this social justice degree does not really contribute to what Im doing here in the company.it unfortunately didnt help yet,but I think it will in the future because I want to switch my sector definitely(Interviewee from Trkiye)One interviewee,who studied for both a masters and PhD with government funding,then found that their university did not support their research activities,providing a significant block to putting their knowledge and capabilities into practice.Thiskind of institutional barrier has fortunately notbeen reported by other interviewees.The remote nature of interviewees study came up asa barrier to developing connections.One interviewee spoke of her regret that she couldnt visit the UK at all during her masters course,due to their inability to fund a visit themselves.As noted:But I wish and I did try in the last two years as well that I could get the opportunity somehow orthe other so that I can visit for a small time period I could meet everyone there in person there were certain projects which were taking place which my course lead wanted me to come and to be a part of it,and I felt that if I would have been on campus even for a short time,that would have given me a lot of boost.(Interviewee from Pakistan)Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research33In contrast to this,an MBA graduate from Serbia spoke of their study week in the UK as a real highlight,enabling them to visit Manchester,Liverpool and Sheffield,and even enjoy the sceneryof the Peak District.It does seem that the opportunity to visit the UK,even for a short time,during the study period,gives rise to a stronger sense of connection.However,this same intervieweedid speak of the visa process as abarrier to furthervisits:If I wanted to visit Sheffield again,I would need to reapply for a visa,and I can tell you Im not so keen on going into this experience again.(Interviewee from Serbia)Visa barriers are mentioned several times in the context of work opportunities too.For instance:I think the visa or work permit can be a barrier.Yeah,I feel that there is a demand of skills in what I am working,but I think there are also some barriers of visa.So maybe out of 10 employers,there can be one or two only who could provide a sponsorship and not all of them.(Interviewee from India)Its possible that these barriers may be perceived rather than actual,but interviewees are influenced by what they hear from others.For example,one interviewee from Pakistan is keen to visit the UK,but has been discouraged by an ex-classmate,whos said that it will be hard to get a visa,and they dont want to waste money in an application.Another interviewee from Kenya would like to attend British Council events in the UK but finds that they dont hear about the events in enough time to process a visa.They suggest that a short-term,multiple entry-point visa would be beneficial for UK graduates to facilitate meeting attendance.One interviewee reiterated the point that international student fees were a challenge,particularly for students from developing countries:Our economy is not doing good by virtue of being a third world country,and when we come to study or when we seek to study in the UK,the fees are actually high for us,and there its usually even higher because as the international fee-paying students have different rates than domestic.(Interviewee from Kenya)They also made the point that there are not many slots open for funding,such as through the Commonwealth Scholarships,so its a very competitive experience and many people miss out.Where interviewees felt that there was something that could have been improved about their experience,the most common response was around the desire for personal contact and time in the UK.While the flexibility of distance learning is appreciated,interviewees also wanted the opportunity to see their institution and meet tutors face-to face.Suggestions include exchange visits,short visits,guest lectures,summer courses and theopportunity to experience campus life.A few interviewees had attended their graduation in person,but this wasnt an option for all,and some werent able to attend due to cost,visa applications being denied,or Covid-19 restrictions.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research34As these interviewees explained,a personal touchmatters:I never had that privilege of meeting my tutors inperson at any point.So the way they would assume that you want it to be totally remote,Idont think,you know,at some point we all wantthat personal touch,even if it means just facilitating things like people to come to theirschool.(Participant from Kenya)I understand that distance learning is taken by people who cannot give time or because of their personal or whatever the reasons and they cannot come to UK,but I think everybody can manage a small,one month or three weeks,one to two months time period to leave their country and be there and it will improve the whole feel of this two years programme a lot the one thing which I have missed the most is not being there on campus I could see where the university,Icould meet my teachers,I could meet the othergroup of students as well.(Interviewee from Pakistan)I wish it wasnt only online and in person as well.It will give me a better understanding,but I am trying to compensate for it by visiting UK from time to time on my personal capacity.(Interviewee from Trkiye)A couple of interviewees gave specific recommendations for the British Council,to enhance access to alumni activities.One asked for more advertising of new programmes,with the offer ofdiscounts,and highlighting programmes that connect with a participants previous activity.Another spoke about the use of technology to facilitate communication:What could be of further use is the leverage oftechnologies.Especially nowadays we are conversing by Microsoft Teams,but also believe in the times of AI,and I hope that British Council would also leverage on the technology more and would also support the development of these communities of UK alumni.I am part of the community,but you know this is something where Im also having high expectations.(Interviewee from Serbia)Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research355.ConclusionThis research shows that TNE contributes to the globalreach and engagement of UK education,withstudents from across diverse regions being able to engage positively in a UK education experience.For many students,TNE offers a cost-effective,flexible route to UK qualifications,expanding access to high-quality education.Some of the findings of this study may apply not just to UK TNE,but to TNE offerings from other education systems.The participants were drawn to UK TNE for a variety of reasons such as the global reputation and high standards of UK education,familiarity with UK systems and teaching styles,flexibility to study while maintaining personal and professional commitments and access to unique qualifications and subject areas.Some participants expressed interest in further UK-based study,particularly PhDs,citing academic quality and cultural appeal.However,financial constraints,visa issues,and family responsibilities were significant barriers.Afew were already pursuing advanced studies or had secured international fellowships.The study highlights the significant local-level and personal-level impact that UK TNE can have.On a more local level,TNE impact is seen through alumni applying their skills to address local challenges in areas such as health,sustainability,and education.For some,UK education was a catalyst for social change,with alumni founding NGOs,influencing policy,and improving community services.On a personal level,graduates consistently reported enhanced skills,particularly in critical thinking,research,and communication,which theyapplied in their professional and community contexts.Many described a transformation in howthey have approached their careers with greater confidence,leadership,and a proactive mindset.The development of a global outlook and intercultural competence fostered a strong senseofglobal citizenship,with graduates often expressing a desire to contribute to positive change locally and internationally.Importantly,many alumni became advocates for UK education,not only dueto academic quality but also because of the inclusive values and global networks they accessed,regardless of whether they had physically visitedthe UK.As reported by HESA(2025)there has been a notable growth in UK TNE provision globally,with more universities developing TNE activities in a wider range of countries,that could indicate benefits including positioning,influence,and/or economic returns.An additional value of TNE to the UK is that itsupports UK education export goals and international engagement and strengthens visibilityand influence of UK institutions(BritishCouncil,2022).This study has shone light on the positive impact that UK TNE can have at a personal level,at a local level and in terms of advocacy and positive perceptions of the UK.However,a greater focus on TNE impact and graduate outcome metrics and data would enable the global HE community to understand more about how TNE contributes to specific sectors in different regions.In addition,gaps remain around our understanding of gender,socioeconomic,and geographic disparities in TNE participation and outcomes.Continued research,policy innovation,and stakeholder collaboration will be important to ensure that UK TNE remains a benchmark for quality and inclusivity in global higher education.Understanding the Impact of Transnational Education:Insights from UK TNE AlumniTNE Research366.ReferencesBritish Council(2023)Transnational education strategy 20232025.transnationaleducationstrategy.pdf British Council.(2022).The value of transnational education partnerships:Executive summary.https:/www.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/value_tne_executivesummary.pdf Carter,D.(2024).The student experience of transnational education(HEPI Report No.184).Higher Education Policy Institute.https:/www.hepi.ac.uk/2024/12/19/the-student-experience-of-transnational-education/CRAC.(2015).Transnational education and employability development.Careers Research and Advisory Centre.https:/www.crac.org.uk/portf
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Regional Perception Poll on the ASEAN Creative EconomyASEAN-UK Advancing Creative Economy initiative www.britishcouncil.org/research-insightResearchTitle:Regional Perception Poll on ASEAN Creative EconomyLink for publication:https:/doi.org/10.57884/S1NY-T022Citation:British Council.(2025).Regional Perception Poll on ASEAN Creative Economy.https:/doi.org/10.57884/S1NY-T022Commissioner:UK Mission to ASEAN,British Council,and the ASEAN Secretariat,with the support of the Senior Officials Responsible for Culture and Arts(SOMCA)Research Team:iDNA SolutionsContributors:Dina Dellyana,Nila Armelia Windasari,Nina Arina,Pakchira Chartpanyawut,Au Yong Hui Nee,Robin Serrano,Manithip Vongphachanh,Siti Hazirah binti Marzuke,Lim Wei Ling Tania Patricia,Anitha Silvia,Association for Myanmar Contemporary ArtsEditors:Eleanor Turney and Tate&ClayburnReport Designer:Dani WadiandiniCopyright British Council 2025.Shared under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-commercial 4.0International Licence(https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy1ContentsExecutive summary Introduction Background Study approachSurvey objectivesMethodologyDemographic profile of the respondents General Public Creative Players The creative economy in ASEAN:current state of playASEANUK creative economy cooperationBridging the gap:boosting ASEANs creative economy The creative economy landscape:ASEAN-level perspectives Perceptions from the General PublicPerceptions from Creative PlayersChallenges and opportunitiesConclusionRecommendationsSupport for countries to develop their creative economiesSupport for the creative economy by sectorPolicy recommendationsAppendix 1:General Public dataAppendix 2.Creative Players data Glossary of terms3778101012121315171920 202328313333353847542Glossary of termsCreative hubsA physical or virtual space that brings together creative individuals and organisations,providing support for networking,collaboration and professional development within the creative and cultural industries.Creative placemakingUsing arts and culture to improve community spaces and boost local identity,economy and social connections.Cross-cultural creative practicesArtistic activities that combine or involve multiple cultures to promote understanding and collaboration.DistrictsAn area of a country or city,especially one regarded as a distinct unit because of a particular characteristic.Ethnographic research methodsStudying people and cultures through observation and interviews in their natural settings.GastronomyThe study of the relationship between food and culture,the art of preparing and serving rich or delicate and appetising food,the cooking styles of particular regions and the science of good eating.Graphic designThe art and practice of planning and projecting ideas and experiences with visual and textual content.Intellectual property(IP)commercialisationTurning IP into products or services to generate income.IP managementOrganising and protecting IP assets to maximise their value.IP registrationOfficially filing to secure legal rights for IP.IP support services Professional help with IP issues like protection,enforcement and licensing.IP valuationAssessing the monetary worth of IP.ModeMost frequently in a data set.Open application programming interfaces(APIs)Publicly available interfaces that let developers access and use a platforms features or data.Urban designThe design of towns and cities,streets and spaces.Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy2Executive summaryThe Regional Perception Poll on the ASEAN Creative Economy explores the evolving landscape of the cultural and creative sectors in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations(ASEAN)and identifies the challenges and opportunities that these sectors present.It uses an ecosystem approach to understand the cultural and creative industries and to emphasise the intricate relationships among the different parties involved.Drawing from microsystems,exosystems and macrosystems,the study reveals the complex interrelations inherent in cultural and creative practices and highlights the need for creative economy strategies that are tailored and context-specific.MethodologyThe study captures perceptions from both producers and consumers,analysing two groups:the General Public and creative economy players.The assessment of the General Public category evaluates societal understanding of changes in the cultural and creative sectors in ASEAN.The analysis of the Creative Players category examines the creative economy ecosystem including enterprises,associations,government agencies and academic institutions.The study uses a survey as the major tool in gathering opinions from diverse ASEAN-wide stakeholders.Through both online and on-paper data capture techniques,surveys can effectively reach specific communities and clusters,ensuring inclusivity and representation across different demographics and sectors.A total of 4,117 respondents,across the 10 ASEAN Member States and Timor-Leste,participated in the Regional Perception Poll on the ASEAN Creative Economy.Of the sample population,38 per cent comprised members of the General Public and 62 per cent creative economy players.The demographic profile samples demonstrate that the Regional Perception Poll on the ASEAN Creative Economy is conducted with a commitment to treating all individuals fairly and respectfully,irrespective of gender,disability,or other personal characteristics.This ensures inclusivity and a comprehensive representation of societal views.Scope and goals of the study1Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy3Regional Perception Poll on the ASEAN Creative EconomyImportant results from the survey of members of the public are listed below.Awareness 47 per cent of respondents are somewhat familiar with the term creative economy.This indicates a lack of promotion regarding the creative economy,which can lead to insufficient information about the creative economy.Perception 60 per cent affirm that the creative economy in the region is experiencing significant growth.Although the majority are not very familiar with the term creative economy,they are confident that the creative economy at the ASEAN regional level is undergoing substantial growth.Perceived importance 43 per cent believe that creative economy development is positively affecting economic growth in ASEAN,benefiting communities at the regional level.Barriers 53 per cent agree that the primary barrier to increased consumption of creative products and services from ASEAN is the high cost.This pricing issue arises from various factors,from both the supply and demand side,including market dynamics,production costs and the evolving nature of the creative economy.On the other hand,countries such as Indonesia,Malaysia and the Philippines overcome high costs through strong demand for culturally rich and distinctive creative products.Consumption 39 per cent of the ASEAN Member States(which include Indonesia,Malaysia,Myanmar,Thailand,and Viet Nam)frequently engage with creative products and services such as local films,streaming videos,music,books and local crafts.The Philippines exhibits a moderate level of consumption.In contrast,the remaining five countries Brunei Darussalam,Cambodia,Lao Peoples Democratic Republic(PDR),Singapore,and Timor-Leste tend to consume these creative offerings on an occasional basis.This variation in consumption and engagement with creative products and services indicates that there are barriers to both accessing and consuming creative products.Major poll findingsRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy4The major results for creative economy players are divided into three parts and listed below.Microsystem (supports human capital)Macrosystem (supports the environment)Exosystem(supports the making of work within the creative economy)All countries agree that(i)creative thinking,(ii)soft skills such as communication and teamwork and(iii)marketing are the three areas rated as most important by respondents.53 per cent of the respondents stated that creative and cultural programmes are still dominated by formal education(in the form of degree and non-degree programmes).34 per cent believe that both governmental and non-governmental organisations give support and opportunities for training and development,to build skills and boost competitiveness.54 per cent agree that local wisdom and culture significantly affect the development of creative and cultural products and services.25 per cent recognise limited access to financing as the primary obstacle in accessing domestic and international markets for cultural and creative goods and services.50 per cent identify the lack of regional coordination and cooperation as the primary challenges hindering the development of the creative economy at the regional level.52 per cent state that the internet(e.g.websites of relevant organisations,blogs,podcasts)is the most frequently used medium for seeking information about the creative economy.Seven out of 11 countries(Cambodia,Indonesia,Lao PDR,Malaysia,Myanmar,the Philippines and Thailand)have a neutral stance regarding support for Intellectual Property(IP),including IP registration,valuation,commercialisation and associated support services such as legal advice.49 per cent agree that high-speed internet access for digital creation is the most crucial infrastructure to support the growth of cultural and creative industries.Nine per cent(Cambodia,Indonesia,Lao PDR,Malaysia,Myanmar,Viet Nam and Timor-Leste)believe that business registration,licensing and permits are the most critical aspects for supporting the development of the creative economy.The next most important business supports are aspects related to labour laws,but these are considered to be difficult to implement.When viewed through the lens of the value chain,design,marketing and promotion and production stage make the most use of technology to produce creative output.Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy5Challenges faced by the ASEAN Member States include low public awareness,high production costs and varying consumption levels.Further obstacles include underdeveloped creative thinking and problem-solving,soft skills(munication and teamwork),marketing and branding(to promote creative work),and IP management,as well as limited access to international markets.There is also a need for stronger regional coordination among ASEAN Member States to foster a more unified and supportive creative ecosystem.Opportunities that could be tapped include formal education,which is quite well established and benefits the creative industries;the internet and social media,which serve as important channels for information and promotion;and local wisdom,which shapes a countrys creative economy significantly.Several recommendations emerge from the perception poll results,such as greater use of technologies for design,marketing and promotion and production purposes and more frequent use of internet-based media such as websites,blogs and podcasts(52 per cent)to convey information about the creative economy.In addition,skills and expertise in creative thinking and problem-solving techniques,soft skills,and marketing and branding are considered most important for Creative Players.It is therefore crucial that schools,universities and other formal educational institutions offering creative and cultural programmes consider what skills and expertise need to be taught for the industry to flourish.Barriers,challenges and opportunities RecommendationsRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy6Regional Perception Poll on the ASEAN Creative EconomyIntroductionThe creative economy has emerged as a significant driver of economic growth and resilience,social inclusion and equity,international influence and intercultural dialogue and sustainable development.However,the supporting ecosystem for the creative economy is not yet fully developed and needs improvement.The creative economy,which relies on the contributions of micro-and small enterprises,is an economy driven by ideas and a significant catalyst for economic growth.1 According to the United Nations,the creative economy encompasses a range of localised,knowledge-based economic activities that integrate development aspects and linkages at both macro and micro levels within the broader economy.2 John Howkins has noted that the creative economy is emerging as the predominant economic model of the 21st century.3 The World Intellectual Property Organization describes this sector as all industries directly or indirectly involved in the creation,production,broadcasting and distribution of copyright-protected goods and services,with IP at its core.4 This is often referred to as the copyright model.Collaboration is central to professional development,knowledge exchange and networking between policymakers and creative practitioners.In 2018,the World Conference on the Creative Economy was created to foster international collaboration;highlight the role of creativity in driving inclusive and sustainable economies;and shift the focus from dependence on natural resources to knowledge-based economies.5 The ASEAN-UK Advancing Creative Economy programme is delivered/launched by the British Council,6 with co-funding from the UKs Foreign,Commonwealth,&Development Office and in partnership with the ASEAN Secretariat,which focuses on boosting professional development,cultural exchange and research in the arts and creative sectors.1.British Council.(2024,October 12).About Creative Economy.British Council.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/creativeconomy.britishcouncil.org/about/2.United Nations Economist Network.(2021).Creative economy.United Nations.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/orange_economy_14_march.pdf3.United Nations Industrial Development Organization.(2022).The creative ecosystem:Facilitating the development of creative industries.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/www.unido.org/publications/ot/96535234.World Intellectual Property Organization.(2017).The economic contribution of copyright-based industries in the global economy.WIPO.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/copyright/893/wipo_pub_893.pdf5.World Conference on Creative Economy.(n.d.).About.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/www.wcce.uz/en/pages/about6.Programme that aims to strengthen the creative economy of ASEAN Member States through collaboration with the UK,focusing on professional development,knowledge exchange,and building networks of policymakers and creative practitioners in both regions.7.British Council Indonesia.(n.d.).ASEAN Creative Economy Initiative.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/www.britishcouncil.id/en/programmes/arts/asean-creative-economy-initiative-08.Gasparin,M.,&Quinn,M.(2021).Designing regional innovation systems in transitional economies:A creative ecosystem approach.Growth and Change,Vol.52 No.2,pp.621-640.https:/doi.org/10.1111/grow.12441 9.Gross,J.D.,&Wilson,N.C.(2019).Creating the environment:The cultural eco-systems of creative people and places.Kings College London.10.Markusen,A.,et al.(2011).Creative cities:A 10-year research agenda.Retrieved February 28,2025,from ResearchGate database.11.De Bernard,M.,Comunian,R.,Gross,J.(2022).Understanding the role of higher education as part of a wider creative and cultural ecosystem.Cultural Trends,31(4),332353.https:/doi.org/10.1080/09548963.2022.211032212.Fahmi,M.,et al.(2017).Creative economy policy in developing countries:The case of Indonesia.Urban Studies,Vol.54,No.6,pp.1367-1384.Retrieved February 28,2025,https:/www.jstor.org/stable/26151420By empowering policymakers and practitioners,the programme aims to foster innovation and creativity across the region.7 ASEAN and the UK are committed to advancing cooperation in specified priority areas through designated activities.The ecosystem approach is better capturing and bridging knowledge gaps by providing a mechanism through which information can be collated and fed into the policy process,8 especially based on the reasons below:1.Neither policy frameworks nor institutions are developing at the same pace as innovation and growth are occurring within sectors of the economy.This results in a situation where innovation and creativity hotspots can be mismanaged by policymakers who are unable to react to the rapidly changing landscape they are dealing with.2.The complex interrelations always-already exist9 in processes of cultural and creative practice and cultural and creative product delivery.103.This approach to analysing and understanding the cultural and creative sectors stresses the importance of relations among actors.11 Further theories of creative economies need to be developed ad hoc for specific contexts,as they cannot be a direct translation of Western concepts into the Asian context.12BackgroundRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy7Regional Perception Poll on the ASEAN Creative EconomyStudy approachThe ecosystem approach is essential for bridging knowledge gaps and strengthening the policymaking process by creating a framework for collating and integrating information.8 This is particularly crucial as policy frameworks and institutions often lag behind the rapid innovation and growth occurring in various economic sectors.Consequently,policymakers may struggle to manage innovation hotspots effectively in a constantly evolving landscape.Moreover,understanding the cultural and creative sectors requires a nuanced approach which emphasises the intricate relationships among the actors involved.11 The complex interrelations inherent in cultural and creative practices call for tailored theories of creative economies,which are context-specific rather than adaptations of Western concepts for Asian contexts.12 This underscores the importance of developing frameworks that are responsive to local dynamics and can effectively inform policy decisions.8.Gasparin,M.,&Quinn,M.(2021).Designing regional innovation systems in transitional economies:A creative ecosystem approach.Growth and Change,Vol.52 No.2,pp.621-640.https:/doi.org/10.1111/grow.12441 11.De Bernard,M.,Comunian,R.,Gross,J.(2022).Understanding the role of higher education as part of a wider creative and cultural ecosystem.Cultural Trends,31(4),332353.https:/doi.org/10.1080/09548963.2022.211032212.Fahmi,M.,et al.(2017).Creative economy policy in developing countries:The case of Indonesia.Urban Studies,Vol.54,No.6,pp.1367-1384.Retrieved February 28,2025,https:/www.jstor.org/stable/26151420Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy8The microsystem refers to the immediate environment and core components directly involving Creative Players.The exosystem encompasses settings in which the Creative Players are not an active participant but where events occur that influence or are influenced by their environment.The macrosystem represents the broader context in which the ecosystem operates,including external factors,trends and forces that shape its overall dynamics and functioning.The study aims to capture perceptions from both producers and consumers,divided into two groups:the General Public and creative economy players,or Creative Players.The analysis of the General Public category aims to assess societys understanding of the changes in the landscape of ASEANs cultural and creative sector.In contrast,the Creative Players category focuses on the creative economy ecosystem in ASEAN and comprises creative enterprises and businesses,associations,government agencies,creative makers and academic institutions.This approach seeks to identify the challenges and opportunities within the cultural and creative sectors in the region.CulturePolicyMarketTechnologyMediaPartnershipInfrastructureIP managementBusiness supportSkills and capacity buildingEducation and researchMajor supportersMicrosystemMacrosystemExosystemFigure 1.The ecosystem approachRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy9 Survey objectivesMethodologyUltimately,this survey provides recommendations for framing future collaborations between the UK and ASEAN in promoting creative economic development.Specifically,the objectives of the study are:to understand the changing landscape of the cultural and creative sectors in ASEANto understand the challenges and opportunities of the cultural and creative sectors in ASEANusing the results,to form the baseline reporting to assess the state of play in the creative economy in ASEAN and inform efforts to improve regional cooperation in promoting the development of the ASEAN creative economy.Surveys are a vital tool for gathering opinions from diverse ASEAN-wide stakeholders and gaining insights into the regional issues,aspirations and challenges faced by various communities.13 Through both online and on-paper data capture techniques,surveys can effectively reach specific communities and clusters,ensuring inclusivity and representation across different demographics and sectors.This dual approach allows for broader participation,catering for those with limited internet access while also making use of digital platforms for quicker and more efficient data collection.Such comprehensive engagement is crucial for understanding stakeholders multifaceted perspectives,which can inform regional policy dialogues as well as interventions to improve cooperation and deal with pressing concerns within the ASEAN framework.Literature review Contextual,policy and cultural assessment Focus group discussion within country partner and experts Dimension and sub-dimension selection Content and face validity assessment Pilot survey(beta testing)Launch cross-country survey Data quality monitoring Validity and reliability test Descriptive and cross-tab analysis Content analysis(for text data)Benchmarking Challenges and opportunity identification Data augmentation and forecasting Future cooperation mapping Reports writing and infographic design(audience assessment)Variable identificationsStartInstrument development and validationsResult review and analysisReporting and recommendationSurvey deployment13.Scribbr.(n.d.).Survey research.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/ 2.Research methodologyRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy10Of the sample population,38 per cent are members of the General Public and 62 per cent are creative economy players.These distributions are proportionate to demographic factors,total population sizes and the creative economys contribution to economic growth.Notably,the sample representation is slightly higher for Singapore,Malaysia,Indonesia,the Philippines,Viet Nam and Thailand,reflecting ASEANs trend in exporting creative goods.14 Table 1 provides a detailed overview of the survey methodology based on these demographic categories.Our objective is to gather a total of 4,117 data points,distributed as follows:Table 1.Distribution of samplesBrunei DarussalamCambodiaIndonesiaLao PDRMalaysiaMyanmarThe PhilippinesSingaporeThailandViet NamTimor-Leste103 100 200 112 244 149 113 250 150 100 50125 100 400 87 519 158 306 201 300 300 50228 200 600 199 763 307 419 451 450 400 100Countries General Public Creative Players TOTAL 14.ASEAN Secretariat.(2021).Mapping the readiness of ASEANs creative ecosystem.The ASEAN Magazine.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/theaseanmagazine.asean.org/article/mapping-the-readiness-of-aseans-creative-ecosystem/Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy11Demographic profile of the respondentsGeneral PublicThe analysis of the General Public category aims to evaluate societys overall understanding of the evolving landscape of the cultural and creative sectors within ASEAN.The objective is to gather insights into public awareness and perceptions of the creative economy,as well as how individuals support it,particularly through consumption.The demographic profile of the General Public samples does not discriminate against respondents based on specific criteria such as gender,disability or location.This ensures inclusivity and a comprehensive representation of societal views.Gender distribution among the sampled society at the ASEAN level is slightly weighted towards those who identify as female(51 per cent).However,the survey also represents male respondents(47 per cent),individuals who chose not to disclose their gender(one per cent)and other genders (one per cent).Approximately six per cent of participants identified as individuals with disabilities(including D/deaf,disabled or neurodivergent people).A very small percentage of those surveyed(one per cent)chose not to answer.The majority of participants(93 per cent)did not identify as having any disability.Determining respondents country of origin and country of residence is vital when carrying out regional surveys as these factors shape consumer perceptions and migration patterns.Country of origin influences how consumers view product quality and brand reputation,often leading to preferences for goods from specific countries,such as Indonesian batik or Thai tea.Meanwhile,country of residence affects migration decisions,as individuals consider economic opportunities and living conditions.Understanding these factors will help ensure migrants needs are met,thereby fostering economic growth and cultural integration within regions.Of the 11 countries surveyed,four(Cambodia,Lao PDR,the Philippines,and Singapore)have residents who are living outside of their country of origin.Among these,Lao PDR has the highest percentage of its citizens now residing in other countries,accounting for seven per cent.For Cambodia,the Philippines,and Singapore,the figures are four per cent,one per cent and one per cent respectively.47Q%1%1%Prefer not to sayOthersMaleFemaleFigure 3.Gender proportions(%)Figure 4.Disability proportion(%)93%1%Prefer not to sayNo6%Yes96%4%7%1igure 5.Country of residence:General Public category(%)CambodiaLao PDRPhilippinesSingapore93%Same as initial countryDifferent from initial countryRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy12Creative PlayersFigure 6.Creative Players category composition(%)This study subdivides the Creative Players category according to two basic factors:organisational type and type of creative outputs.This is in recognition of the fact that the creative economy of a region thrives when various stakeholders support one another within their ecosystem.We classify stakeholders into six organisational types:1.freelance/gig workers2.government 3.employees in micro-,small or medium-sized enterprises4.employees in large businesses5.academic institutions6.trade/business organisations/associations.Furthermore,we acknowledge that the creative economy produces a diverse range of output that can vary significantly between countries.We therefore include 13 specific outputs for creative economic sub-sectors,15 along with an open-ended option to ensure comprehensive coverage of the entire creative economy.According to the Regional Perception Poll on the ASEAN Creative Economy,Creative Players in the ASEAN region are predominantly freelance/gig workers(42 per cent)and employees in micro-,small or medium-sized enterprises,i.e.those with fewer than 100 employees(25 per cent).In contrast,government roles and other affiliations represent a relatively small proportion.This finding aligns with the understanding that the creative economy relies significantly on the contributions of micro-and small enterprises,is driven by innovative ideas,and serves as a crucial catalyst for economic growth.42%9%9%7%5%3%Freelance/gig workerEmployee in a large businessEmployee in a micro,small or medium-sized business(100 people)Academic institutionTrade/business organisationGovernmentOthers15.Fashion design and clothing technology;built environment(architecture,building design,landscape design,urban design and planning,interior design);film,video and photography;television and radio(broadcast and podcast);performing arts(music,dance,theatre);literature and publishing;advertising and marketing;visual arts and crafts;animation and video games;design(product,furniture,graphic,etc.);IT,software and computer services;and gastronomy/culinary.Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy13According to the perception poll,the majority of creative output in the region is represented by visual arts and crafts,while the lowest percentage is attributed to animation and video games.The data indicates that fashion design and clothing technology,film,video and photography,and performing arts(including music,dance,and theatre)account for a relatively small proportion of the creative output in terms of the overall percentage across countries.Examining the data on a country-by-country basis indicates that certain nations exhibit similar patterns in terms of the dominance of particular creative outputs.For instance,Thailand,the Philippines,Myanmar,and Brunei Darussalam typically generate more output in visual arts and crafts than in other creative sectors.Conversely,Indonesia and Malaysia focus primarily on design outputs,such as product design,furniture design and graphic design.Additionally,Viet Nam and Timor-Leste have a higher concentration of gastronomic/culinary creative output.There are also countries whose dominant creative outputs are unique.For example,distinct from other nations,Singapore primarily produces creative outputs in IT,software and computer services.Lao PDR tends to focus on advertising and marketing,while Cambodia shows a preference for outputs related to the built environment,such as architecture,building design,landscape design,urban design and planning,and interior design.Brunei Daru-ssalamCam-bodiaIndone-siaLao PDRMalay-siaMyan-marThe Philip-pinesSinga-poreThai-landViet NamTimor LesteFashion design and clothing technology3%8%9%7%4%8%1%Built environment(architecture,building design,landscape design,urban design and planning,interior design)3&%7%4%5%5%7%2%6%Film,video and photography15%9%7%6%8%7%Television and radio(broadcast and podcast)4%6%2%2%2%2%3%3%2%1%6%Performing arts(music,dance,theatre)8%8%1%6%9%4%7%3%4%Literature and publishing4%5%6%0%7%7%6%7%5%2vertising and marketing20%8B%4%6%2%2%Visual arts and crafts16%97%5W%4%Animation and video games5%2%7%5%4%2%4%2%3%1%0sign(product,furniture,graphic,etc.)13%9%4#%6%7%9%4%2%IT,software and computer services3%3%4%1%5%2%3%1%5%6%Gastronomy/culinary3%4%0%3%2%3%2 $%Others(please specify)3%0%0%0%0%1%3%1%4%0%Highest percentage of each countryLowest percentage of each country(excluding those who chose the Others option)Table 2.Creative output by country(%)Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy14The creative economy in ASEAN:current state of playThe growth of creative sectors varies across the ASEAN region.Following the Boston Consulting Groups framework for government interventions throughout the creative economy value chain(see Figure 7),16 ASEAN has identified four essential factors that must be considered to boost the creative economy in the region.17 This framework explains how governments can create interventions from the supply side,from the demand side and through market efficiency mechanisms.First,most ASEAN Member States have included the creative economy in their national development strategies.However,the creative industries in Lao PDR and Myanmar are still in the early stages and policy building is essential to development.Second,micro-,small and medium-sized enterprises(MSMEs)have been instrumental in catalysing economic growth,particularly in the creative economy sector.Yet in terms of sustainable financing,MSMEs in ASEAN continue to rely on a blend of private and public funding sources.This reliance stems from two main factors:1.The widespread perception that MSMEs are high-risk ventures for many private financing institutions.2.The dependence of many MSMEs operating in the cultural and artistic sectors on personal financing and donations.Third,digital readiness remains uneven across the area,even though the region hosts some of the fastest-growing digital start-ups(including e-commerce platforms such as Lazada,Shopee,Grab,and Gojek)and has seen a continuous increase in the use of digital financial services.Digital readiness encompasses not only infrastructure but also skills and adoption.Last,the clustering of creative industry networks to foster innovation and growth also appears to be unevenCountries with consolidated national strategies support the development of creative centres.However,the data remains uncoordinated.16.Rosenzweig,J.,Roche,P.,Chishty,F.,Thompson,A.,&Ahmad,F.(2018).How governments are sparking growth in creative industries(Report).Boston Consulting Group.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/web- Secretariat.(2021).The ASEAN Creative Economy(Oct.-Nov.2021 issue).Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/The-ASEAN-Oct-Nov-2021-Digital-v1.pdfRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy15Regional Perception Poll on the ASEAN Creative EconomyThe ASEAN Strategic Plan for Culture and Arts 20162025 has been established to tackle the aforementioned issues and incorporates the following strategies:18Harness the contribution of the creative industries towards innovations,generating livelihoods and supporting economic development in ASEAN Member States.Coordinate an ASEAN-wide funding support mechanism(e.g.financing facilities,venture funds,regional competitive fund),in partnership with the private sector,for the creative industries in the ASEAN region.Facilitate creative industry cooperation in ASEAN in areas such as film,music,and animation,etc.Promote ASEAN as a centre for human resource development and training for cultural and creative sectors by facilitating the linkage of educational institutions and the creative industries for collaboration on technology transfer,capacity building,product and design development,and arts curriculum development.Encourage visits and exchanges between AMS and ASEAN Dialogue Partners(DPs)of persons and professionals engaged in the arts,culture,literature,archival materials,cultural and art education,cultural institutes and creative industries.Partner with cultural institutions(e.g.inter-government institutions,foundations,academies,cultural centres,etc.)in AMS and DPs on programmes and projects related to cultural conservation,cultural and arts education,cultural events and festivals,and creative industries.Figure 7.The BCG framework for government interventions throughout the creative economy value chain Source:(Rosenzweig et al.,2018)18.ASEAN Secretariat.(2016).ASEAN strategic plan for culture and arts 20162025.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/ASEAN-Strategic-Plan-for-Culture-and-Arts-2016-2025.pdfRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy16ASEANUK creative economy cooperationThe cooperation between ASEAN and the UK has strengthened significantly since the UK became a Dialogue Partner in 2021.19 In the Plan of Action to Implement the ASEAN-United Kingdom Dialogue Partnership(20222026),ASEAN and the UK have committed to advancing cooperation in specified priority areas through designated activities.This collaboration will be conducted following their obligations under international law and aligned with their respective domestic laws,regulations and policies.20 One of the specified priority areas economic cooperation21 relates closely to the development of the creative economy in this region.Its plan includes:To promote continued growth in trade,ASEAN and the UK have mutually agreed to collaborate on opening markets and fostering an open,free,and transparent trading environment that supports the rules-based international system.The UK is contributing expertise from both its government and leading private sector to assist ASEANs needs,enhance cooperation in key economic policy areas,and deepen trade relations.The UKs Intellectual Property Office attachs in South-East Asia are actively supporting ASEAN governments,the ASEAN Secretariat,international development partners,and industries in building a rules-based intellectual property system.Meanwhile,the British Standards Institution is advising ASEAN on adopting and implementing international standards to facilitate a common language for trading partners and improve access to global markets.Regular policy exchanges occur between the UK Competition and Markets Authority and the ASEAN Experts Group on Competition,focusing on strengthening ASEANs competition regulations in emerging sectors such as digital markets and sustainability.ASEANUK cooperation on supply chain centres on deepening trade links to enhance economic resilience and foster ASEANs economic growth.The UK has shared expertise with the ASEAN Secretariat through the Boston Consulting Group on opportunities for future sector leadership,including developing frameworks for industrial projects and strengthening the ASEAN medtech sector.In July 2023,the UK announced a 25 million ASEAN-UK Economic Integration Programme designed to support ASEAN economic integration and promote stronger,more equitable growth through improved regulations,better trade systems and expanded access to financial services.1.Trade and investment19.Partner nations that have played an important role in the development of ASEAN over the past half-century.20.ASEAN Secretariat.(2022).Final plan of action to implement the ASEAN-United Kingdom dialogue partnership(20222026).Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/FINAL-ASEAN-UK-POA-2022-2026.pdf21.UK Government.(n.d.).UK-ASEAN factsheet.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-asean-factsheet/uk-asean-factsheet-2Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy17Regional Perception Poll on the ASEAN Creative Economy2.Financial services5.Science and innovation3.Infrastructure4.DigitalThe UK is ASEANs third-largest trading partner in financial services.Financial services represent nearly 16 per cent of the UKs services exports to ASEAN,amounting to approximately 1 billion.The UK is recognised as a leader in financial services innovation,regulation,and talent.Notably,it hosts a thriving fintech ecosystem with over 10,000 fintech firms supported by a favourable regulatory environment.The UK is renowned for its world-class science and technology.It is capable of undertaking joint research with partner countries,supporting technology transfer,and bringing together experts from across the globe to share ideas and expertise.The UKs Newton Fund invested over 114 million in research and innovation activities in Indonesia,Malaysia,the Philippines,Thailand,and Viet Nam between 2014 and 2022.The UK Space Agency supported projects in Indonesia,Malaysia,the Philippines,and Viet Nam under the five-year 152 million(approximately$190 million)International Partnership Programme,which leverages the UK space sectors research and innovation strengths to deliver sustainable economic or societal benefits to emerging and developing economies.Throughout Southeast Asia,the UK has increased its resources dedicated to science and technology,including the appointment of new specialised staff covering the entire ASEAN region in Indonesia and the Philippines,as well as doubling its teams in Singapore and Malaysia.In 202223,the UK provided over 1 million in programme funding for collaborative projects in Thailand,Singapore,and Viet Nam focusing on digital standards,genomics,marine autonomy,climate science,and electro-mobility.Following the launch of the UKs International Technology Strategy in March 2023,more than 400,000 will be invested in the financial year 202324 in projects with ASEAN Member States concerning artificial intelligence(AI)and engineering biology.The UK possesses expertise across the entire lifecycle of infrastructure development and aims to share this knowledge while facilitating the involvement of UK businesses in supporting ASEAN projects.The UKs ASEAN Sustainable Leadership in Infrastructure Programme unites voices from academia,multilateral organisations,and the private sector to equip ASEAN policymakers with the tools,models,and experience required to plan,procure,and deliver sustainable,resilient infrastructure for all.The ASEAN-UK Digital Innovation Partnership serves as the UKs platform for digital cooperation with ASEAN,focusing on three core pillars:digital economy business partnerships,digital trade policy,and digital government.The partnership seeks to identify where digital solutions can best deliver mutual benefits for UK and Southeast Asian businesses,encompassing areas such as e-payments,regulatory reform,and trade facilitation.In February,the British Standards Institution shared best policy practices on the implementation of recognised standards in digital trade.From 13 to 14 March 2023,UK-Southeast Asia Tech Week was held in Jakarta,Indonesia,the location of the ASEAN Secretariat and the capital of the 2023 Chair.The UK sent a delegation of companies to ASEAN to exchange ideas and explore business opportunities with some of the brightest technology minds in the region.Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy18Bridging the gap:boosting ASEANs creative economyTable 3 is based on the four essential factors that must be considered to boost the creative economy in the region and increase cooperation between ASEAN and the UK.It outlines areas where initiatives are already abundant and where significant improvements are still needed.The ASEAN Creative Economy Sustainability Framework is designed to provide a platform and act as a roadmap for ASEAN policymakers and relevant stakeholders to co-create a way forward in developing the cultural and creative industries(CCIs).It facilitates the exchange of ideas and views concerning the Creative Economy and appraises pertinent research and evidence with the aim of developing a whole-of-ASEAN approach to drive regional cooperation.No initiatives were planned or executed.The UK partnered with the Asia-Pacific Financial Forum and ASEAN Business Advisory Council to deliver a forum for regional discussions on digital trade,supply chain finance,financial infrastructure and sustainable growth for micro-,small and medium-sized enterprises.The UK launched the report Green Finance:Opportunities for Deeper ASEAN-UK Cooperation.The Bank of England is running several virtual workshops on payment systems for ASEAN central banks,hosted by Bank Indonesia.UK-Southeast Asia Tech Week was delivered in Bangkok,Ho Chi Minh,and Singapore,with delegates joining from Malaysia and the Philippines.This brought together British and Southeast Asian tech companies,researchers and officials to build new commercial partnerships,exchange ideas and agree on new areas of collaboration.In support of the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs),the UK supports the regional Research and Innovation for Development in ASEAN(RIDA)programme and a separate regional training programme on technology commercialisation(ASEAN i-Teams,focused on Indonesia and Viet Nam).In June 2024,the UK launched a new initiative on AI for Sustainable Development in ASEAN(AISDA)at the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Science,Technology and Innovation.The inaugural ASEAN-UK Dialogue on Science,Technology and Innovation was held in the Philippines.The UK supported more than 100 businesses,researchers and government officials from Southeast Asia to visit the UK for London Tech Week.The programme included site visits to research and development centres,meetings with UK tech companies and investor and policy roundtables.ASEANUK cooperationFactor:Policy buildingFactor:Sustainable financingFactor:Digital readinessFactor:ClusteringSource:https:/www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-asean-association-of-southeast-asian-nations-factsheetTable 3.Factors to enhance creative economy and ASEANUK cooperationRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy19The creative economy landscape:ASEANlevel perspectivesPerceptions from the General PublicThe survey of the General Public aims to uncover general perceptions about the creative economy in each ASEAN Member State and across the region.It covers public awareness,perceptions,perceived importance,consumption patterns and perceived barriers.These di-mensions are important in shaping creative economy demands and public support towards creative economy developments in the region.See appendix 1 for more detailed visual illustrations of the data.A total of 47 per cent of respondents are somewhat familiar with the term creative economy.This represents the highest proportion of respondents in ten of the 11 participating countries(all except Cambodia).This moderate level of familiarity suggests that while awareness of the term is not universal,it is to some degree acknowledged,recognised or understood based on prior experience or knowledge.In the majority of countries that are somewhat familiar with the creative economy,this is attributed to numerous initiatives undertaken at the ASEAN level by relevant stakeholders,including national policies and frameworks,as well as the direction of creative economy development in each country.In Cambodia,however,survey results indicate that the majority of its society is not familiar with the term.AwarenessIn all the ASEAN Member States,members of the public perceive the creative economy in the region as experiencing significant growth,with 60 per cent of total respondents affirming this trend.One major driver of this expansion is increased consumer investment in creative outputs,which stimulates job creation and economic development.22 Other drivers are technological innovations such as digital distribution and AI,which transform the production and consumption of creative products by lowering costs and enabling new business models for global reach.23 Moreover,the creative economy contributes not only to economic growth but also to cultural diversity and social inclusion,playing a crucial role in shaping societal values and ideologies across ASEAN.24 Perception22.Deloitte.(n.d.).The future of the creative economy.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/ Nations Conference on Trade and Development.(n.d.).Creative economy programme.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/unctad.org/topic/trade-analysis/creative-economy-programm24.United Nations.(2021).Creative economy.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/www.un.org/sites/un2.un.org/files/orange_economy_14_march.pdf47%somewhat familiar with the term creative economy.18scribe the current state of the creative economy in the ASEAN region as growing.Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy2025.ASEAN Secretariat.(2021).Supporting the creative economy for sustainable development in Southeast Asia.The ASEAN Magazine.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/theaseanmagazine.asean.org/article/supporting-the-creative-economy-for-sustainable-development-in-southeast-asia/26.Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia.(n.d.).Indonesias report on creative services(Chapter 5).Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/www.eria.org/Chapter 5-Indonesias Report on Creative Services.pdf27.ASEAN Secretariat.(2021).Supporting the creative economy for sustainable development in Southeast Asia(Part 2).The ASEAN Magazine.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/theaseanmagazine.asean.org/article/supporting-the-creative-economy-for-sustainable-development-in-southeast-asia-2/A total of 43 per cent of respondents indicate that the development of the ASEAN creative economy has a positive impact on economic growth,benefiting communities at the regional level.This view is held by the highest proportion of respondents in ten of the 11 countries(all except Myanmar).The creative economy in the ASEAN region has emerged as a crucial catalyst for economic growth.The regions exports of creative products are predominantly driven by the design sector,with notable contributions from Indonesia and Thailand.25For Myanmar,the creative economy is perceived as having the biggest effect on improving quality of life,followed by improving access to employment opportunities,with its social benefits considered to be greater than its economic impact.Perceived importance53%agree that the primary barrier to increased consumption of creative products and services from ASEAN is the high cost.43onomic growthBetter quality of lifeAccess to jobPreservation and promotion of cultural heritageThis view is held by the highest proportion of respondents in five of the 11 countries(Indonesia,Malaysia,Myanmar,Thailand and Viet Nam)In contrast,the remaining five countries(Brunei Darussalam,Cambodia,Lao PDR,Singapore and Timor-Leste)tend to consume these creative offerings occasionally,while the Philippines demonstrates a moderate level of consumption.The ASEAN Member States varying levels of engagement with creative products and services can be attributed to a combination of economic,cultural,technological and policy-related factors.Notably,Indonesias government has made significant strides in promoting its creative economy as a national priority,positively affecting consumption levels in this country.26Consumption39%indicate that they frequently consume creative goods and services,such as local films,streaming videos,music,books and local crafts.BarriersThis view is held by the majority of respondents in seven of the 11 countries(Cambodia,Indonesia,Lao PDR,Malaysia,Myanmar,Singapore and Thailand).This pricing issue arises from various factors,including market dynamics,production costs and the evolving nature of the creative economy.There is a growing consumer preference for unique,culturally rich and high-quality offerings,particularly as countries such as Indonesia,Malaysia and the Philippines promote their creative industries,leading to heightened demand for distinctive local goods and subsequently higher prices.27Additionally,many ASEAN Member States still lack robust policies to support their creative sectors effectively.The absence of financial sustainability frameworks and standard valuation practices can hinder growth and perpetuate elevated prices due to inefficiencies in production and distribution.21Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy21To sum up,the General Public in the ASEAN region shows only moderate awareness of what a creative economy is and limited understanding of how the public can contribute to it.This is reflected in ASEAN Member States varying consumption of and engagement with creative products and services.Creative products are still perceived as high-cost and out of reach for most members of the public.On the positive side,the public believes that the creative economy is a catalyst for economic growth and could contribute to a larger national economy.Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy22Perceptions from Creative PlayersThe creative economy is inseparable from the interactions and co-creation that occur between its players.Our survey uncovered opinions from Creative Players,academic institutions,associations and government agencies to provide insights into the current landscape of the creative economy,from the micro level to exo-and macro-level perspectives.This sheds important light on the level at which interventions are needed to support creative economy growth.Creative thinking and problem-solving are crucial for generating innovative solutions and adapting to complex challenges in todays world.Soft skills like communication and teamwork,along with marketing and branding abilities,are also essential for effectively collaborating and promoting creative work.28This view is held by the majority of respondents in 10 of the 11 countries(all except Indonesia).The growing demand for the creative economy has driven curriculum innovation focusing on creativity and practical knowledge application.Institutions now incorporate project-based learning and real-world problem-solving into their programmes.29 Many educational institutions partner with creative industries to keep curricula relevant and aligned with market needs,boosting student employability through experiential learning and networking opportunities.30 In contrast,Indonesian Creative Players believe there is a larger role for creative and cultural programmes via communities,social media or forums,along with non-formal education such as courses and certifications.This view is held by the majority of respondents in six of the 11 countries(Indonesia,Malaysia,the Philippines,Singapore,Thailand and Viet Nam).Collaboration between government and non-governmental support is crucial for the growth of the creative economy,as both sectors fulfil complementary roles.This synergistic partnership fosters innovation,drives economic growth and cultivates a supportive environment for entrepreneurs,ultimately maximising the potential of the creative economy.However,in five other countries(Brunei Darussalam,Cambodia,Lao PDR,Myanmar,and Timor-Leste),opportunities are viewed as being predominantly derived from non-governmental organisations,with limited options available.Microsystem(supports human capital)A total ofA total of534%of respondents acknowledge the existence of schools or campuses offering creative and cultural programmes,primarily within formal education.All countries agree that creative thinking and problem-solving are highly important,followed by soft skills(munication and teamwork)and marketing and branding(to promote creative work).of respondents concur that support and opportunities for training and development to build skill sets and boost competitiveness stem primarily from both governmental and non-governmental organisations.28.Harvard Business School Online.(n.d.).What is creative problem solving?Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/online.hbs.edu/blog/post/what-is-creative-problem-solving29.Peters,T.(2007).Creative problem solving Paper.Pacific Education Studies Association.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/pesa.org.au/images/papers/2007-papers/peters2007.pdf30.Comunian,R.,Faggian,A.,&Li,Q.C.(2015).Higher education and the creative economy:Creative graduates,knowledge transfer and regional impact debates.European Planning Studies,23(10),20172034.https:/doi.org/10.1111/gec3.12220Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy23This view is held by all countries.The internet makes creative products more visible,allowing creators to present their work without significant financial investment.Additionally,it fosters community engagement and builds relationships between consumers and producers.31IP rights are crucial for safeguarding the creativity and innovations that drive the creative economy.They empower creators such as artists,musicians and designers to monetise their work and gain recognition,fostering an environment conducive to further creativity and innovation.The World Intellectual Property Organization(WIPO)underscores that IP not only protects individual creations but also promotes cultural and social advancement by encouraging the emergence of new products and services.32 In Singapore,accessing IP support appears to be relatively straightforward,whereas in Brunei Darussalam,it is perceived as either difficult(specifically concerning IP registration and legal advice)or uncertain(regarding IP valuation and commercialisation).This view is held by the majority of respondents in ten of the 11 countries(all except Cambodia).Research indicates a positive correlation between improved digital infrastructure and the expansion of creative industries,as it enables faster information exchange and fosters innovative business practices.33 Furthermore,targeted policies are essential for nurturing talent and enhancing digital creative industries,especially in developing regions where there is significant demand for local content but a shortage of skilled professionals.34Exosystem(supports for the making of work within the creative economy)52%In 7 of 1 1 countries49%of respondents agree that the internet is the most frequently used medium for seeking information about the creative economy.(Cambodia,Indonesia,Lao PDR,Malaysia,Myanmar,the Philippines and Thailand),Creative Players adopt a neutral stance towards IP(IP)support,including IP registration,valuation,commercialisation and associated support services such as legal advice.of respondents agree that high-speed internet access for digital creation is the most crucial infrastructure for stimulating the growth of cultural and creative industries.31.Deloitte LLP.(2021).The future of the creative economy(Report prepared for Netflix International B.V.).Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/ Reputeo.(n.d.).Intellectual property:Creative economy driver.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/ impact of digital infrastructure on creative economy growth in Indonesia.International Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research,ISSN:2579-7298 Vol.6,No.1,June 2022.34.Asian Development Bank.(2021).Targeted policies:Digital creative industries can drive economic growth in Asia and Pacific.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/www.adb.org/news/targeted-policies-digital-creative-industries-can-drive-economic-growth-asia-and-pacificA total ofA total ofRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy24This view is held by the majority of respondents in seven of the 11 countries(Cambodia,Indonesia,Lao PDR,Malaysia,Myanmar,Viet Nam and Timor-Leste).Business registration is essential for safeguarding IP rights for creative entrepreneurs.The connection between business registration and the creative economy is complex,encompassing legal protection,economic contributions,streamlined processes,collaborative support systems and enhanced competitiveness.35 This legal protection encourages creativity by creating a secure environment where creators can invest time and resources without the fear of losing their work to unfair competition.The next most important business supports,according to respondents,are aspects related to labour laws,digital rights management,and consumer protections.These are all considered to be difficult to implement but crucial,considering the nature of the creative economy,which is dominated by informal workers and artists.When viewed through the lens of the value chain,design,marketing and promotion,and production stage make the most use of technology to produce creative output.This view is held by the majority of respondents in ten of the 11 countries(all except Lao PDR).Digital technologies make innovation significantly more efficient,catalysing the creative industries to develop new products and services.36 However,in Lao PDR,the greatest use of technology is observed in marketing and promotion processes.9%of respondents believe that business registration,licensing and permits are the most critical aspects for supporting the development of the creative economy.35.World Intellectual Property Organization.(n.d.).Leveraging Indonesias creative economy.WIPO Magazine.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/www.wipo.int/en/web/wipo-magazine/articles/leveraging-indonesias-creative-economy-4099236.Zhao,X.,Shen,L.,Jiang,Z.(2024).The impact of the digital economy on creative industries development:Empirical evidence based on the China.PMC.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10917265/A total ofRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy25Macrosystem(supports the environment)This view is held by the majority of respondents in seven of the 11 countries(Cambodia,Indonesia,Malaysia,Myanmar,Singapore,Thailand and Viet Nam).Local wisdom not only boosts local economic competitiveness but also stimulates the creative economy.Indeed,research indicates that local economic competitiveness positively influences the creative economy,both directly and indirectly,through local wisdom.37 However,in Brunei Darussalam,the majority of Creative Players view local wisdom and culture as having a neutral influence on the development of creative and cultural products and services.This view is held by the majority of respondents in six of the 11 countries(Indonesia,Lao PDR,Myanmar,the Philippines,Thailand and Viet Nam).This constraint severely impairs the growth and sustainability of the creative economy,as many entrepreneurial ventures rely on personal funds instead of external capital,due to the intangible nature of their assets.Hesitation on the part of traditional financial institutions to lend without tangible collateral compounds the issue and is exacerbated by insufficient understanding and support from financial entities.38 For Creative Players in countries such as Brunei Darussalam,Cambodia,Malaysia,Singapore and Thailand,additional hurdles include lack of digital capabilities,insufficient market information and an inability to scale business models effectively for international expansion.These combined challenges significantly hamper the development of vibrant creative economies in these countries.This view is held by the majority of respondents in nine of the 11 countries(all except Myanmar and the Philippines).The absence of effective regional coordination results in inefficient resource allocation,where local governments may neglect funding for creative projects or fail to obtain external support.Additionally,power dynamics can lead to conflicts among stakeholders,undermining the collaboration that is essential for creativity.This fragmentation also creates a disconnect between cultural initiatives and economic outcomes,as regions often fail to recognise culture as a significant economic asset.Collectively,these factors obstruct the growth and sustainability of the creative economy.39 In contrast,respondents in Myanmar and the Philippines highlight different challenges.One is inadequate infrastructure and the lack of a supportive ecosystem for promoting the creative economy at the regional level.Another is limited access to financing for cultural and creative industries.54%P%of respondents agree that local wisdom and culture significantly affect the development of creative and cultural products and services.of respondents recog-nise limited access to financing as the primary obstacle in accessing domestic and interna-tional markets for cul-tural and creative goods and services.of respondents identify lack of regional coor-dination and cooper-ation as the primary challenge hindering the development of the creative economy at the regional level.37.Thalib,A.,et al.(2024).Strategy to increase local economic competitiveness through local wisdom-based creative economy.Nomico Journal,(E-ISSN:3046-6318).38.Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.(2022).Financing SMEs and entrepreneurs 2022:An OECD scoreboard.OECD Publishing.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2022/03/financing-smes-and-entrepreneurs-2022_f1884241/e9073a0f-en.pdf39.Elmia,A.(2023).Supporting tourism development through creative economy clusters in Lebak District.Jurnal Kepariwisataan:Destinasi,Hospitalitas dan Perjalanan,Vol.7 No.2,256270.https:/doi.org/10.34013/jk.v7i2.1276A total ofA total ofA total ofRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy26Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy27Regional Perception Poll on the ASEAN Creative EconomyPublic awareness of the creative economy remains relatively weak(only 21 per cent of respondents are very familiar with the term),making it challenging to build widespread recognition of its value and potential.High production costs in the creative industry often lead to high cost perceptions among consumers(53 per cent),which can hinder public consumption of creative goods and services.There is a varying degree of consumption across ASEAN countries,with some nations demonstrating relatively high engagement(Indonesia,Malaysia,Myanmar,Thailand and Viet Nam),while others report moderate to low levels of participation in the creative economy(Brunei Darussalam,Cambodia,Lao PDR,Singapore,the Philippines and Timor-Leste).There is a significant need to improve creative thinking and problem-solving,soft skills and marketing and branding across the region to better equip individuals and businesses for participation in the increasingly digital-driven creative economy.This lack of awareness often leads to misconceptions about the sector,resulting in limited public support and reduced opportunities for growth and innovation.This challenge is compounded by limited scalability and access to affordable resources,which restrict the ability of creative businesses to offer competitive pricing.These disparities highlight the need for targeted strategies related to specific cultural,economic and infrastructural factors influencing consumption patterns in different countries.Creative professionals often produce work that is abstract or subjective,so it may be undervalued or misunderstood if people lack creative thinking skills.Without marketing and communication skills,creative work might not reach the right audience,limiting visibility and impact.Creative workers may fail to articulate the value of their creations to funders,clients or the public.Challenges and opportunitiesBased on the survey results,the challenges and opportunities are clear.The challenges found are varied and exist at all levels,from the individual to the system.On the other hand,there are several opportunities from formal education to global trends that could present larger opportunities for the ASEAN creative economies to grow.Table 4.Challenges,opportunities and implicationsChallengesImplicationsRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy28Access to domestic and international markets presents a critical challenge.Regional coordination among the ASEAN Member States needs to be strengthened(50 per cent)to create a cohesive and supportive ecosystem for the creative economy,enabling collaboration and shared growth across the region.Support for IP management remains underdeveloped,with gaps in registration processes and commercialisation strategies making it difficult for creative industry players to effectively monetise their works.These barriers include:1.a lack of access to financing to promote cultural and creative goods and services2.a lack of digital capabilities to connect with marketplaces within their country of residence,as well as in the region and globally3.a lack of market information and the know-how to penetrate overseas markets.A unified approach would allow for the pooling of resources,the sharing of best practices and the establishment of regional standards to elevate the overall competitiveness of ASEANs creative industries.This situation discourages innovation and creativity,as creators are often unable to protect their ideas or gain financial returns from their intellectual contributions.ChallengesImplicationsRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy29Formal educational institutions are perceived to be actively supporting the cultural and creative sectors,with more than half of re-spondents affirming the presence of relevant programmes in schools and colleges.Internet and social media are the main channels for citizens to obtain information as well as for Creative Players to promote their works.Local wisdom and culture significantly affect the development of creative and cultural products and services.This could be a good foundation to shape the uniqueness of each countrys creative economy.Harness these education systems to foster innovation hubs and incubators within universities,connecting students with industry mentors and resources to turn their ideas into market-ready creative products.Collaborate with educational institutions to design tailored programmes that respond to emerging trends in the creative economy,such as digital storytelling,AI-driven design and sustainability in creative production.Develop regional platforms or digital marketplaces to connect ASEAN Creative Players with a global audience,enabling seamless promotion and sales of creative works.Use data analytics tools to understand consumer preferences and optimise online campaigns,driving higher engagement and fostering brand loyalty.Integrate local traditions and cultural narratives into modern creative products,such as digital content,fashion and design,to create offerings that stand out in global markets.Promote cultural tourism by developing high-tech and immersive experiences that combine local crafts,storytelling and technology,attracting both domestic and international visitors.OpportunitiesImplications53RT%Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy30Cluster 1 This comprises countries that demonstrate high awareness of creative products.They possess comprehensive infrastructure,with supportive policies and institutions for creative industries.Additionally,the diversity of their range of creative sectors promotes innovation and entrepreneurship,highlighting the sectors importance for economic growth.40 Countries in this cluster are also characterised by offering easy access to support,for both IP-and business-related needs.Cluster 2 This includes countries with rapidly expanding creative sectors,marked by significant increases in the trade of creative goods.This trend indicates a rising interest in creative trade.Governments in this cluster are recognising the importance of the creative economy and are implementing initiatives to incorporate it into national development strategies.41 Support for upskilling and infrastructure are perceived as broadly sufficient but with room for improvement.Cluster 3 These countries face major challenges in developing their creative economies,including inadequate infrastructure,restrictive policies and low market engagement with minimal regional trade contributions.42 These countries are characterised by a lower level of awareness.Crucial improvements to skills and infrastructure are needed.The players also perceive a lack of IP management and business support available in their area.Details of these three clusters are provided in Table 5.ConclusionThese results drawn from surveys conducted both in society generally and among Creative Players specifically show certain patterns and could be categorised into clusters to identify the similarities and differences between countries in the region.The clustering was undertaken by examining the degree of public awareness,the importance of specific skills and knowledge,the ease of obtaining support for IP,perceptions of infrastructure,and perceptions of business support between countries in the region.Three possible clusters have been identified according to their distinct characteristics.Responding to these variations through targeted policies and initiatives will be crucial for boosting the overall resilience and sustainability of the regions creative economy.40.Asian Development Bank Institute.(2020).Creative economy 2030:The Asian way of creative economy.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/804501/adbi-creative-economy-2030.pdf41.ASEAN Secretariat.(2021).Mapping the readiness of ASEANs creative ecosystem.The ASEAN Magazine.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/theaseanmagazine.asean.org/article/mapping-the-readiness-of-aseans-creative-ecosystem/42.Universitas Muhammadiyah Yogyakarta.(n.d.).Chapter II:Creative economy development in South East Asia PDF.UMY Repository.Retrieved February 28,2025,from https:/repository.umy.ac.id/bitstream/handle/123456789/29595/6. CHAPTER II.pdf?sequence=6&isAllowed=yRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy31Table 5.General Public and Creative Players perceptions of the creative economyCluster 1Cluster 2Cluster 3Country identifiedIndonesiaSingaporeMalaysiaThailandPhilippinesViet NamMyanmarCambodiaTimor-LesteBrunei DarussalamLao PDRDegree of public awarenessVery familiarSomewhat familiarSomewhat familiarImportance of specific skills/knowledge A small number of skills are considered very importantSeveral skills are considered very importantSeveral to all skills are considered very importantEase of getting support for IPAll easy to neutralThe majority are neutralMajority are neutral,difficult or do not knowPerception of infrastructureA small number of infrastructures are considered very importantSeveral infrastructures are considered very importantSeveral to all infrastructures are considered very importantPerception of business supportAll easy to neutralThe majority are neutralThe majority are neutral,difficult or not availableRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy32RecommendationsThe creative economy holds immense potential as a driver of economic growth,cultural preservation and social innovation.However,realising this potential requires countries to implement targeted strategies that respond to existing gaps and challenges.Table 6 presents recommendations to improve public awareness,production costs,consumption,skills,IP management,market access and regional coordination.Implement targeted awareness campaigns,such as Indonesias#belilokal creatives programme,to promote local creative products.Organise events such as design weeks,writers festivals and arts festivals to promote creative industries.Celebrate an annual Creativity Day to raise public awareness about the potential of culture and creative industries.Focus on the development of local raw materials to decrease distribution costs from imported materials.Start to create a closed loop creative industry ecosystem.Create industry clusters that help players form partnerships with complementary local businesses to share resources,reduce costs and expand market reach.Provide a shared production centre to reduce overhead costs associated with maintaining a dedicated facility.Develop local strategies and programmes to promote cultural and creative industries.Establish creative hubs and districts to foster a vibrant creative ecosystem.Require the government to be the main consumer and promoter of local creative products.Encourage collaboration between local creative brands and big brands entering ASEAN countries.Make creative products available through various channels within easy reach of consumers.Establish structured funding facilities,including loans,credit guarantees,grants and venture capital financing,to help creative businesses reach wider audiences.Support for countries to develop their creative economiesImportant elements to focus on:StrategiesPublic awarenessProduction costsConsumptionTable 6.Proposed strategies to improve the creative economyRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy33Regional Perception Poll on the ASEAN Creative Economy Implement creative thinking and problem-solving,soft skills and marketing and branding skills training programmes for creative professionals.Partner with UK educational institutions to integrate advanced tools into creative curricula.Establish online learning platforms offering courses for the creative sector.Simplify and expedite the IP registration process,making it more accessible for creative professionals.Establish country-wide centres dedicated to helping creative professionals commercialise their IP and offering guidance on licensing,partnerships and market entry strategies.Develop and distribute sector-specific IP guides tailored to different creative industries and their unique challenges and opportunities.Develop region-wide guidelines for IP management,covering the entire lifecycle from registration to commercialisation.This would provide a standardised approach for creative professionals across ASEAN.Implement harmonised IP valuation practices across ASEAN,as mentioned in the ASEAN Intellectual Property Rights Action Plan 20162025.This would help creators better understand the value of their IP assets and monetise them.Harness digital platforms to present and sell creative products globally.Participate in international creative industry events and trade fairs.Develop export promotion programmes specifically for creative goods and services.Develop platforms to increase access to market information and know-how to tap overseas markets,including access to finance market expansion.Establish an ASEAN Creative Education Alliance to enable knowledge sharing and Creative Players exchanges.Develop joint degree programmes between ASEAN institutions in creative fields.Create regional innovation hubs focusing on creative economy development and cross-cultural practices.Creative thinking and problem-solving,soft skills and marketing and branding skillsIP managementAccess to domestic and international marketsRegional coordinationImportant elements to focus on:StrategiesRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy34The challenges and opportunities identified are multi-faceted and exist on all levels,from the individual to the system.The survey results also highlight opportunities that the region could tap into,especially for improving formal education for creative economic development and global trends that could present opportunities for the ASEANs creative economies to grow.The support needed in terms of skill development,ecosystem or infrastructures for each sector is explained in Table 7.Marketing and branding(to promote creative work)Digital toolsSoft skills(munication and teamwork)Marketing and branding(to promote creative work)Soft skills(munication and teamwork)Storytelling and content creationEmerging technologies(e.g.VR/AR,blockchain,generative AI)IP rightsSoft skillsDigital toolsCreative thinking and problem-solving techniquesDigital toolsMarketing and branding(to promote creative work)Recreational parks,gardens and streetscapesMuseums,galleries and exhibition spaces EventsEventsEventsEventsMuseums,galleries and exhibition spaces EventsSupport for the creative economy by sectorTable 7.Support for skill development and ecosystem or infrastructure by sector Creative economy sector(by output)Skills needed*Ecosystem and infrastructure needs*Fashion design and clothing technologyTelevision and radio(broadcast and podcast)Performing arts(music,dance,theatre)Literature and publishingBuilt environment(architecture,building design,landscape design,urban design and planning,interior design)Film,video and photography Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy35Soft skills(munication and teamwork)Creative thinking and problem-solving techniquesMarketing and branding(to promote creative work)Business skillsDigital toolsCreative thinking and problem-solving techniquesIP rightsDigital toolsEmerging technologies(e.g.VR/AR,blockchain,generative AI)Creative thinking and problem-solving techniquesDigital toolsIP rightsMarketing and branding(to promote creative work)Business skillsEventsHigh-speed internet areas for digital creationDigital and physical marketplaces(for presenting work)Museums,galleries and exhibition spaces High-speed internet areas for digital creationMakerspacesEventsDigital and physical marketplaces(for presenting work)MakerspacesHigh-speed internet areas for digital creationDigital and physical marketplaces(for presenting work)Creative economy sector(by output)Skills needed*Ecosystem and infrastructure needs*Advertising and marketingVisual arts and craftsAnimation and video gamesDesign(product,furniture,graphic,etc.)IT,software and computer servicesGastronomy/culinary*data represents the highest frequency responses from the respondentsRegional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy36Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy37Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy371.Introduce technology usage to other stages in creative industries through technology adoption training.For example:a.pre-production/ideation/concept development:digital storyboarding and design platforms,generative AI tools for brainstorming,3D scanning and virtual modelingb.production(creation of works or products):digital content creation software,3D printing and CNC machines(for fashion,product design,crafts),virtual production systems,music and audio production tools,augmented reality/virtual reality(AR/VR)tools for immersive creation(e.g.,Unity,Tilt Brush)c.post-production:photo/video editing software,digital asset management systems,animation and visual effects,quality assurance automation toolsd.distribution(tangible and intangible products)i.for tangible products:e-commerce platforms,logistics and fulfilment tech,inventory management systemsii.for intangible products:streaming and content platforms,NFT marketplaces,digital publishing platforms e.marketing and promotion:social media management tools,targeted advertising platforms,influence and affiliate marketing platforms,analytics tools,AI-driven copywriting and visuals.2.Revise curricula in collaboration with educational institutions,technology experts and creative practitioners,ensuring the integration of advanced tools and emerging technologies within creative and design education.3.Establish ongoing professional development programmes to support region-wide training initiatives,enabling creative professionals to stay abreast of the latest technological advancements relevant to their disciplines.The survey results highlight significant implications for ASEAN policymakers,emphasising the need for a unified approach to tackle these regional challenges.Below are policy recommendations arising from the top five survey results.A.The top three uses of technology in the creative sectors value chain are rated higher on certain processes,which are:design,marketing and promotion,and production purpose.However,technology is not limited to these commonly used areas.It can also support the creative process in other stages throughout the value chain.This implies that technology adoption should be introduced more broadly to all phases of the creative process.Policy recommendationsPolicy recommendations for the ASEAN region to consider:Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy384.Introduce targeted grants for creative enterprises and independent practitioners,facilitating investment in state-of-the-art design technologies and digital tools.5.Host regular technology showcases at ASEAN-wide events,highlighting the latest innovations and demonstrating their practical applications across various creative industry sectors.6.Allocate dedicated funding for research and development in creative-related technologies,including AI-assisted design software and immersive virtual reality platforms.7.Set up regional innovation hubs that focus on the convergence of technology and creative design,providing collaborative spaces for experimentation and cross-sectoral innovation.8.Develop a unified ASEAN digital collaboration platform where creative professionals can connect,exchange knowledge and resources and exhibit their creative outputs to regional and global audiences.9.Formulate ASEAN-wide guidelines for IP(IP)management,encompassing the entire lifecyclefrom registration and protection to commercial exploitationthereby offering a standardised and coherent framework for creative practitioners throughout the region.1.Establish a network of digital design incubators across ASEAN countries,drawing on UK expertise in creative technology.2.Create a fellowship programme to enable ASEAN designers to spend time in UK design studios and tech companies,learn advanced digital design techniques and emerging technologies and bring knowledge back to their home countries to foster innovation.3.Organise a series of workshops focused on integrating AI into the design process.4.Launch an annual competition that challenges ASEAN designers to solve regional problems using technology.5.Create a programme focused on sustainable design practices using technology.Policy recommendations for the ASEAN region to consider:Policy recommendations for the ASEANUK partnership to consider:Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy39B.More than half of the respondents(54 per cent)indicated that the influence of local wisdom/culture on the development of creative and cultural products was impactful.This suggests that the ASEAN Member States have been reasonably successful in integrating local cultural elements.Such efforts should be sus-tained and,where possible,further enhanced to ensure even broader inclusion.1.Digital documentation initiative:launch a region-wide programme to digitally document and archive local wisdom and cultural practices across ASEAN.2.Cultural exchange programmes:establish regular cultural exchange programmes among the ASEAN Member States,focusing on traditional arts,crafts and cultural practices,to foster cross-cultural understanding and inspiration.3.Mentorship programmes:create a mentorship network which pairs emerging creative talents with established artists and designers who successfully integrate local culture.4.Digital platforms:develop a regional digital platform to present and market products that incorporate local wisdom,helping to connect creators with potential buyers across ASEAN and globally.5.Cross-sector partnerships:encourage collaborations between traditional artisans and modern designers to create innovative products that blend local wisdom with contemporary aesthetics.6.Cultural tourism initiatives:develop cultural tourism programmes that highlight local wisdom and creative products,creating demand and awareness for culturally inspired goods.1.Provide mentorship and funding for entrepreneurs developing products based on local cultural elements.2.Offer training on how to scale culturally inspired businesses while maintaining authenticity.3.Build connections with UK markets interested in unique ASEAN cultural products.4.Provide training in ethnographic research methods for young people in ASEAN countries.5.Document and digitise local wisdom and cultural practices across ASEAN.6.Create an accessible digital archive for creative professionals to draw inspiration from.Policy recommendations for the ASEAN region to consider:Policy recommendations for the ASEANUK Partnership to consider:Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy40C.The three training areas rated as most important by respondents are creative thinking,soft skills such as communication and teamwork,and marketing.These findings suggest that support organisations in the creative ecosystem-such as government bodies,educational institutions and industry associations-should prioritise offering training in these areas.Doing so will help ensure that creative workers gain meaningful benefits and can make a greater impact in their respective fields.1.Develop targeted training programmes tailored to the specific needs of different creative industry sectors,with a focus on enhancing creative thinking,soft skills and marketing competencies relevant to each domain.2.Design a comprehensive creative thinking curriculum applicable across all creative industry subsectors,emphasising the development of original idea generation,multi-perspective problem solving and adaptive thinking through techniques such as brainstorming,role play and scenario-based exercises.3.Strengthen the capacity of government agencies and supporting institutions to design,implement and evaluate skills development initiatives,particularly those centred on creative thinking,soft skills and marketing expertise.4.Foster ASEAN-wide collaboration through the exchange of best practices,joint training initiatives and cross-border mobility programmes aimed at advancing regional talent development and facilitating knowledge sharing among creative professionals.5.Promote lifelong and life-wide learning by expanding access to flexible,modular and digital learning formats such as micro-credentials,online courses and blended learning models that enable creative workers to continuously upgrade their skills throughout their careers.6.Ensure that training resources are discoverable and accessible,particularly for marginalised groups including women,young people and rural communities,to support inclusive and equitable participation in the creative economy.7.Enhance support for marketing skills and creative enterprise development by offering tailored training and mentorship schemes to empower creative professionals and entrepreneurs in accessing new markets and building resilient,sustainable businesses.Policy recommendations for the ASEAN region to consider:Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy411.Establish a virtual academy focused on digital tools training for creative professionals that:a.offers courses on industry-specific software and emerging technologiesb.provides certification programmes recognised across ASEAN and the UKc.enables virtual internships with UK creative companies.2.Support the adaptation of popular digital tools for ASEAN markets by:a.collaborating with software companies to develop localised versions of creative softwareb.creating tutorials and resources in ASEAN languagesc.developing plug-ins and add-ons tailored to the needs of ASEAN creative industries.Policy recommendations for the ASEANUK Partnership to consider:Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy42D.53 per cent of the respondents stated that creative and cultural programmes are still dominated by formal education(in the form of degree and non-degree programmes).On one hand,this shows that creative and cultural programmes have been formally acknowledged.On the other hand,this could mean that creative programmes are too exclusive.1.ASEAN creative education framework:develop a comprehensive framework for creative and cultural education that can be adopted by the ASEAN Member States to ensure consistency and quality across the region.2.Industryacademia collaboration:encourage partnerships between educational institutions and creative industries to develop curricula that align with market needs and emerging trends.3.ASEAN creative education network:establish a network of universities and colleges offering creative and cultural programmes to enable knowledge sharing and student exchanges.4.Joint degree programmes:promote the development of joint degree programmes between ASEAN institutions to enhance regional integration and cultural understanding.5.ASEAN quality assurance for creative education:implement a regional quality assurance system specifically tailored to creative and cultural education programmes.6.Standardised accreditation:develop standardised accreditation criteria for creative and cultural programmes across ASEAN to ensure consistent quality.7.Faculty development programmes:initiate region-wide training programmes for educators in creative and cultural fields to enhance teaching methodologies and keep them updated on industry trends.8.Industry advisory boards:encourage educational institutions to establish advisory boards with industry professionals to ensure curriculum relevance.Policy recommendations for the ASEAN region to consider:Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy431.Establish a network of universities and colleges from the UK and the ASEAN Member States to:a.develop joint degree programmes in creative and cultural fieldsb.enable student and faculty exchangesc.collaborate on curriculum development and research projects.2.Implement a cross-border apprenticeship programme that:a.pairs ASEAN students with UK creative companies for practical work experienceb.offers formal qualifications recognised in both regionsc.provides mentorship from UK industry professionals.3.Establish joint research centres focusing on:a.innovation in creative education methodologiesb.cross-cultural creative practices and their impact on economiesc.technology applications in creative industries.Policy recommendations for the ASEANUK Partnership to consider:Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy441.Develop a user-friendly AI-driven tool for policymakers and creative professionals that aggregates and analyses creative economy data from various online sources and provides:a.real-time insights and trends specific to ASEANb.predictive analytics to help inform policy decisions.2.Develop a comprehensive online platform,tailored to ASEAN,that:a.curates high-quality content from various sources,including UK expertise,serving as a one-stop resource for creative economy informationb.provides interfaces in different ASEAN languagesc.offers interactive features like forums and live Q&A sessions with experts.Policy recommendations for the ASEANUK Partnership to consider:E.Respondents rated the websites of relevant organisations,blogs and podcasts as better channels to find information about the creative economy than social media.This indicates that information in the creative economy is highly segmented and focused into certain audiences.1.ASEAN creative economy portal:develop a comprehensive online platform dedicated to the creative economy,serving as a central hub for information,resources and opportunities across ASEAN.2.Social media strategy:implement a robust social media strategy to disseminate information and engage with creative professionals,using popular platforms such as Facebook,Instagram and X.3.Webinar series:organise regular webinars featuring industry experts,successful creatives and policymakers,to share insights and best practices.4.Digital analytics dashboard:create a real-time analytics platform to track trends,market demands and growth opportunities in the creative economy across ASEAN.5.Open data initiative:encourage the ASEAN Member States to share relevant creative economy data through open APIs,fostering research and innovation.Policy recommendations for the ASEAN region to consider:Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy45Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy46Appendix 1:General Public dataRespondents in the General Public category stated their gender as male(47 per cent),female(51 per cent)and undisclosed(one per cent).The majority were in the age range of 25 to 34 years(29 per cent),and six per cent identified as D/deaf,disabled or neurodivergent.47Q%1%1%Prefer not to sayUnder 181824 2534 3544 4554 55-6465 and overPrefer not to sayOthersMaleFemaleFigure 1.GenderFigure 3.Identify as a D/deaf,disabled or neurodivergent peopleFigure 2.Age range93%6%1%Prefer not to sayNoYesProfile158)%4%2%0%Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy47Regional Perception Poll on the ASEAN Creative EconomyAwareness and perceptionOverall,the public is somewhat familiar with the term creative economy,with a 47 per cent rate.Only six per cent of respondents indicated that they are not acquainted with this term.The creative economy consists of several industries.According to public perception,the most prominent industries within the creative economy are:fashion design and clothing technology film,video and photography visual arts and crafts.Despite being part of the creative economy,the following industries are the least connected to the publics understanding of the term:IT,software and computer services gastronomy literature and publishing.47%6!%Somewhat familiarNot familiarDont knowVery familiarFigure 4.Awareness with the term creative economyTable 1.Proportion of creative economy industryIndustries that are part of the creative economy NumberRankFashion design and clothing technology1,0851Film,video and photography 9842Visual arts and crafts9123Design(product,furniture,graphic,etc.)9054Performing arts(music,dance,theatre)8985Built environment(architecture,building design,landscape design,urban design and planning,interior design)8576Animation and video games7947Advertising and marketing7898Television and radio(broadcast and podcast)6669IT,software and computer services64610Gastronomy/culinary62411Literature and publishing59012Others(please specify)313Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy48In seeking information about creative economy development in ASEAN,the majority of the public(64 per cent)uses the internet(such as websites of relevant organisations,blogs or podcasts).Only two per cent(respectively)of the public relies on special interest groups(such as trade organisations or craft guilds)and industry reports/academic journals and publications.On average,the public perceives that the creative economy plays an important role in the economic,socio-cultural,sustainable and inclusive development of ASEAN as a whole.LikertImportantValue6.08Mean range6.017.00Table 2.Proportion of creative economy industryFigure 5.Information mediumLikertValueMean rangeVery unimportant00.00Very unimportant10.0011.00Very unimportant21.012.00Not important32.013.00Not important43.014.00Neutral54.015.00Neutral65.016.00Important76.017.00Important87.018.00Very important98.019.00Very important109.0110.00Internet(e.g.websites of relevant organisations,blogs,podcasts)Traditional news media(e.g.newspapers,magazines,radio,TV)Social media,community forums and discussion publicationsIndustry reports,academic journals and publicationsSpecial interest groups(e.g.trade organisations,craft guilds)Webinars,conferences,seminarsOthers(please specify)None64%5%2%2%4%0%2!%Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy49The majority of respondents(60 per cent)describe the current state of the creative economy in the ASEAN region as growing.Meanwhile,seven per cent of the public are unable to articulate their understanding of the current position of the creative economy in ASEAN.60%7%3%GrowingThrivingStagnantDecliningDont knowFigure 6.PerceptionDeveloping the creative economy at the ASEAN regional scale presents several challenges.Major obstacles include:regional coordination and cooperation to advance the creative economy collectively access to financing infrastructure and a conducive ecosystem at the regional level to advance the creative economy.Table 3.Main challenges facing the development of the creative economy facing the development of the creative economyMain challenges CountRankLack of regional coordination and cooperation to promote the creative economy collectively8001Lack of access to financing for the cultural and creative industries7362Lack of infrastructure and a conducive ecosystem at the regional level to promote the creative economy6983Lack of capacity building and talent development for the cultural and creative industries5884Competing priorities of respective ASEAN Member States in developing the creative economy5415Lack of proper data,industry classifications and definitions of the creative economy5046Lack of a conducive environment for transmission of knowledge and expertise within the cultural and creative industries4797Lack of proper IP(IP)safeguards in place3068Others(please specify)49Regional perception poll on the ASEAN creative economy50To enhance the ASEAN creative economy,it is essential to prioritise several major initiatives:increasing public awareness about the creative economy fostering greater regional coordination and cooperation among ASEAN countries collecting and analysing data to inform policymaking promoting the development of cultural and creative enterprises directing investments into the creative economy.The development of the creative economy is expected to yield significant benefits for its ecosystem.There is a strong belief that the creative economy provides advantages at a regional level,especially in economic growth(43 per cent)and better quality of life(22 per cent).However,the public feels that the creative economy has yet to effectively respond to issues related to gender equality an
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1Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportGLOBAL LEARNING&SKILLS TRENDS REPORTNavigating transformational change in the era of AI and beyond20262Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportConclusion3Key Trends for Todays Organizations2Introduction13Navigating transformational change in the era of AI and beyond28Adapting to AI disruption as practice for the next transformation7AI fluency isnt a technical goal:Its a new operating system2.1132.2Immersion beats instruction when it comes to skills development:AI learning happens best in the flow of work182.3You cant scale skills without scaling leadership,ethics,and agency232.4If AI is your finish line,youve already lost the raceCONTENTSIntroductionKey TrendsConclusion3Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportINTRODUCTIONIntroductionKey TrendsConclusion4Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends Report01Introduction Navigating transformational change in the era of AI and beyondWe have reached a tipping point in how we develop skills in the AI era.Enterprises are fully aware of the scale of the AI transformation,and this is the year they must ensure that they progress in how AI is integrated and applied across the organization.Almost overnight,what was once considered the domain of IT teams or innovation hubs has become a company-wide imperative for every function,business line,and geography.Human resources and learning teams are being asked to play a critical role in skilling and upskilling talent in AI and complementary skills.Their role will be more essential than ever,as every organization moves to make AI fluency a key strategic initiative.Rather than seeing AI as a plug-and-play technical solution,AI fluency makes it possible for people to reframe how they work,adapting their roles to build intelligent systems and ecosystems that amplify business value across interconnected workflows.The stakes could hardly be higher,nor the pace more relentless.Skills become obsolete at a dizzying velocity;new jobs appear as quickly as old ones transform.Meanwhile,familiar challenges,including economic volatility,hybrid work friction,and lagging employee engagement,layer atop the disruptive force of change.Employees across every function are having the same realization:“I need to stay valuable and effective in my role as AI transforms how work gets done.”Organizations face their own version:“We need our workforce to confidently adopt and apply AI capabilities without disrupting productivity or requiring massive retraining investments.”The jobs to be done go beyond skills acquisition.Employees need to feel confident navigating AI tools,be perceived as forward-thinking contributors,and make tangible progress in their daily work.Organizations need to focus on teaching their employees to use AI effectively and ethically as they build adaptive capability at scale,all while maintaining operational excellence.IntroductionKey TrendsConclusion5Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportTraditional learning solutions consistently fail to fulfill these requirements.Yet the solution is not found in simply hiring more tech talent,sending people to online classes,or even declaring that the future is agentic.Instead,the answer lies in a systematic reinvention,where organizations build a learning system oriented around jobs to be done.It requires creating an operating system for permanent reinvention and adaptability that increases capability,enables agency,and scales leadership.A learning system enables people to continually learn in the flow of work,moving beyond single courses or formal training into holistic,guided learning journeys that drive faster time to competency.By combining diverse modules,modalities,and formats,such as snackable content,hands-on practice,assessments,and certifications,Udemy creates a flywheel of skills development:sparking curiosity,deepening mastery,and proving skills while delivering measurable performance improvement.In this system,human instructors remain central,while AI augments the experience:Learner agents act as personalized,instructor-inspired guides,and enterprise agents scale learning operations,aligning skills growth to business outcomes with proven ROI.Together,this blend of human expertise and AI makes learning continuous,contextual,and impactful at both the individual and organizational level,creating competitive advantage through strategic workforce development.Protocols like Model Context Protocol(MCP)make this integration possible by enabling AI tools,data systems,and learning platforms to communicate seamlessly within existing workflows.This systems approach transforms learning from an event into an engine and enables learning to be easily and more naturally integrated into the work day.This report is for business,learning,technical,and AI leaders ready to move past incremental change.Drawing on new proprietary data from Udemy,it identifies key trends that will help drive strategy and outlines a roadmap for action.It offers guidance on building AI fluency,where AI readiness isnt just embedded in your learning content,but is a foundational part of your culture and operating system.The following chapters identify the essential trends for 2026 and offer practical,tested strategies to ensure this era of disruption becomes an engine for growth,agility,and lasting advantage.6Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionKEY TRENDS6Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusion2.17Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionAI fluency isnt a technical goal:Its a new operating system8Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusiongrowth YoY of Microsoft Copilot learning for business 2.1AI fluency isnt a technical goal:Its a new operating system Redefining AI readiness starts with fluencyMost organizations still talk about“AI skills”as if it is simply a matter of training people on tools,code,or data analysis.But the core challenge is not teaching people how to use the technology.Instead,its rewiring the enterprise to play,experiment,and find ways to incorporate AI into workflows.Then you will have the fluency to build not only a new culture but a new operating model and the new systems,learning content,and behaviors to continuously learn from AI,adapt with it,and lead through it.AI fluency is the new benchmark.True fluency means understanding AIs capabilities and applications,alongside its risks,limitations,and essential ethical concerns.It means developing the habit of using AI on a daily basis.Skills development for AI readiness requires not just upskilling on the technical level or determining how to use it fluidly,in everyday use cases.It requires the ability to ask the right questions,to know when to rely on AI(and when to press pause),and to foresee impacts beyond the immediate.Crucially,fluency necessitates the development of adaptive skills,including judgment,curiosity,flexibility,and risk tolerance.AI fluency is not a binary state.It is a journey,and one that is no longer optional for companies who want to lead from the front.This requires building a shared,dynamic,organization-wide capability that must be continually cultivated,measured,and renewed in every team and role.Next,we will examine what leading organizations are doing to build AI fluency and how to do it yourself.AI agents&agentic AI 3,400% 13,534%Employees are actively looking to augment their skills in prompting this powerful technology and building generative pretrained transformers(GPTs).This AI technology topic continued to see the most learning consumption on Udemy Business as employees expanded their skills.growth YoY of GitHub Copilot learning for tech Learning to use these new AI technologies has surged more than any other net-new AI topic over the last year,signaling their quick growth and deep value.AI agents can perform pre-programmed tasks while agentic AI systems can make decisions and adapt to evolving workplace situations.Demand for AI learning has grown explosively on Udemy,while learning content to develop AI skills has also quickly expandedAI topics were fastest growing across all business and professional learning#1 most learned#1 most learnedExisting AI topicNew AI topic#1 surging business skill#1 surging tech skill9Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionWhat leading organizations are doing to build AI fluencyFocusing on multi-layered skills development Foundational skills All employees should be conversant in AIs language,logic,ethical considerations,and potential impact on their work.Foundational AI skills are the new digital literacy;they include:understanding AIs strengths and limits,crafting effective prompts,validating outputs with critical thinking,applying AI for everyday productivity,and using it responsibly.These skills equip professionals to confidently collaborate with AI in any role.Applied in-roleFunctions and teams must learn applied use cases and integrate AI into daily processes,whether that means leveraging predictive analytics in human resources(HR)or using AI for cybersecurity threat detection.For example,product and engineering teams might embed AI across the development lifecycle to accelerate delivery,reduce defects,and better inform roadmap decisions.Cross-functional learning agilityAs AI weaves through every line of business,organizations must break down silos and encourage learning that spans traditional functional borders and technologies.The end result should be an integrated learning ecosystem that scales learning,experimentation,and capacity-building organization-wide.Leadership as architects of changeLeaders,not just technology,set the vision for how AI transforms business models,value creation,and even culture,and secure employee buy-in to make the vision a success.This requires new leadership skills and change management direction to guide employees to embrace the change.9Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusion10Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionof the L&D goal for employee AI upskilling of employees upskilled in AI within months of implementationto develop employee AI expertiselower employee attritionGenpact,a professional services firm with 125,000 employees,created an immersive 12-week learning program for all employees to develop comprehensive expertise in generative AI and large language models(LLMs),from the fundamentals to advanced techniques.After 8 weeks of courses,employees gained AI skills proficiency of 75%and went on to develop applied expertise in 4-week proof-of-concept projects.Working with Udemy Business to establish the program,Genpact met 100%of their L&D ramp-up goal.Devoteam laid out an ambitious plan to enable its 11,000 employees to“learn at the pace of change,”training all employees on generative AI.They designed,launched,and deployed their AI program within just three months.With Udemy Business Pro and AI Starter Paths as a foundation,Devoteam delivered accelerated learning for everyone,deploying a global AI upskilling program.This resulted in 70%of the workforce being upskilled in AI within months and 4%lower employee attrition.100p weeks4Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportHow Udemy customers are doing itIntroductionKey TrendsConclusion11Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionBuilding an AI fluency plan that drives business impactDefine what AI fluency means for your business today.Evaluate your organizations level of AI fluency and develop a strategy to improve it,plus a roadmap to get there.See the next section on how to do this.Move beyond generic“AI training.”After establishing foundational AI skills goals for everyone,set clear benchmarks for key functional teams,such as finance,marketing,engineering,development,operations,and leadership.Get the right tech in place.Evaluate,select,and deploy appropriate AI tools to meet the needs of your organization,key functional teams,and top use cases.Bake in legal considerations from the start.Work with the legal department to articulate essential considerations and how to ensure data protection,then share the rules with all employees.Get into the details of whats needed by function.Map out areas of the business most positively impacted by AI.Perform targeted skills gap analyses for each function to ensure employees are ready to get the most out of AI tools.Foster shared cross-functional understanding.Use job rotations,collaborative projects,best-practice share-out sessions,and communities of practice to build peer learning and break organizational silos.Develop a communications calendar spotlighting AI mini-successes and learnings to reinforce a living,evolving language around AI.Communicate that AI fluency requires continuous practice,experimentation,and learning.Incorporate AI fluency into performance goals and cross-functional initiatives,development conversations,and succession pipelines.Treat it as an ongoing expectation,not a discrete course or badge.Make learning continual,fun,and rewarding.AI is evolving so quickly that learning cannot be seen as“one-and-done.”Make AI learning continual and build employee engagement in exercising AI fluency through gamification,social sharing of new use cases,and rewards for innovation.Assess your organizations cultural baseline around AI regularly.Launch“AI readiness”pulse checks and Q&A sessions to surface both new use cases and any confusion or blockers.IntroductionConclusion11Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportGenAI course enrollments to datenew GenAI enrollments per minuteAI courses on Udemy Business11M 101.4KTotal AI courses and consumption on the Udemy platform12Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusion3 levels of AI fluencyAssessing and building AI fluency An individual employee needs a set of foundational skills and the ability to apply them in context to be able to advance beyond a basic level of AI competency.The same is true for organizations.Its essential to assess your overall level of AI fluency and map out a strategy and plan to level up.To do this requires asking questions across multiple teams in the organization and evaluating the input.How familiar are teams with AI tools,use cases,and ethical considerations?What programs exist for AI skills development,and how many employees have taken them?How often do you update your skills development program,and how is it integrated into the flow of work?Do employees have access to experts to get information and support?How targeted is AI skills development by function and role?How deeply has your organization integrated AI into workflows?Have you done so cross-functionally?Have AI agents been implemented?How and how often do you identify gaps and areas of opportunity and act based on these?How do you measure success?Questions to measure fluencyLevel 1 AugmentLevel 2 Assist&AutomateLevel 3 Agentify&ReworkBuild foundational AI literacyDevelop workflow integrationIntegrate agentic AI capabilitiesFocus:All employees gain foundational knowledge and practical familiarity with common AI tools with broad applications(like Microsoft Copilot,Google Gemini,and ChatGPT),including capabilities,limitations,and key ethical considerations.Learning targets employee pain points and is delivered in the flow of work.Scope:Augment existing processes,rather than redesigning them.Benefits&applications:Results in faster,more consistent task execution,basic automation,and productivity gains.Reduces anxiety and builds confidence through knowledge and hands-on practice.Focus:Role-specific training and more advanced use cases extend AI applications across functions.Cross-functional process development enables deeper integration and potential process transformation.Scope:Support not only execution but also analysis,and generate recommendations to inform strategic decisions.Benefits&applications:Internally:Improves decision-making,personalized recommendations,and complex data analysis.Externally:Streamlines product and service delivery.Creates strategic advantages in speed,accuracy,and innovation.Focus:Adopt agentic AI that can operate autonomously under employee direction.Protocols like Model Context Protocol(MCP)and Agent2Agent Protocol enable coordinated humanagent teamwork to build the workforce of the future.Scope:Rethink and redesign processes,systems,and governance at an advanced level to rework business operations.Benefits&applications:Enables end-to-end process management,multi-step task coordination,and context-aware,self-directed problem-solving.Scales value by having employees guide agentic systems for continuous,organization-wide optimization and new operating models,unlocking new efficiencies and growth strategies.Leaders guide AI transformation at all levels,modeling and amplifying continuous innovation in how they use AI and assessing organizational readiness,while securing stakeholder engagement and setting strong ethical standards.They also nurture an innovation culture and invest in workplace skills development for all employees in both AI tool fluency and adaptive abilities,to keep employees resilient and ready for profound workplace change.To determine your organizations AI fluency,take the Udemy fluency assessment.13Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionImmersion beats instruction when it comes to skills development:AI learning happens best in the flow of work2.214Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionThe myth that learning happens in a training room,or through a one-time,online certificate course,dies hard.But the evidence is overwhelming:Skills stick best when they are exercised,adapted,applied,and refined on the job and in real-world projects.A look at the lifecycle of skills development helps us understand why.It starts with skills acquisition or development:simply learning a new skill.The next level is skills mastery,practicing the skill in an immersive environment and applying it,whether a simulation of a real-world scenario or a chance to perfect the skill in the flow of work.The final stage is skills relevancy,keeping the skills fresh and up-to-date as the technology,tools,and processes evolve.For technical topics and applications,this includes practicing new skills through hands-on application in labs and sandboxes.For adaptive skills,which include judgment,critical-thinking,or equanimity in emotionally challenging situations,it can include role playing difficult topics in context followed by AI-powered feedback.Finding ways to acquire and master skills faster is hugely important,as the half-life of current skills shrinks and the speed of new skills needed in the enterprise accelerates.The ability to develop expertise in new tools,transfer learning across projects,and evolve with changing platforms is what delivers real business value for organizations and career resiliency for employees.When skills development takes place in the flow of evolving work and is directly relevant to the work being done,there is less friction in the process.There is also an important role for developing skills through“play,”or the time and headspace that leaders provide their teams to simply try out new tools and use cases.Whether through work or play,those who absorb skills through applied experience are most prepared to tackle new challenges at speed.Personalization,or the surfacing of targeted content and interactive challenges at the moment of need,further amplifies effectiveness.Through context-specific practice tailored to their needs in the moment,coupled with continual feedback from AI-powered learning technology,people build stickier,more transferable skills.2.2Immersion beats instruction when it comes to skills development:AI learning happens best in the flow of work Skills applied are skills that stick Students who applied skills in practice with immediate feedback learned 3x more efficiently than those who learned by lecture alone.Carnegie Mellon3x more efficientImmersive learning environments,where employees“learn by doing,”expedite both confidence and competence.15Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionHands-on&contextualEmployees are able to practice AI fluency skills in context.They can try out key adaptive skills by role-playing them with an AI avatar,and dive into assessments and labs for technical skills.AI is applied in project teams,customer initiatives,and workflow optimization and not just in theory.Organizations leading the AI skills race embed learning directly into work,making it:What leading organizations are doing to make AI skills development part of daily workflowsContinuous&routineDeveloping more AI use cases is not a quarterly or annual L&D activity,but part of every teams sprint,routine,and review cycle.Teams engage in small,measurable experiments and iterate on results so learnings are rapidly incorporated into processes,tooling,and success metrics.Peer-&feedback-poweredMastery demands healthy trial and error,transparent feedback,and shared reflection,all ways to accelerate skills development“in the wild.”Formal mechanisms,including peer coaching,review sessions,and shared playbooks,ensure insights are captured,normalized,and propagated across teams.Personalized&business-alignedUpskilling is an integral part of each employees roadmap and ladders up to real business challenges,organizational values,and strategic priorities.Learning paths are tailored to role-based proficiency benchmarks and tied to key performance indicators(KPIs),so employees see direct career incentives for adopting AI capabilities.15Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusion16Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusion300Role Plays have been published in Udemy Business courses in the 3 months since launch.new Role Plays are created every day on Udemy Business.enterprise customers have created 900 custom Role Plays for their employees.Nearly3,300 38 Role Play allows employees to practice key adaptive skills in context,receive feedback,and fine-tune their abilitiesProdapt used AI to create personalized learning paths and integrated learning into daily workflows,delivering micro-learning in the flow of work.Now,90%of employees understand the fundamentals of GenAI.Prodapt implemented a multi-faceted approach to upskilling to create a scalable and personalized learning environment.By partnering with Udemy Business and integrating advanced AI tools,Prodapt provided employees with diverse,self-paced learning resources and gained the ability to create learning paths quickly and efficiently.of employees upskilled in AI through learning in the flow of work90%How Udemy customers are doing it17Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionHow to support skills development in the flow of workThe organizations that thrive will be those that build immersive environments where employees can become AI fluent and build cultures where technology amplifies uniquely human capabilities.”Hugo Sarrazin CEO of Udemy FastCompany Integrate AI-powered learning into the flow of work.Assign learning tasks and experimentation as part of objectives and key results(OKRs),project milestones,and operational reviews.Use real-world,AI-powered tools for continual upskilling,feedback,and skills assessment.Curricula should be dynamic to keep pace with skills development.AI-powered learning technology should provide scenario-based challenges followed by instant feedback alongside pathways that update with new business needs.Create iterative,fail-safe sandboxes.Give people safe spaces for testing AI approaches,piloting process changes,and sharing lessons learned.Link skills development to real projects and business impact.Assign teams to solve real business challenges with new AI tools,and measure impact in value,speed,revenue,or customer satisfaction closing the loop between learning and performance.Champion cross-skilling and mobility as career accelerators.Encourage employees to rotate into new functional areas and work on AI-driven initiatives beyond their original domain.18Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionYou cant scale skills without scaling leadership,ethics,and agency2.319Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusion2.3You cant scale skills without scaling leadership,ethics,and agency The new leadership imperative:Trust,agency,and ethics in an AI-powered worldThe headlines often focus on AI as a technical disruptor,but the human response is where most transformations succeed or fail.As companies pursue AI maturity,strong leadership and employee agency become the true force multipliers.AI can breed fear and confusion,and not without reason.But AI anxiety is a symptom of failed leadership as much as disruptive technology.Its essential to employ new leadership skills to manage beyond the tech stack to the“people stack,”building cultures of permission,purpose,and responsible innovation.The shift to AI is not only about improving productivity and accelerating processes.Its also about leaders empowering employees,providing them with the conditions,learning opportunities,and ability to experiment in order to build confidence and clarity.They need to learn to use new AI tools ethically and strategically,with organizations clearly and explicitly sharing the“rules of the road”with employees.Leaders must champion AI and set the conditions for employees to build trust through learning,experimentation,and agency.A fundamental shift to AI is also about addressing employee fears:of being replaced in their jobs,of losing access to their privacy,of losing the human quality of interactions.The solution is knowledge and familiarity.People need an understanding of the technology and permission to explore,speak up,shape adoption,and even rewrite processes to benefit their own roles and the organization.The era of AI agents requires organizations and their leaders to create the conditions for employee agency,empowering employees to determine how to evolve the role of AI and how to use it to compound their own contribution.Ethics is at the core.The potential for misuse,whether intentional or otherwise,must be addressed.Employees need to know where the boundaries are,how to critically evaluate AI outputs,and how to assess the human impact of automation or algorithmic decision-making.Organizations need to create guardrails for their employees,guiding them on how to use AI ethically in the business context.AI anxiety is a symptom of failed leadership as much as disruptive technology.Foundational leadership was the 6th most consumed business skill on Udemy Business.#6The demand for adaptive leadership skills is growing 20Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionReframing leadership&trust for the AI eraLeading companies are redefining what it means to lead by prioritizing vision,adaptability,and ethical stewardship over traditional command and control.Modern leaders are coaches,catalysts,and role models for bold experimentation,creating the conditions for employees to build trust with AI tools and approaches.Empowering employees to make decisionsInstead of centralizing decision-making,innovative organizations distribute agency giving teams real autonomy to pilot AI tools,shape workflows,and actively influence transformation.Prioritizing the ethical use of AIFuture-proof organizations establish clear guidelines and equip employees with the judgment to use AI responsibly,ensuring trust,transparency,and long-term impact.As AI continues to shape business decisions,the ability to engage with it ethically will be as essential as technical proficiency.Embedding accountability&psychological safetyEffective organizations recognize that transformation moves at the speed of trust.They practice frank communication about the impact of AI and create safe spaces for employees and leaders to admit what they dont know,to try out new tools and ways of working,and to safely challenge assumptions as they learn(and fail forward)together.Investing in employees and building engagement and trust in sustained AI transformationWhat leading organizations are doing to prepare leaders and empower employees to be ready for AI20Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportThe future competitive landscape wont be defined by who has the best AI,but by who has the leaders who are best-prepared to drive change and empower employees to use AI effectively.”Stephen BaileyCEO and Co-Founder of ExecOnline IntroductionKey TrendsConclusion21Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionPepsiCo brought on Udemy Business Leadership Academy in a move to build operational excellence.Their purpose was to create a“more agile and united procurement organization,one that could predict disruption,take it in its stride,and embed new efficiencies across various processes,”thereby improving the agility,resilience,and competitiveness of its procurement processes and teams.Today,PepsiCo has run the program 35 times,providing learning to more than 1,200 employees,with completion rates of up to 98%.Promotion rates increased more than 2x for employees completing the program.promotion rates of employees completing the procurement leadership program 2xof employees agree that effective leadership is critical to the success of their organizations initiatives.felt confident in their management teams ability to seize opportunities and mitigate AIs risks.of employees believe their leaders are ready for the AI era.88UH%But onlyAnd onlyUdemyAI fluency is not just about tools,its about culture.In the next decade of rapid AI development,organizations that anchor adoption in process,measurement,and accountability will be better prepared to navigate uncertainty,manage risk,and responsibly seize opportunities as they emerge.”Shingai Manjengwa Senior Director,Education and Development,Talent&EcosystemMila Quebec Artificial Intelligence InstituteHow Udemy customers are doing it22Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionHow leaders build trust,agency,and ethics in an AI-powered worldLead by example and manage change.Leaders,including executive teams and senior leadership,visibly and transparently lead the way by using AI themselves,demonstrating that trying out and adopting AI is a key behavior for all employees.They should communicate actively on AI strategy and expectations as well as the changes AI is causing so that they are reinforced and top of mind for everyone in the organization.Give employees agency.Create pathways for bottom-up innovation in AI workflow design and use-case development.Empower teams to challenge and improve adopted solutions.Develop leaders as coaches and builders of trust.Upskill managers on empathy,change management,risk communication,and ethical decision-making.Establish clear,well-communicated AI values and boundaries.Write and socialize your“AI code of conduct”for the entire organization.Make it a living set of guidelines tied to organizational values.Train teams to recognize potential biases in AI outputs,safeguard user privacy,and understand how AI decisions are made.Create feedback loops.Engage leaders at every level to regularly ask,listen,and then adapt strategy based on employee input,experience,and outcomes.Invest in resilience and psychological safety.Train managers to respond to AI anxiety with empathy and concrete guidance;recognize and celebrate learning moments,not just outcomes.It was the 6th most consumed AI topic on Udemy Business.increase in upskilling in AI ethics&governance 98%Leaders must consciously shape how AI integrates into the organizational culture by establishing rules and norms that preserve human creativity and connection while leveraging AIs capabilities.This means modeling thoughtful AI usage,celebrating innovative applications,and continuously reinforcing that AI serves human objectives,not the reverse.”Hugo Sarrazin CEO of Udemy FastCompany 23Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionIf AI is your finish line,youve already lost the race 2.424Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusion2.4If AI is your finish line,youve already lost the race True competitive advantage:Adaptability outlasts any technologyThe final illusion to shatter is the idea that AI transformation is the finish line.It may be the most profound change in our work lifetimes,but it wont be the last.In reality,AI is simply the most current and visible in a long line of transformative disruptions.If your organization prepares only for AI,you risk developing AI-focused skills,cultures,and leaders,and just in time to be overtaken by the next wave of change.The real competitive edge is permanent adaptability,fueled by what Udemy now calls adaptive skills.These are skills like decision-making,communication,collaboration,critical thinking,and emotional intelligence.They have a shelf-life beyond any technological phenomenon,allowing employees to navigate the profound change that AI is bringing to work while preparing them for unforeseeable shifts in the future.Adaptability is not only a personal trait.It is an organizational capability built through developing these enduring skills and enforcing them through culture,routine,and leadership commitment.And it is the only solution for both AI itself and what comes after AI.Adaptive(soft)skills learning grew 25%YoY,placing it in the top 4 fastest-growing communication skills on Udemy Business.fastest growing4thAdaptive skills enable individuals to remain agile and responsive in a constantly changing world,particularly as technologies and processes evolve.Transferable across contexts and industries,these skills are essential building blocks that empower people to excel in an AI-driven world,where humans focus on strategy and verification,rather than execution.Examples include skills like critical thinking,emotional resilience,and the ability to navigate ambiguity.Adaptive skillsgrowth in learning about decision-making on Udemy Business over the last yeargrowth in learning about critical thinking on Udemy Business over the last year 38% 37%Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionDoubling down on developing adaptive skillsWhat leading organizations are doing to future-proof for what comes after AI25Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportCritical thinking&judgment As AI takes on routine“doing,”the human role is to plan,prioritize,question,and verify the output,all skills that become more,not less,valuable in the automation age.Every employee needs strong contextual judgment,analytical capabilities,and ethical understanding to validate and enhance AI output.Learning agilityOrganizations(and employees)that thrive are those who can pivot,unlearn,and relearn fast regardless of what technology is hot this quarter.Curiosity,experimentation,and rapid feedback loops accelerate capability building and competitive advantage.Resilience&ambiguity navigationPsychological resilience and the ability to operate amid uncertainty are now core business competencies.Teams that can normalize ambiguity outperform by adapting quickly and sustaining productive momentum.Innovation&creativity enhancementThinking outside the box is a key skill for innovative new growth strategies.If large language models(LLMs)thrive on synthesizing all of the existing data they have ingested,the thing they cant do as well as people is innovate new ways of thinking and doing.IntroductionKey TrendsConclusion26Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionIntegrant achieved nearly 100%AI adoption following its training initiatives.To ensure that employees had the skills to be ready for not only AI but also to have the complementary adaptive skills needed for the next transformative change,the company adopted a learning matrix.The matrix is scalable to different levels of assessed competencies in AI and other technical and adaptive skills,offering a systematic approach to upskilling.Integrant set target skills for each job title,curated Udemy training programs to close gaps,and implemented regular reassessment to ensure sustained growth.The matrix became a strategic tool supporting Integrants vision of organizational agility,helping the company remain responsive to a dynamic market landscape.AI adoption following upskilling programsreduction in skills gaps for key competencies within six months100P%This strategic shift has positioned our organization to remain agile,competitive,and resilient in the face of ongoing changes in the workplace.”Peter Amir Learning and Development Lead at Integrantof Gen Z workers consider soft skills critical to professional success.of midcareer professionals are improving soft skills like communication and creativity.84%Employees understand the value of adaptive skillsUdemyUdemyHow Udemy customers are doing it27Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionGet ready for what comes after AIMake adaptability and lifelong learning your operational north star.Build learning paths that develop not just expertise,but growth and change-readiness.Then establish key performance indicators(KPIs)and manager scorecards that measure these.Embed critical thinking and ambiguity navigation into every level of learning.Go beyond tests of knowledge to use real-world scenarios and Role Plays.Ensure there is feedback that helps employees practice how to think critically and act meaningfully when the“right”path isnt obvious.Enable leaders to reinforce skills development.Leaders should make upskilling and reskilling part of day-to-day work and coaching conversations,not just something touched on periodically in performance reviews and career development evaluations.Call out and reward versatility.Celebrate employees who pivot,cross-skill,and thrive through change.Keep learning systems as nimble as your business.Regularly refresh content,methods,and learning culture to match emerging business priorities.Start scanning and preparing for work and life beyond AI.Integrate trendspotting,scenario planning,and reinvention as part of strategic learning and workforce planning.Highly resilient and adaptable employees are 3.8x more innovative.3.8xmore innovativeMcKinseyIntroductionConclusion28Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportKey Trends28Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionCONCLUSIONIntroductionConclusion29Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportKey Trends03Adapting to AI disruption as practice for the next transformationThe future is being rewritten in real time.AI is no longer a distant promise or threat.It is the engine of growth and the grammar of the modern enterprise.But the defining challenge for leaders isnt mastering a specific technology.Its orchestrating the new workforce portfolio:employees leading a fluid collaboration with AI models,agents,and compute power.The leaders wont be those who pick the“right”model,but those who rebuild how their business learns,decides,and ships change.Those who evolve their approach to skills development through the Udemy learning system will benefit from the greatest adaptability,driving AI integration better and faster than the competition.The force multipliers on the road to even greater success will be the ability to scale agency and ethical stewardship,while helping employees develop resilience and judgment.Its essential to cultivate the skills to navigate profound change,both for the age of AI and whatever comes after AI.This requires developing a mindset,a framework,and an approach to learning that fuels continuous transformation.Executives and employees alike should embrace what is uncomfortable about change,seeing each disruption as practice for the next.The organizations that are ready to meet this moment are those that will lean into permanent reinvention,putting themselves in a position to thrive and lead.Join them.Shift from treating upskilling as a nice-to-have to viewing it as the essential motor of your AI transformation,where a human-centered,AI-powered workforce will shape the future of work.30Udemy Business /2026 Global Learning&Skills Trends ReportIntroductionKey TrendsConclusionData methodologyAbout Udemy BusinessFor this report,we analyzed data from thousands of our customers around the world.We calculated total consumption by Udemy Business learners across all course topics for the year from July 1,2024,to June 30,2025.We calculated the percentage growth in consumption compared to the year from July 1,2023,to June 30,2024.The total consumption and surging ranking for the AI topics is also drawn from the July 1,2024,through June 30,2025,time period.Udemy is an AI-powered skills acceleration platform transforming how companies and individuals across the world build the capabilities needed to thrive in a rapidly evolving workplace.Udemy Business provides enterprise skills development solutions to thousands of companies,including Ericsson,Samsung SDS America,On24,Tata Consultancy Services,The World Bank,and Volkswagen,to build agile,future-ready teams.Learn more at
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OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and TrainingVocational Education and Training Systems in Nine CountriesOECD Reviews of Vocational Education and TrainingVocational Education and Training Systems in Nine CountriesThis work is published under the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD.The opinions expressed andarguments employed herein do not necessarily reflect the official views of the Member countries of the OECD.This document,as well as any data and map included herein,are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty overany territory,to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory,city or area.Please cite this publication as:OECD(2025),Vocational Education and Training Systems in Nine Countries,OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/1a86eb6c-en.ISBN 978-92-64-60594-7(print)ISBN 978-92-64-97462-3(PDF)ISBN 978-92-64-56616-3(HTML)OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and TrainingISSN 2077-7728(print)ISSN 2077-7736(online)Photo credits:Cover BGStock72/S.Corrigenda to OECD publications may be found at:https:/www.oecd.org/en/publications/support/corrigenda.html.OECD 2025 Attribution 4.0 International(CC BY 4.0)This work is made available under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International licence.By using this work,you accept to be bound by the terms of this licence(https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).Attribution you must cite the work.Translations you must cite the original work,identify changes to the original and add the following text:In the event of any discrepancy between the original work and the translation,only the text of the original work should be considered valid.Adaptations you must cite the original work and add the following text:This is an adaptation of an original work by the OECD.The opinions expressed and arguments employed in this adaptation should not be reported as representing the official views of the OECD or of its Member countries.Third-party material the licence does not apply to third-party material in the work.If using such material,you are responsible for obtaining permission from the third party and for any claims of infringement.You must not use the OECD logo,visual identity or cover image without express permission or suggest the OECD endorses your use of the work.Any dispute arising under this licence shall be settled by arbitration in accordance with the Permanent Court of Arbitration(PCA)Arbitration Rules 2012.The seat of arbitration shall be Paris(France).The number of arbitrators shall be one.3 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Foreword Vocational education and training(VET)at the upper-secondary level remains the heart of VET systems around the world,representing the bulk of VET enrolments in most countries.It comprises programmes that are predominantly school-based,as well as programmes with a substantial element of work-based learning.Upper-secondary VET offers lower-secondary graduates the opportunity to develop labour market relevant skills,alongside more general and transversal skills.It also typically enables learners to access higher levels of education and training.Upper-secondary VET serves young people in initial education,as well as adults who are looking for opportunities to upskill or reskill in response to evolving skills needs.While upper-secondary VET is a well-established component of most education systems,its design and implementation differs across countries.This report describes upper-secondary VET systems across seven dimensions in nine countries,providing an up-to-date and detailed evidence base on similarities and differences between upper-secondary VET systems around the world.The dimensions analysed are:1)VETs place in the education system and pathways into and after VET;2)curriculum and assessment;3)work-based learning in school-based programmes;4)provider types;5)VET teachers and trainers qualifications and professional development;6)governance;and 7)funding.This report describes these elements of upper-secondary VET systems in:Austria,Denmark,Finland,Germany,the Netherlands,Norway,Singapore,Sweden and Switzerland.As VET commences in post-secondary education in Singapore,ISCED 4 level VET is the focus of the Singapore chapter.This report was drafted by Ben Game and Abigail Sageev from the OECD Centre for Skills,under the supervision of Marieke Vandeweyer(manager of the VET team)and El Iza Mohamedou(Head of the Centre for Skills).The report has benefited from comments provided by Mark Pearson(Deputy Director for Employment,Labour and Social Affairs),Malgorzata Kuczera and colleagues from the OECD Centre for Skills,as well as the Group of National Experts(GNE)on VET.Administrative and editorial assistance was provided by Jennifer Cannon,along with Kris Virsilas and Alexandra Kolb,from the OECD Centre for Skills.The OECD is grateful for the financial support of the Gatsby Charitable Foundation for this project,and for the guidance and feedback provided by Natasha Watkinson and Jenifer Burden.The OECD is grateful to colleagues in the countries covered in this report who provided feedback on the chapters.4 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Table of contents Foreword 3 Executive summary 8 1 Introduction 11 1.1.What is the context for this project?12 1.2.What is upper-secondary VET?12 1.3.What do internationally comparative data show about upper-secondary VET?13 1.4.What are the key features of countries upper-secondary VET systems?17 1.5.Non-members 25 References 25 Note 26 2 Vocational education and training in Austria 27 2.1.Place of VET in the overall education system and pathways into and after VET 28 2.2.Curriculum structure and assessment procedures 31 2.3.Work-based learning(WBL)in school-based programmes 33 2.4.Provider types 34 2.5.VET teachers and trainers qualifications and professional development 36 2.6.Governance 37 2.7.Funding 39 References 41 Annex 2.A.Examples of curriculum structure and assessment procedures for three ISCED 3 VET qualifications 45 3 Vocational education and training in Denmark 49 3.1.Place of VET in the overall education system and pathways into and after VET 50 3.2.Curriculum structure and assessment procedures 52 3.3.Work-based learning(WBL)in VET programmes 54 3.4.Provider types 55 3.5.VET teachers and trainers qualifications and professional development 56 3.6.Governance 57 3.7.Funding 58 References 60 Annex 3.A.Examples of curriculum structure and assessment procedures for three ISCED 3 VET qualifications 63 5 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 4 Vocational education and training in Finland 68 4.1.Place of VET in the overall education system and pathways into and after VET 69 4.2.Curriculum structure and assessment procedures 71 4.3.Work-based learning(WBL)in school-based programmes 73 4.4.Provider types 74 4.5.VET teachers and trainers qualifications and professional development 76 4.6.Governance 77 4.7.Funding 79 References 80 Annex 4.A.Examples of curriculum structure and assessment procedures for three ISCED 3 VET qualifications 84 5 Vocational education and training in Germany 89 5.1.Place of VET in the overall education system and pathways into and after VET 90 5.2.Curriculum structure and assessment procedures 94 5.3.Work-based learning(WBL)in school-based programmes 95 5.4.Providers 96 5.5.VET teachers and trainers qualifications and professional development 97 5.6.Governance 99 5.7.Funding 100 References 102 Annex 5.A.Examples of curriculum structure and assessment procedures for three ISCED 3 VET qualifications 108 6 Vocational education and training in the Netherlands 113 6.1.Place of VET in the overall education system and pathways into and after VET 114 6.2.Curriculum structure and assessment procedures 116 6.3.Work-based learning(WBL)in school-based programmes 119 6.4.Provider types 120 6.5.VET teachers and trainers qualifications and professional development 121 6.6.Governance 122 6.7.Funding 124 References 125 Annex 6.A.Examples of curriculum structure and assessment procedures for three ISCED 3 VET qualifications 130 7 Vocational education and training in Norway 137 7.1.Place of VET in the overall education system and pathways into and after VET 138 7.2.Curriculum structure and assessment procedures 140 7.3.Work-based learning(WBL)in school-based programmes 142 7.4.Provider types 143 7.5.VET teachers and trainers qualifications and professional development 144 7.6.Governance 145 7.7.Funding 146 References 147 Annex 7.A.Examples of curriculum structure and assessment procedures for three ISCED 3 VET qualifications 150 8 Vocational education and training in Singapore 155 8.1.Place of VET in the overall education system and pathways into and after VET 156 6 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 8.2.Curriculum structure and assessment procedures 158 8.3.Work-based learning(WBL)in post-secondary VET programmes 159 8.4.Provider types 160 8.5.VET teachers and trainers qualifications and professional development 161 8.6.Governance 161 8.7.Funding 162 References 164 Annex 8.A.Examples of curriculum structure and assessment procedures for three ISCED 4 VET qualifications in Singapore 167 9 Vocational education and training in Sweden 171 9.1.Place of VET in the overall education system and pathways into and after VET 172 9.2.Curriculum structure and assessment procedures 174 9.3.Work-based learning(WBL)in school-based programmes 176 9.4.Provider types 177 9.5.VET teachers and trainers qualifications and professional development 178 9.6.Governance 180 9.7.Funding 181 References 182 Annex 9.A.Examples of curriculum structure and assessment procedures for three ISCED 3 VET qualifications 185 10 Vocational education and training in Switzerland 190 10.1.Place of VET in the overall education system and pathways into and after VET 191 10.2.Curriculum structure and assessment procedures 193 10.3.Work-based learning(WBL)in school-based programmes 195 10.4.Provider types 196 10.5.VET teachers and trainers qualifications and professional development 197 10.6.Governance 198 10.7.Funding 199 References 200 Annex 10.A.Examples of curriculum structure and assessment procedures for three ISCED 3 VET qualifications 205 FIGURES Figure 1.1.Educational attainment of 25-34 year-olds,by programme orientation(2023)14 Figure 1.2.Distribution of VET students by level of the programme,2023 14 Figure 1.3.Enrolment rates of 15-19 year-olds and 20-24 year-olds in upper-secondary VET(2021)15 Figure 1.4.Share of upper-secondary vocational students enrolled in combined school-and work-based programmes(2021)16 Figure 1.5.Educational status of graduates from upper-secondary vocational programmes in the year after their graduation(2020)17 Figure 2.1.The place of ISCED 3 VET in Austrias education system 30 Figure 3.1.The place of ISCED 3 VET in Denmarks education system 52 Figure 4.1.The place of ISCED 3 VET in Finlands education system 71 Figure 5.1.The place of ISCED 3 VET in Germanys education system 93 Figure 6.1.The place of ISCED 3 VET in the Netherlands education system 116 Figure 7.1.The place of ISCED 3 VET in Norways education system 140 Figure 8.1.The place of VET in Singapores education system 157 Figure 9.1.The place of ISCED 3 VET in Swedens education system 174 Figure 10.1.The place of ISCED 3 VET in Switzerlands education system 193 7 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 TABLES Table 4.1.Composition of a Finnish vocational upper-secondary qualification(ISCED 3)72 Annex Table 3.A.1.Course and credit structure for the electrician(Elektriker)programme 64 Annex Table 3.A.2.Course and credit structure for the Social and Health Care Assistant(Social-og sundhedsassistent)programme 65 Annex Table 3.A.3.Course and credit structure for the Carpenter(Tmrer)under Trfagenes byggeuddannelse programme 66 Annex Table 4.A.1.Composition of the Electrical and Automation Engineering(Electrician)programme(ISCED 3)84 Annex Table 4.A.2.Composition of the Social and Health Care(Practical Nurse)programme(ISCED 3)86 Annex Table 4.A.3.Composition of the Business(Customer Service and Sales)programme(ISCED 3)87 Annex Table 6.A.1.Indicative structure of the MBO 2 Retail Salesperson(BBL)programme(2 years,apprenticeship 131 Annex Table 6.A.2.Indicative structure of the MBO 3 Financial Administrative Assistant programme(3-year BOL)133 Annex Table 6.A.3.Example structure of the MBO 4 Nursing programme(4-year BOL)134 Annex Table 7.A.1.Structure of the Electrician VET pathway(Electro programme)150 Annex Table 7.A.2.Structure of the Health Care Worker VET pathway(Health&Oppvekst programme)152 Annex Table 7.A.3.Structure of the Industrial Mechanic VET pathway(Technology&Industrial programme)153 Annex Table 9.A.1.Course and credit structure for the Electrical Technology(Elteknik)orientation 185 Annex Table 9.A.2.Course and credit structure for the Health and Social Care Programme(Vrd-och omsorgsprogrammet VO)187 Annex Table 9.A.3.Course and credit structure for the House Building(Husbyggnad)orientation 188 8 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Executive summary Upper-secondary VET plays an important role in education systems VET plays an important role in each of the nine countries covered by this report:Austria,Denmark,Finland,Germany,the Netherlands,Norway,Singapore,Sweden and Switzerland.However,the size of the upper-secondary VET systems in these countries differs,reflecting differing policy,economic,social and cultural factors.These include the starting age and eligibility requirements for VET,educational and employment opportunities after VET,the structure of the economy and the esteem attributed to VET,both in isolation and relative to general and higher education.Many students undertake upper-secondary VET.Across the eight countries for which comparative data are available(excludes Singapore)in 2021,the share of young(15-19 year old)upper-secondary students enrolled in vocational programmes ranged from 19%in Denmark to 68%in Austria.The shares are even higher when including older students(20-24 year olds).A variety of pathways into and after upper-secondary VET exist.The completion of lower-secondary education is the typical entry requirement for upper-secondary VET,although countries offer various alternative entry pathways for students,including bridging and preparatory programmes.VET graduates can typically continue into further vocational training,higher education as well as diverse occupations.For example,Austrias Lehre-mit-Matura scheme allows apprentices to study four general-education subjects and to obtain the Matura,alongside their trade,which gives them unrestricted university access.Countries employ various approaches to curricula development and student assessment,to ensure the relevance and quality of VET Some countries take a more centralised approach to VET curricula development and implementation,whereas others are more decentralised.For example,Singapore has a relatively centralised model,with the Ministry setting VET curricula structures and one public provider developing most ISCED 4 VET programmes.In Germany,training regulations are set federally,while school curricula are developed by the Lnder,and detailed occupational standards are drafted by bipartite trade committees.Engaging employers in curricula development is commonplace,and may take place in national-level curricula framework setting,right down to provider-level course design.Countries employ a range of methods to assessing students learning outcomes in upper-secondary VET.In core subjects(official language,mathematics,etc.)VET students often sit the same standardised assessments as students in general programmes.Yet VET subjects are assessed in various ways.For example,Finland relies on unit-based competence demonstrations:students prove mastery of each module through real work tasks that are jointly assessed by a teacher and a workplace representative,with no national final exam.In Denmark,VET culminates in an externally-set final trade test that is designed by the sectoral trade committee and evaluated by a panel of examiners using national criteria.9 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Upper-secondary VET comprises school-based programmes and apprenticeships Upper-secondary VET comprises programmes that are predominantly school-based,as well as programmes with a substantial element of work-based learning,including apprenticeships.The extent of work-based learning in upper-secondary VET programmes differs considerably across countries.Across the seven countries for which comparative data are available in 2021(excludes the Netherlands and Singapore),the share of upper-secondary vocational students enrolled in“combined school-and work-based programmes”ranged from 8%in Sweden to 100%in Denmark.In these programmes the work-based component is between 25%and 90%of the curriculum.In Sweden,the three-year school courses that include a minimum 15 weeks of workplace training(APL)are the most popular option.By contrast,virtually all upper-secondary VET in Denmark is apprenticeships,in which at least 50%of time is spent in paid company training.A mix of providers offer upper-secondary VET,and differ in the breadth of their offerings and target audiences Providers can offer a wide diversity of vocational specialisations or focus on specific fields or target audiences,and most countries have a mix of public and private provision.In the Netherlands,39 publicly-funded regional training centres(ROCs),16 occupational colleges,a Police Academy and around 100 accredited private providers deliver upper-secondary VET programmes.Finland has 139 registered providers,ranging from large,multi-field municipal colleges that serve entire regions to small,specialised private or state-owned schools that cater to specific industries or linguistic minorities.Countries seek to balance quality and accessibility in the VET teaching profession Countries have different requirements for the technical and pedagogical preparation of VET teachers and trainers,as well as their ongoing professional development,to maintain currency in the world of work.In Singapore,teachers(“Lecturers”)at the main public provider require significant sectoral expertise and often receive their pedagogical training in-house from their employer.Norway obliges vocational teachers to hold a trade certificate and at least four years of work experience,and lets them begin teaching while completing the one-year,part-time Practical Pedagogical Education.There is no single model of VET governance,with employers,providers and sub-national authorities holding varying responsibilities Which responsibilities are decentralised and to whom in VET systems differs by national contexts.For example,in Switzerland,the Confederation sets framework legislation,the 26 cantons fund and supervise vocational schools,and professional organisations offer inter-company courses and are closely involved in curriculum updates.In Denmark,the state issues overall regulations,sector-based trade committees design detailed curricula and approve training companies,while social partners sit on providers boards and committees.10 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Countries take differing approaches to funding upper-secondary VET in classrooms and workplaces While many countries aim to minimise tuition fees for students in upper-secondary VET,there are differing approaches to funding VET in classrooms and workplaces.Upper-secondary VET is tuition-free for the vast majority of learners in each of the studied European countries,while Singapore which charges a nominal and partially subsidised fee for ISCED 4 VET.Funding of work-based learning is handled differently across countries.For example,German employers bear the full wage and training cost of apprentices and receive no direct public subsidy,while Norwegian companies receive a state training subsidy proportional to apprenticeship duration.11 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Upper-secondary vocational education and training(VET)is the largest component of most countries VET systems.This chapter provides context for the report by exploring available comparative data on countries VET systems.The chapter also summarises each subsequent chapter on the upper-secondary VET systems of the nine included countries.While countries pursue similar goals in upper-secondary VET,both the data and descriptions highlight key differences in how countries design and implement VET to achieve these goals.1 Introduction 12 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 1.1.What is the context for this project?This report describes the upper-secondary VET systems of nine countries,to provide insights into how different countries design and organise upper-secondary VET.It was undertaken with the support and input of the Gatsby Charitable Foundation in the United Kingdom(Gatsby).The selection of countries and topics reveals interesting differences in important features of VET systems.The report describes the upper-secondary VET system for nine countries:Austria,Denmark,Finland,Germany,the Netherlands,Norway,Singapore,Sweden,and Switzerland.These countries differ on several dimensions,such as:when and at what level VET commences,how many students choose VET,pathways into and after VET,how centralised VET curricula are,the nature and extent of work-based learning,which public and/or private institutions provide VET and which programmes they offer,and how VET is governed and financed among national and sub-national governments,social partners,institutions and individuals.This report complements other OECD VET work.It provides detailed qualitative descriptions of VET systems that complement the detailed comparative data on VET in the OECDs flagship publication Education at a Glance.It also complements a range of thematic VET reports,providing a“prequel”to the OECDs recent reports on higher VET(OECD,20221;OECD,20242),and drawing on,bringing together and building upon the findings of focused studies on VET providers(OECD,20223),teachers(OECD,20214;OECD,20225),and employer engagement(OECD,20226).The information for this report has been sourced from existing OECD research and analysis,official publicly available sources for the nine countries,and other publicly available literature.It has been reviewed by official representatives of each of the nine countries who are experts in VET.1.2.What is upper-secondary VET?Upper-secondary VET marks the completion of secondary education and prepares participants for direct entry into specific occupations,while typically also providing options for continuing into higher levels of education(Box 1.1).Box 1.1.Defining upper-secondary VET Upper-secondary education Programmes at the upper-secondary education level are more specialised than those at lower secondary and offer students more choices and diverse pathways for completing their secondary education.The range of subjects studied by a single student tends to be narrower than at lower levels of education,but the content is more complex and the study more in-depth.Programmes offered are differentiated by orientation and often by broad subject groups.Programmes classified at ISCED level 3 may be referred to in many ways,for example:secondary school(stage two/upper grades),senior secondary school or(senior)high school.For international comparability purposes,the term upper-secondary education is used to label ISCED level 3(OECD/Eurostat/UNESCO Institute for Statistics,20157).Pupils enter upper-secondary education typically between age 14 and age 16,and typically leave it around age 17 or 18(usually after 12 years of education)(Stronati,20238).13 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Vocational education and training Vocational programmes exist both to offer options to young people who might otherwise leave school without any qualifications from an upper-secondary programme,as well as for those wishing to prepare for skilled worker and/or technician-level jobs.Vocational programmes are further divided into two categories based on the amount of training provided in school and the workplace:school-based programmes and combined school-and work-based programmes.Successful completion of such programmes leads to a vocational or technical qualification that is relevant to the labour market.Increasingly,VET programmes allow graduates to continue into higher levels of training,often including tertiary education.Source:OECD/Eurostat/UNESCO Institute for Statistics(20157),ISCED 2011 Operational Manual:Guidelines for Classifying National Education Programmes and Related Qualifications,https:/doi.org/10.1787/9789264228368-en,UNESCO Institute for Statistics(20129),International Standard Classification of Education,ISCED 2011,http:/uis.unesco.org/en/topic/international-standard-classification-education-isced;Stronati,C.(20238),“The design of upper secondary education across OECD countries:Managing choice,coherence and specialisation”,OECD Education Working Papers,No.288,https:/doi.org/10.1787/158101f0-en;OECD(201910),“What characterises upper secondary vocational education and training?”,Education Indicators in Focus,5,www.oecd.org/en/publications/2019/04/what-characterises-upper-secondary-vocational-education-and-training_7ae872d8.html.1.3.What do internationally comparative data show about upper-secondary VET?VET plays an important role in each of the nine countries covered by this report.However,the size of the upper-secondary VET systems in these countries differs,reflecting differing policy,economic,social and cultural factors.Key policy factors include the starting age for VET programmes,the accessibility of upper-secondary VET for different groups,and educational opportunities after upper-secondary VET.Broader factors like the structure of the economy and employment opportunities after VET,as well as the esteem society attributes to VET,also influence the size of upper-secondary VET systems.These factors are important in isolation and relative to general and higher education systems.1.3.1.More than one-in-five young adults have an upper-secondary VET qualification For one-in-five young adults(25-34 year-olds)across OECD countries,upper-secondary VET is their highest level of education.Across the eight countries in this report for which comparative data are available in 2023(excludes Singapore),this share ranges from 15%in Sweden to 37%in Finland,above the rate in the United Kingdom(12%)(Figure 1.1).These data refer to the highest qualification of the individual,and some of those who have attained a post-secondary education qualification(including at the tertiary level)will also hold an upper-secondary VET qualification.14 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Figure 1.1.Educational attainment of 25-34 year-olds,by programme orientation(2023)Percentage of 25-34 year-olds with a given level of education as the highest level attained Note:The OECD countries excluded from this chart have either missing values or data included in another category for upper-secondary vocational education.Countries are ranked in descending order of the share of 25-34 year-olds whose highest education level attained is upper-secondary vocational education.Source:OECD(202311),Adults educational attainment distribution,by age group and gender(database),OECD Data Explorer,https:/data-explorer.oecd.org/s/2on.1.3.2.Upper secondary represents the lions share of total VET in most countries Most VET takes place at the upper-secondary level across OECD countries.The share of total VET enrolments that are in upper-secondary education ranges from about 56%in Germany to 93%in Switzerland,compared to 71%in the United Kingdom(Figure 1.2).Figure 1.2.Distribution of VET students by level of the programme,2023 Note:Countries are ranked in descending order of the share of total VET students who are enrolled at the upper-secondary level.Source:Authors calculations based on OECD(202312),Number of enrolled students,new entrants and graduates by age(database),OECD Data Explorer,https:/data-explorer.oecd.org/s/2ol.0102030405060708090100Below upper secondary educationUpper secondary general educationUpper secondary vocational educationPost-secondary non-tertiary educationTertiary education02030405060708090100%lower-secondary(ISCED 2)upper-secondary(ISCED 3)post-secondary non tertiary(ISCED 4)short cycle tertiary(ISCED 5)15 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 1.3.3.More than one-in-three upper-secondary students are in VET About 37%of younger upper-secondary students(15-19 year-olds)across the OECD and in the United Kingdom were enrolled in VET in 2021.Across the eight countries in this report for which comparative data are available(excludes Singapore),this share ranges from 19%in Denmark to 68%in Austria.The shares are even higher for older upper-secondary students(20-24 year-olds)(Figure 1.3).Figure 1.3.Enrolment rates of 15-19 year-olds and 20-24 year-olds in upper-secondary VET(2021)Students enrolled in full-time and part-time programmes in both public and private institutions Note:Countries are ranked in descending order of the share of 15-19 year-olds students in 2021.The OECD countries excluded from this chart have either missing values or data included in another category for upper-secondary vocational education.Source:OECD(202313),Education at a Glance 2023:OECD Indicators,https:/doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en,Table B1.2.1.3.4.The extent of work-based learning differs across countries and VET programmes Across OECD countries in 2021,about 45%of students in upper-secondary VET were in combined school-and work-based programmes(OECD,202313).1 Across the seven countries in this report for which comparative data are available(excludes the Netherlands and Singapore),the share of VET students in combined school-and work-based programmes ranges from 8%in Sweden to 100%in Denmark(Figure 1.4).While work-based learning is mandatory in the vast majority of Swedish upper-secondary VET programmes,it usually accounts for 15%of total instruction time.Conversely,practically all Danish upper-secondary VET programmes follow an apprenticeship model in which work-based learning is mandatory,paid and accounts for at least 50%of the curriculum.0102030405060708090100Age 15 to 19Age 20 to 24 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Figure 1.4.Share of upper-secondary vocational students enrolled in combined school-and work-based programmes(2021)Note:The work-based component is between 25%and 90%of the curriculum in combined school and work-based programmes.These programmes can be organised in conjunction with education authorities or institutions.Source:OECD(202313),Education at a Glance 2023:OECD Indicators,https:/doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en,Table B1.2.1.3.5.Pathways out of upper-secondary VET differ across countries and programmes Around one-third of upper-secondary VET graduates are enrolled in an education programme one year after graduation,across the OECD on average(OECD,202313).Across the five countries in this report for which comparative data are available(Austria,Finland,Norway,Sweden,Switzerland),this share ranges from around 10%in Sweden to over 30%in Austria.In Sweden,these continuing learners choose a diverse range of general and vocational programmes at various levels.In Austria,they are almost entirely in short-cycle tertiary programmes(Figure 1.5).Overall,vocational upper-secondary graduates are less likely to be enrolled in any education programme one year after graduation than their peers who graduated from general programmes.This makes sense given vocational programmes are designed to prepare students for entry into the labour market.For example,in Sweden 82%of upper-secondary vocational graduates who are not enrolled one year after graduation are employed(OECD,202313).0102030405060708090100 17 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Figure 1.5.Educational status of graduates from upper-secondary vocational programmes in the year after their graduation(2020)Note:The data presented here come from an ad-hoc survey and only concern initial education programmes.1.Year of reference differs from 2020.Refer to the source table for more details.2.Other type of programme shows students who have received a public student loan to study abroad in the autumn of 2019 and are not students in schools in Iceland.Countries and other participants are ranked in descending order of the share of upper-secondary vocational programme graduates who are not enrolled in any programme one year after graduation.Source:OECD(202313),Education at a Glance 2023:OECD Indicators,https:/doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en,Table B3.3.For more information see source section and Education at a Glance 2023 Sources,Methodologies and Technical Notes,(OECD,202313).1.4.What are the key features of countries upper-secondary VET systems?This section summarises each subsequent chapter on the upper-secondary VET systems of the nine assessed countries.1.4.1.Austria Upper-secondary vocational education and training(VET)sits at the heart of Austrias education system.After nine years of compulsory schooling(age 15),about two-thirds of learners choose one of three VET options:dual apprenticeships(45%of VET students),three-to four-year intermediate vocational schools(BMS)and five-year higher vocational colleges(BHS).The three strands differ in duration and level but all confer nationally recognised qualifications and well-trodden bridges to tertiary study,notably via the Berufsreifeprfung or the Matura obtained in BHS programmes.All programmes are governed by centrally issued curricula or training regulations that spell out occupational profiles,learning outcomes and minimum volumes of general education.In BMS and BHS,roughly one-third of teaching time is practical,delivered in workshops,practice firms or laboratories.0 0%LithuaniaSwedenFinlandEstoniaNorwayPortugalSwitzerlandIcelandAustriaChileSpainSloveniaEnrolled in a general upper secondary programmeEnrolled in a vocational upper secondary programmeEnrolled in a post-secondary non-tertiary programmeEnrolled in a short-cycle tertiary programmeEnrolled in a bachelors or masters programmeEnrolled in another programmeNot enrolled18 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Apprenticeships,by contrast,follow an occupational training regulation that specifies the competencies to be developed in workplaces and ensures their alignment with the curriculum in vocational schools.School routes culminate in a board examination(Abschlussprfung or Reife-und Diplomprfung),whereas apprentices sit the federally standardised examination(Lehrabschlussprfung)before a chamber board.Authentic workplace experience is mandatory.Apprentices train 3-4 days per week or in intensive blocks in a certified company,depending on the programme and state.School-based students must complete industry internships(typically 4 weeks per year in BMS and 8-12 weeks over five years in BHS)and often carry out firm-based diploma projects.Supra-company centres provide training places for young people who do not secure an apprenticeship.Around 27 000 approved companies host apprentices,while over 500 public BMS/BHS schools deliver full-time VET.Specialised schools(e.g.agricultural colleges)are run by the agriculture ministry and Lnder;many private,mainly Catholic,institutions enjoy public-law status and teach the same national curricula.Vocational theory teachers usually hold a relevant higher-education degree,industry experience and a pedagogical diploma.Workshop teachers can enter with a master craftsperson(Meister)certificate and complete pedagogical training.In-company trainers(Ausbilder)must hold an appropriate occupational qualification,as well as a recognised trainer qualification.Governance is multi-level and tripartite.The Federal Ministry of Education,Science and Research sets school curricula and funds vocational schools,while the Federal Ministry of Labour and Economy issues apprenticeship regulations and oversees in-company training.Both ministries work through formal committees with the Economic and Labour Chambers,unions and Lnder governments to update qualifications,and oversee final exams.School-based VET is funded jointly by the federation and Lnder.Apprenticeships are largely financed by employers through wages and training costs,with grants administered by the chambers and public employment service to reimburse exam fees and trainer courses,and provide incentives for disadvantaged groups.The federal budget covers vocational schools and supra-company training,with Lnder co-funding.1.4.2.Denmark Despite its relatively small size,the upper-secondary vocational education and training(VET)system in Denmark plays a crucial role in the countrys education landscape.Secondary students typically begin upper-secondary VET at age 16.Only about one fifth of 15-to 19-year-olds enrolled in upper-secondary education were in VET in 2021.Students choose among more than 100 specialist programmes,which last 25 years and lead to a nationally recognised skilled-worker certificate at ISCED 3.Alternative pathways ensure access for students with weaker school results or older learners.Ambitious students can add the EUX double-qualification,gaining both a journeymans certificate and the general upper-secondary exam that confers general eligibility for higher education.Curricula follow a two-stage structure.All learners complete two school-based basic courses,then progress to the Main Course that alternates blocks in college with paid apprenticeship periods in one or more companies.Sector trade committees translate labour-market needs into detailed programme orders and competence goals.Assessment is continuous in both settings and culminates in a comprehensive practical trade test(svendeprve).Successful candidates receive a journeymans certificate that is valued nationwide and can open the door to tertiary professional programmes.Work-based learning lies at the systems core,occupying the majority of programme time.Employers approved by the relevant trade committee train apprentices under a company mentor who follows an individual training plan.When a placement cannot be found immediately,the learner continues practical training in a school-based training centre until a firm is secured.Apprentices may divide training across 19 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 several enterprises and can undertake short exchanges,including abroad.Recent tripartite agreements added bonuses and surcharges to reward companies that meet intake targets and to expand placement capacity.Provision is concentrated in over 80 self-governing vocational colleges that receive state funding but enjoy operational autonomy.Each college board brings together employers,unions,staff and students and decides the local programme portfolio within national limits.Colleges often run both technical and commercial strands and may host adult training,higher vocational programmes and the school-based training centres.A smaller group of specialist providers agricultural schools,maritime schools,guild workshops and private niche centres deliver parts of certain programmes under the same quality regime.General subject teachers hold an academic degree and a teaching qualification.Vocational teachers are recruited from industry with at least five years of trade experience and must complete the part-time Diploma in Vocational Pedagogy within six years of hire.Continuous professional development is organised at college level.Company trainers are experienced journeymen but face no statutory pedagogical requirement.Governance is a shared endeavour.Parliament and the Ministry of Children and Education set the legal framework,while social partner trade committees design programme content,approve training companies and run final tests.Local training committees advise colleges and mediate workplace issues.College boards give providers strategic direction,and the Danish Evaluation Institute supports external quality assurance.Financing mirrors these roles.The State pays for the school element through a per-student base grant and social-equity supplements,giving colleges flexibility to invest in equipment or staff.Employers fund the work-based part via a universal levy to the Employers Reimbursement Fund(AUB).AUB reimburses firms for apprentice wages during school periods,pays allowances for school-based apprenticeships and distributes bonuses that encourage higher intake.Education is free for learners,and apprentice wages are negotiated in collective agreements.1.4.3.Finland Finlands upper-secondary vocational education and training(VET)begins immediately after nine years of comprehensive schooling and is part of compulsory education.In 2021 around 45%of 15-19-year-old upper-secondary students were in VET programmes.Forty-two broad initial qualifications at EQF level 4 cover all major sectors and can be adapted through a Personal Competence Development Plan(HOKS)that recognises prior learning and sets an individual trajectory.Successful graduates gain both a vocational certificate and general eligibility for higher education,while entering the workforce.For learners needing extra preparation,one-year pathways bridge the gap to full programmes and count towards the compulsory schooling requirement.Programmes are competence-based rather than time-based.Each national qualification standard,drafted by the Finnish National Agency for Education together with social partners,consists of 180 competence points:35 points of common units plus 145 points of compulsory and optional vocational units.Students demonstrate mastery unit by unit through authentic work tasks,assessed jointly by a teacher and a workplace representative.There is no national final examination.Progress depends on achieving agreed competences,so programme length can vary.Work-based learning is core component planned in each learners HOKS.Around two in five students undertake one or more training-agreement placements,remaining learners rather than employees,while roughly one in five follow an apprenticeship contract.Students can move between the two modes as opportunities arise,and the volume of workplace learning is fixed in each HOKS rather than by national minima.Feedback from employers and students on placement quality feeds into provider funding and quality assurance.20 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Provision rests with over 130 licensed VET providers.About one quarter are joint-municipal or municipal/state-owned providers,who account for around 80%of VET students.Roughly two-thirds of providers are non-government(foundations,associations and companies).All providers receive equal public funding and must meet licence conditions on equity,quality and co-operation with working life,but they enjoy wide autonomy to shape local curricula,staffing and delivery modes.Employers and unions sit on obligatory advisory boards,ensuring programmes remain responsive to regional skill needs.Vocational teachers must hold an appropriate tertiary qualification in their field,several years of relevant industry experience and a pedagogical qualification.Common-studies teachers follow the same academic route as their general-school peers.Continuous professional development and periodic evaluations by the Finnish Education Evaluation Centre underpin teaching quality.Governance of VET is centralised in regulation but decentralised and flexible in implementation.The Ministry of Education and Culture sets legislation and funding rules,and EDUFI defines qualification requirements.Providers decide how to deliver them,while local stakeholders help shape content.Social-partner influence is formalised in national working-life committees that also monitor assessment standards.Financing combines a core allocation that reflects student numbers and promotes equitable access with a sizable performance component that rewards credentials completed,learning outcomes demonstrated and graduate employment.This outcome-based element encourages providers to secure high-quality workplace learning,maintain completion rates and support smooth transitions into further studies or work.1.4.4.Germany Germanys upper-secondary vocational education and training(VET)sits alongside the general track and is the dominant route into skilled employment.Around one-third of all 15-19-year-old upper-secondary students are enrolled in VET,the vast majority in apprenticeships.Entry is possible after completion of compulsory schooling,and there is no upper age limit for starting an apprenticeship.Successful graduates earn nationally recognised craft or skilled-worker certificates and may move on to tertiary study via bridging options such as the Fachhochschulreife or the vocational baccalaureate.Programmes are built on a blend of federal training regulations and Lnder framework syllabi.Training regulations,negotiated by federal authorities and the social partners,set out the occupational profile,the in-company training plan and examination requirements for more than 320 recognised training occupations.The Lnder implement these as competence-based school curricula covering vocational theory,general subjects and key competences.Chambers organise mid-term and final trade exams while vocational schools grade classroom learning,with both issuing certificates to graduates.Even the school-based routes keep a foothold in the workplace.Full-time vocational schools must embed internships whose length varies by programme and by state,ranging from a few weeks to several months,in order to guarantee practical experience and industry feedback on student performance.Training takes place across three learning venues.Employers(training establishments)deliver hands-on skills;roughly one in five German establishments train apprentices.Vocational schools provide related theory and general education(1-2 days a week,or in intensive blocks).Inter-company training centres step in when small firms cannot cover every task in the occupational profile and when advanced equipment is needed.They are co-funded by the Federal Government and the Lnder,often with chamber/industry contributions.Those who teach and train are specialised.Vocational teachers normally hold a university degree in their field followed by pedagogical preparation,while workshop teachers enter through a practice-oriented pathway.In-company trainers must possess a relevant occupational qualification plus any required permit/aptitude,ensuring that apprentices receive structured guidance at work.21 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Governance is tripartite.The Federal Government drafts training regulations and sets overarching VET law,the Lnder run vocational schools and oversee school assessments,and employers associations together with unions co-develop standards and sit on examination boards.Funding mirrors this division.Lnder finance teachers,municipalities maintain schools and fund buildings/operational costs,and employers bear the wage and in-company training costs and co-finance inter-company centres.Targeted federal or Lnder schemes subsidise small and medium-sized enterprises and disadvantaged learners to keep participation broad.The result is a system that combines national coherence with regional flexibility and labour-market relevance.1.4.5.Netherlands Upper-secondary vocational education and training(middelbaar beroepsonderwijs,MBO)is a backbone of Dutch skills formation.More than half of 15-19-year-olds in upper-secondary education choose one of over 700 programmes spread across three ISCED 3 qualification levels.Entry typically follows four years of pre-vocational lower-secondary schooling,and learners must stay in education until they earn at least a“start qualification”(MBO level 2,a higher general upper-secondary,or pre-university diploma)or turn 18.Level 2 and 3 graduates can progress within upper-secondary VET,while level 4 graduates can progress to tertiary education in universities of applied sciences.Programmes are defined nationally through competence-based qualification files devised by the public-private Cooperation Organisation for Vocational Education,Training and the Labour Market(SBB)in partnership with employers,unions and colleges.Each file sets learning outcomes for an occupational family and combines a generic and a basic vocational component,and job-specific optional modules.Regional training centres and occupational colleges translate these files into their own curricula,choosing delivery methods and modules that fit local labour needs.Assessment blends school and centrally administered examinations,as well as employer evaluations of workplace performance,with internal examination boards safeguarding validity and consistency across both pathways.Students can achieve a diploma through a school-based or apprenticeship track.In the school-based pathway(BOL)students spend at least 20%of learning time(1-2 days a week)in an accredited company,with at least 900 hours of WBL across a three-year programme.In apprenticeship programmes(BBL)at least 60%of time(3-4 days a week)is paid work combined with one day at school.More than 250 000 training enterprises provide WBL,and are monitored regularly for suitable facilities,qualified mentors and alignment with qualification requirements.Teaching is delivered by publicly funded colleges with wide autonomy,supported by a small private sector serving adults and niche fields under the same quality rules.Classroom teachers hold a second-or first-degree teaching licence or an industry degree plus a pedagogical certificate.Practical lessons may involve instructors and workshop supervisors,while workplace mentors must have basic coaching skills and expertise at least equivalent to the students programme,requirements enforced through SBB accreditation.The Ministry of Education,Culture and Science sets legislation,funds institutions and formally recognises diplomas,but governance is shared with social partners through the SBB and with the Council of VET Schools(MBO Raad)that represents colleges in national negotiations.The Inspectorate of Education audits both school and assessment quality.Funding mirrors responsibilities:colleges receive lump-sum grants weighted by cost and performance,and education is free for learners under 18.Employers pay apprentice wages and can claim subsidies per trainee.Together these elements create a flexible,competence-oriented VET system that aligns with labour-market demand and supports lifelong learning.22 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 1.4.6.Norway Norway guarantees every young person who finishes ten years of compulsory schooling a legal right to complete upper-secondary education,and almost half choose the vocational track.Learners start at around age 16 in one of ten broad vocational programme areas that lead to over 180 trade or journeyman certificates at EQF level 4.Students can move between vocational and academic routes or add a one-year academic supplement for university entry.Those needing extra support can follow tailored practice certificates or apprenticeship-candidate schemes.Programmes are organised through national competence-based curricula.Most programmes follow the“2 2”structure,which gives two school years of common core subjects,broad vocational theory and in-depth practice modules,followed by two paid apprenticeship years in an approved training company.Even in the school phase students log workplace hours through the compulsory in-depth practice component,and in the apprenticeship phase they are paid employees whose wages rise over time.All routes end with a practical-theoretical trade examination,externally assessed by a county-appointed industry board.Most provision is delivered by public county schools that also offer general education.Schools give vocational learners access to modern workshops and simulated workplaces.Companies of every size can train apprentices once licensed,and many small firms share responsibility through county-approved training offices so that each apprentice rotates across tasks needed for the full curriculum.Vocational teachers must hold a trade certificate or equivalent professional qualification,have at least four years of industry experience and complete pedagogical training.They keep skills current through structured professional development,while workplace trainers often take short,recognised mentoring courses.Governance is distinctly tripartite under legislation.National authorities set curricula and overall regulation,counties plan provision and approve training companies,and employer organisations and unions shape content through national and county vocational training councils and sit on examination boards.Tuition is free and counties finance vocational schools and pay a training grant to companies(with state funding)for each apprentice to offset supervision costs.Employers cover the wage costs of apprentices,and students receive the same financial support schemes as their peers in general education.1.4.7.Singapore In Singapore,vocational education and training largely begins after secondary school(ISCED 4).Students are typically 17 when they enter the Institute of Technical Education(ITE),the countrys state-owned provider of ISCED 4 VET programmes.Normal(Academic)and Normal(Technical)graduates choose among 99 full-time programmes that lead to National ITE Certificates(Nitec)or Higher Nitec awards in six broad fields,from engineering and info-comm technology to hospitality.There are alternative pathways into post-secondary VET at ITE for students with varying academic backgrounds,including a preparatory programme focusing on enhancing foundation skills.Upon graduation from VET programmes,most learners step straight into skilled work,yet high achievers can secure places in polytechnics and,in a few cases,universities.ITE designs all curricula centrally with industry advisory committees.Each course is modular and blends three components:technical“core”modules,life-skills modules that build communication and teamwork,and a small elective selection.Teaching is intensely hands-on around 70%of scheduled hours take place in workshops,laboratories,training restaurants or simulated clinics.Students have 35-40 contact hours per week,in programmes that last two to three years.Assessment is continuous and competency-based;learners must pass every module and maintain a satisfactory grade-point average to collect the qualification that employers and further-study selectors scrutinise.Work-based learning is compulsory.Full-time students complete a structured industry attachment about six months for a two-year Nitec and up to nine months spread over the new three-year Higher Nitec while 23 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 a smaller cohort follows the traineeship mode,being employed and paid while studying part-time at ITE.Lecturers and host-company supervisors(“trainers”)jointly set learning objectives and grade students workplace modules.ITEs“One System,Three Colleges”model means all ISCED 4 provision is delivered on three large campuses,each offering similar programmes but with niche centres of excellence.Private schools and employer academies do operate,yet their awards sit outside the national Nitec/Higher Nitec framework.Lecturers,recruited largely from industry,need strong occupational expertise.Once hired they complete in-house pedagogical training at the ITE Academy and later refresh their skills through industry attachments.Governance is highly centralised.The Ministry of Education sets strategy,funds ITE and approves new courses,while SkillsFuture Singapore contributes labour-market intelligence and incentives for internships and traineeships.Public investment per VET learner is generous and has risen further under SkillsFuture reforms that lengthened internships and merged many NitecHigher Nitec sequences into seamless three-year pathways.Singapores post-secondary VET system offers a compact yet comprehensive route from school to skilled employment.1.4.8.Sweden Swedens upper-secondary vocational education and training(VET)begins after nine years of compulsory schooling.Twelve nationally-regulated three-year programmes span fields from construction and electricity to hospitality and health care.Roughly one-third of 15-19-year-old upper-secondary students choose VET programmes.They earn a vocational diploma that signals readiness for skilled work.Since a 2023 reform,VET programmes include courses that make students eligible for tertiary education by default(out of which students can opt).Learners who lack the entry grades can reach VET through four introductory routes that blend basic subjects,guidance and,in the case of the vocational introduction track,early work experience.Each VET programme is built from nationally defined courses,typically adding up to 2500 credits and including common foundation subjects,programme-specific core courses,an orientation course(s),blocks for programme deepening,individual choice courses and a mandatory diploma project to demonstrate occupational competence.Knowledge requirements are expressed as A-E grade descriptors,and teachers grade every course(although from 2025,grades are set at subject levels).National tests exist only in Swedish,English and mathematics.There is no external final exam in vocational subjects,but the diploma project must meet the overall programme goals.Work-based learning(Arbetsplatsfrlagt lrande,APL)is compulsory for all school-based students and must cover at least 15 weeks over the three years.A written agreement between school,learner and employer sets objectives,and the workplace supervisors feedback informs course grades given by the school teacher.Students may instead select the apprenticeship pathway,in which more than half of instruction occurs at one or more companies.About one in eight VET learners follow this option,supported by a national Apprenticeship Centre,employer compensation and a study allowance for apprentices.Municipal schools remain the principal providers,but about a third of VET students attend tuition-free independent schools,and a small number study in specialised industry schools.Municipalities must guarantee access,often through regional consortia or by funding a students place in another municipality or an independent provider.Two distinct teacher groups staff VET.Foundation-subject teachers hold academic degrees plus teaching certification.Vocational teachers must combine a relevant occupational qualification and industry experience with pedagogical training.Alternative fast-track routes and industry placements support recruitment and continuous professional development.24 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Governance combines strong national direction with local social-partner engagement.The Swedish National Agency for Education sets curricula and hosts national programme councils that review competence profiles(descriptions of knowledge,skills and competence graduates require for an occupation),while every school maintains at least one local programme council where employers and unions shape provision and secure workplace training.Funding is wholly public.Municipalities finance VET provision from local budgets,supported by general state grants and a municipal equalisation system that covers teaching,materials and student support.State grants top-up apprenticeship costs and targeted initiatives.Education is free for learners.Apprentices receive study allowances and employers hosting apprentices can receive compensation.1.4.9.Switzerland Swiss upper-secondary VET commences after nine years of compulsory schooling.In 2021,58%of 15-19 year-old upper-secondary students were in VET.Students choose from around 250 federally recognised occupations that lead either to a three-or four-year Federal VET Diploma(EFZ)or a two-year Federal VET Certificate(EBA).About 90%of learners follow the dual-track apprenticeship,spending three to four days a week training in a host company,one to two days in a cantonal vocational school and several short inter-company courses organised by professional associations.Apprenticeship places are offered by more than 58 000 approved firms(almost 10%of all firms in 2020),and small businesses can share training through consortium arrangements.Every occupation is governed by a federal training ordinance and a detailed education plan developed jointly by the Confederation,the 26 cantons and the professional organisations.These documents specify competences,the division of learning venues and the final qualification procedure,guaranteeing national consistency while allowing periodic updates.Vocational schools teach occupational theory,languages,mathematics and civics while companies focus on practical skills.Assessment is continuous but culminates in a nationally regulated final examination,combining a substantial practical task,vocational knowledge tests and general-education papers.Successful candidates earn a federal credential that is portable across Switzerland.Graduates may add the optional vocational baccalaureate,which can be taken in parallel or after training and opens the door to Universities of Applied Sciences.With an additional“Passerelle”exam they may also enter research universities.Three types of providers offer upper-secondary VET programmes.Training companies employ and mentor apprentices using certified in-company trainers,a route chosen by about 90%of VET students.More than 350 public vocational schools nationwide offer the classroom strand and also host entirely school-based programmes.Sectoral bodies run the inter-company training centres.Vocational school teachers complete specialised pedagogy at the Swiss Federal University for VET,while general-subject teachers add a VET-specific module to their academic-school qualification.Workplace trainers hold at least an EFZ or EBA and at least two years relevant work experience,and complete a federally recognised instructor course.Regular continuing professional development is mandatory for VET school teachers under cantonal rules.Governance and funding are tripartite.The Confederation steers strategic issues and finances vocational schools teacher training;cantons licence companies,run the schools and organise exams;professional organisations draft ordinances,provide trainers and oversee labour-market relevance.Training companies cover apprentice wages and in-company supervision,cantons finance vocational schools,and the Confederation covers the costs of teacher-education infrastructure.25 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 1.5.Non-members Including a non-member(Singapore)in the analysis was explicitly requested by the Gatsby Charitable Foundation and provides beneficial insights for OECD countries.Singapore has consistently outperformed many OECD countries in the Programme for International Student Assessment(PISA).Its vocational education and training system is different to that of many OECD member countries in several ways.VET in Singapore largely commences in post-secondary education.It is delivered through a concentrated public network one Institute of Technical Education(ITE)offering ISCED 4 programmes and polytechnics offering ISCED 5 programmes.This supports coherent standards,rapid curriculum updates and quality assurance.Employer involvement is structured through SkillsFuture skills frameworks and ITE advisory committees,through which employers contribute to VET curricula.Work-study pathways integrate paid employment with credit-bearing study and clear progression routes.These features tight industry-provider governance,codified skills frameworks,and scaled work-study offer concrete options for OECD countries seeking better labour-market alignment,smoother upper-secondary-to-tertiary progression,and stronger adult upskilling systems.References OECD(2024),Higher Technical Education in England,United Kingdom:Insights from Selected International Experience,OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/7c00dff7-en.2 OECD(2023),Adults educational attainment distribution,by age group and gender,(database),OECD Data Explorer,https:/data-explorer.oecd.org/s/2on(accessed on 1 June 2025).11 OECD(2023),Education at a Glance 2023:OECD Indicators,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en.13 OECD(2023),Number of enrolled students,new entrants and graduates by age,(database),OECD Data Explorer,https:/data-explorer.oecd.org/s/2ol(accessed on 26 August 2025).12 OECD(2022),Engaging Employers in Vocational Education and Training in Brazil:Learning from International Practices,OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/d76a2fe6-en.6 OECD(2022),Pathways to Professions:Understanding Higher Vocational and Professional Tertiary Education Systems,OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/a81152f4-en.1 OECD(2022),Preparing Vocational Teachers and Trainers:Case Studies on Entry Requirements and Initial Training,OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/c44f2715-en.5 OECD(2022),The Landscape of Providers of Vocational Education and Training,OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/a3641ff3-en.3 OECD(2021),Teachers and Leaders in Vocational Education and Training,OECD Reviews of Vocational Education and Training,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/59d4fbb1-en.4 26 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 OECD(2019),“What characterises upper secondary vocational education and training?”,Education Indicators in Focus,No.5,OECD,Paris,https:/www.oecd.org/en/publications/2019/04/what-characterises-upper-secondary-vocational-education-and-training_7ae872d8.html.10 OECD/Eurostat/UNESCO Institute for Statistics(2015),ISCED 2011 Operational Manual:Guidelines for Classifying National Education Programmes and Related Qualifications,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/9789264228368-en.7 Stronati,C.(2023),“The design of upper secondary education across OECD countries:Managing choice,coherence and specialisation”,OECD Education Working Papers,No.288,OECD Publishing,Paris,https:/doi.org/10.1787/158101f0-en.8 UNESCO Institute for Statistics(2012),International Standard Classification of Education,ISCED 2011,UNESCO Institute for Statistics,http:/uis.unesco.org/en/topic/international-standard-classification-education-isced.9 Note 1 These are VET programmes in which the work-based element(e.g.internships or apprenticeships)constituted 25%-90%of the curriculum.27 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Upper-secondary vocational education and training(VET)is a first choice in Austria and is selected by the majority of students after compulsory education.VET curricula are centrally regulated,competency-based,and developed with social partners to align with occupational profiles.Just under half of upper-secondary VET in Austria is apprenticeships,and even in school-based programmes work-based learning is mandatory and diverse.Vocational schools and colleges,as well as recognised companies provide VET in Austria.Teachers and in-company trainers follow distinct,practice-oriented training routes and must meet pedagogical and professional standards.Governance involves co-operation between federal ministries,provincial authorities,education providers and social partners.The system is jointly funded by federal,provincial and employer contributions.2 Vocational education and training in Austria 28 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 2.1.Place of VET in the overall education system and pathways into and after VET Vocational education and training(VET)plays a prominent role in Austrias upper-secondary system.After completing nine years of compulsory education(usually at age 15),students choose between general academic pathways or one of several vocational options.These include over 230 apprenticeship occupations and dozens of school-based programmes spanning fields such as engineering,business,tourism,agriculture,and social care.The three main types are:(1)dual apprenticeships(Lehrlingsausbildung)(2)three-to four-year Intermediate Vocational Schools(Berufsbildende Mittlere Schulen,BMS),and(3)five-year Higher Vocational Colleges(Berufsbildende Hhere Schulen,BHS).The system is strongly oriented towards vocational education and training(VET).In 2021,68%of 15-19 year-old upper-secondary students were enrolled in VET programmes in Austria(OECD,20231).In many cases,students begin a VET programme in Grade 9,which also counts as the final year of compulsory schooling(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).Apprenticeships are the most common form of upper-secondary VET,taken by around 45%of VET students(OECD,20231).These programmes typically last three years and are classified at ISCED level 3.Apprenticeships combine company-based training(three to four days per week,or in intensive blocks)with part-time attendance at a public vocational school(one to two days per week).They are offered in over 230 occupations,ranging from traditional crafts to retail,administration and IT(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).Entry requires completion of compulsory schooling,but not specific academic qualifications.Students must secure an apprenticeship contract with a certified training company.Apprentices receive a modest wage,determined by collective agreements,which increases with each year of training.At school,apprentices receive instruction in both general and occupation-specific subjects.Training concludes with the Lehrabschlussprfung(apprenticeship-leaving examination),after which successful candidates are certified as skilled workers(journeypersons)(Eurydice,20253).The school-based BHS programmes are five-year programmes(Grades 9-13),with the first three years classified as ISCED level 3 and the final two as ISCED level 5,reflecting their status as higher technical education.They enrol approximately 25%of upper-secondary students,making them a major pillar of the VET system.BHS combine general education with specialised vocational training in fields such as engineering,business,tourism,fashion,agriculture or social care.Students enter after completing compulsory schooling and are admitted based on academic performance.All BHS programmes conclude with the Reife-und Diplomprfung(matriculation and diploma examination),which grants both the Matura(general university entrance qualification)and a higher vocational diploma.This enables graduates to directly access tertiary education and qualifies them for employment in skilled and regulated professions.The second type of school-based VET programmes,BMS,are typically three-year programmes at ISCED level 3(EQF level 4),attended by around 15%of upper-secondary students(OECD,20244).They combine general education with vocational skills training for administrative,technical or service occupations requiring upper-secondary qualifications(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).Students typically enter BMS after Grade 8(age 14-15),with the first year also fulfilling the final year of compulsory education.Three-and four-year programmes culminate in a final examination and a state-recognised vocational certificate(Abschlusszeugnis der Berufsschule)(Eurydice,20255).By contrast,one-and two-year BMS programmes are pre-vocational and do not confer a full qualification.While there is some overlap between BMS and apprenticeship programmes in terms of occupational coverage particularly in fields like business administration,retail,or tourism many occupations are specific to one track or the other(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).In general,BMS offers school-based preparation for more clerical,commercial and service roles(Eurydice,20256).Students choice of programme may reflect preferences for school-vs.work-based learning,in addition to the specific occupation they wish to pursue.29 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 The distribution of students in each form of upper-secondary VET programme has remained fairly stable in past years(Statistics Austria,20247).Austrias VET system includes several targeted measures to promote inclusion and support disadvantaged learners(Box 2.1).Box 2.1.See every learner:Supporting disadvantaged learners in Austrias VET system Austria has several initiatives for promoting inclusion and supporting disadvantaged learners in VET.Supra-company training for those without apprenticeships:The berbetriebliche Lehrausbildung(BA)provides apprenticeship-style training for young people who have completed compulsory schooling but are unable to secure a company-based apprenticeship.While open to all eligible candidates,it includes specific provisions for disadvantaged and vulnerable groupssuch as early school leavers,individuals with learning difficulties,and those lacking parental support.These learners benefit from extended training durations and tailored support services to improve labour market integration.The AusbildungsFit preparatory programme The AusbildungsFit programme serves as a preparatory initiative for youths who are not yet ready to enter formal vocational training.It focuses on enhancing basic skills,social competencies,and work readiness through individualised coaching and practical experiences.This programme acts as a bridge,enabling participants to transition smoothly into apprenticeships or other educational pathways.Targeted financial support Participation in public BMS,BHS and part-time vocational schools is tuition-free for all age groups.Additional targeted subsidies are available:employers can receive bonuses of EUR 400 to EUR 900 per month for training apprentices from under-represented groups(e.g.women in technical fields,youth with disabilities,disadvantaged youth,and adult apprentices).Students in school-based VET may receive support through the Schooling Allowances Act,including annual school allowances(EUR 1 608),travel and boarding grants(up to EUR 150 and EUR 1 964,respectively),and special allowances for learners in hardship or those preparing for final exams after leaving employment.Source:Cedefop(20198),VET in Europe database detailed VET system descriptions.Austria,www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/vet-in-europe/systems/austria-2019;Cedefop(20199),Supra-Company Training,berbetriebliche Lehrausbildung(BA),www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/vet-toolkit-tackling-early-leaving/resources/supra-company-training-uberbetriebliche;Federal Ministry of Labour of Austria(202010),Youth and Work in Austria https:/portal.ibobb.at/fileadmin/Berufsorientierung_und_Bildung/Final_Youth_and_Work_in_Austria_2019_2020_barr_.pdf;Cedefop(202311),VET in Europe database detailed VET system descriptions.Austria,www.cedefop.europa.eu/en/tools/vet-in-europe/systems/austria-u3#:text=,partial exams free of charge.Since 2017,the Ausbildung bis 18 policy has required all young people to remain in education or training until age 18,reinforcing participation in VET and contributing to Austrias relatively low early school leaving rate(8.4%in 2022)(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).Austrias VET system is frequently described as offering a double opportunity,combining early labour market entry with the possibility of progressing to higher education.Graduates of all VET pathways have opportunities to progress to further education or training.BHS graduates receive the Matura,giving them full access to university and higher vocational programmes.BMS and apprenticeship graduates can obtain tertiary access by completing the Berufsreifeprfung(vocational matriculation exam),and many apprentices prepare for this alongside their training through the“Lehre mit Matura”scheme(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).BMS graduates also have the option to enter an add-on course,typically lasting 2-3 years(Aufbaulehrgang)(AMS Training Compass,n.d.12)to obtain the Matura.Apprentices may 30 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 progress to higher vocational qualifications,such as the Meisterprfung(Master Craftsperson examination),which permits them to run an independent business and train apprentices(Musset et al.,201313).The National Qualifications Framework(NQF)also clarifies how VET credentials compare to academic ones in terms of learning outcomes(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).Figure 2.1 shows educational pathways into and after ISCED 3 VET in Austria.Figure 2.1.The place of ISCED 3 VET in Austrias education system Note:The reference year is 2023(school year 2022/2023 in the northern hemisphere).Theoretical starting ages refer to the ages as established by law and regulation for the entry to a programme;actual starting ages may vary depending on the programme.Source:Adapted from OECD(202314),“Diagram of the education system:Austria”,OECD Education GPS,http:/gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=AUT.5th-8thFinal appenticeshipexaminationMatriculationexamination and diplomaFinal examinationReport cardMatriculationexaminationNursing diploma13th12th10th-11th141810Pre-vocational school9th9th-12thAcademic secondary school,Upper level9th-11thCollege for higher vocational education12th9th-11thSchool for intermediatetechnical&vocationaleducationCompulsory secondary schoolVocational school for apprentices15Public university/Private universityCourses at(tertiary)educational institutionsUniversity of applied sciencesUniversity collegeof teachereducationPost-secondary course in technical and vocational educationSchool for master-craftsmen,foremen,construction tradesYears 1-313thEducation and training for health professionsTo health programmes only12thISCED 3ISCED 2ISCED 5ISCED 45th-8thPrivateuniversitycollegesTypical student flowTransfer from a programme to anotherProgrammedesigned for part-time attendanceEnding age of compulsory educationRecognised exit point of the education systemKeyVocational/professional orientation(according to national definition at the tertiary level)Single structure education(integrated ISCED levels)DiplomaName of diploma,degree or certificateTransfer at crossing lines is not possibleAcademic secondary school,Lower levelISCED 6Theoretical starting ageAdult education 31 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 2.2.Curriculum structure and assessment procedures The curricula of Austrian ISCED 3 vocational education and training(VET)programmes are centrally regulated and explicitly competency-based.The Federal Ministry of Education,Science and Research is responsible for curriculum development in school-based VET,while the Federal Ministry of Labour and Economy oversees training regulations for apprenticeships.In both cases,social partners are closely involved through formal consultation mechanisms,such as curriculum committees for school-based VET and advisory boards for apprenticeship(see Section 2.6),ensuring alignment with over 230 occupation-specific training profiles that define the skills and competences expected in each trade(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).All VET curricula are structured around clearly defined learning outcomes and competences,consistent with the Austrian National Qualifications Framework(NQF).Curricula for each qualification are formalised through national framework documents and specify the knowledge,skills,and application contexts expected upon programme completion(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).They also define the allocation of instructional time across general education,vocational theory,and practical training/work-based learning.In full-time school-based programmes(BMS,BHS),approximately one-third of the curriculum is typically dedicated to practical and work-related learning,including workshops,labs,and internships,although this varies by type and field of study.In school-based VET,the curriculum combines general education,vocational theory and practical components.Programmes at ISCED level 3(such BMS)typically include German,English,mathematics,civics and economics,alongside applied vocational subjects such as office administration,accounting,and information and communications technology.Curriculum documents specify learning outcomes and weekly instructional hours by subject,with approximately 32-36 hours of instruction per week across all domains.Practical learning is embedded through a combination of practical school-based exercises(e.g.practice firms,workshops)and mandatory short-term internships in companies,ensuring that students gain hands-on experience aligned with their field of study(see Section 2.3).While the national curricula define learning outcomes and amount of mandatory work placement in weeks,the exact volume and structure can vary by programme type and institution(Eurydice,202515).Higher-level programmes(e.g.in BHS engineering colleges,which include ISCED 3 and up to ISCED 5)offer more advanced technical subjects,such as electronics or mechanics,as well as intensive laboratory or workshop-based training.In all cases,at least one foreign language is compulsory,with more offered in fields such as tourism(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).In the apprenticeship track,the curriculum is divided between workplace and school settings.The in-company training of apprentices is based on a structured framework defined at the national level.For each apprenticeship occupation,the Ministry of Labour and Economy issues a training regulation(Ausbildungsordnung),developed in consultation with the Federal Advisory Board on Apprenticeship,which includes representatives of employers and employees(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).Each regulation includes an occupational profile(Berufsbild),which sets out the full range of practical skills and professional knowledge to be acquired during the company-based part of an apprenticeship.These competencies are organised by year of training to ensure progressive learning.Based on this national standard,each company prepares a company training plan(Betrieblicher Ausbildungsplan),detailing how the required competencies will be delivered within the workplace context.A certified in-company trainer(Ausbilder)is responsible for implementing this plan and ensuring that the apprentice gains experience across all mandated areas.The school-based part of apprenticeships is delivered through part-time vocational schools(Berufsschulen),whose curricula are defined by the Ministry of Education,Science and Research.These curricula cover trade theory,related technologies,and general subjects(e.g.German,English,applied mathematics and civics)(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).Instruction typically follows either a weekly 32 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 pattern(one to two days per week)or block release(e.g.8-10 weeks per year),depending on the region and occupation.Teaching is modularised and outcome-oriented,ensuring coherence with workplace learning and providing apprentices with key transversal competences such as communication and digital literacy(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).Curriculum and assessment alignment across the two learning venues is ensured through national-level co-ordination between the Ministry of Education,Science and Research and the Ministry of Labour and Economy,supported by formal input from social partners.School curricula are explicitly designed to complement the competences defined in the occupational profiles(Berufsbild),and curriculum updates are often conducted in parallel with revisions to training regulations.This joint development process ensures that apprentices progress coherently through both practical and theoretical content.The apprenticeship-leaving examination(Lehrabschlussprfung),administered by the Economic Chambers,serves as a shared endpoint,assessing knowledge and skills acquired across both settings(see Section 2.6).To help apprentices prepare for this exam,several providers offer preparatory courses(Vorbereitungskurse zur Lehrabschlussprfung).Major providers include WIFI(the training arm of the Economic Chamber),bfi(Labour-Chamber network)and several regional adult-learning centres.Courses are offered in evening,weekend or intensive block formats often with a blended online component and focus on revising trade theory,calculations and the practical tasks specified in the Berufsbild(WIFI Austria,202416).Under the federal Lehrlingsfrderung scheme,apprentices can apply for a reimbursement of up to 100%of course fees(WIFI Austria,202517;Wiener Arbeitnehmerinnen Frderungsfonds(Vienna Employee Promotion Fund),n.d.18;Institute for Advanced Studies Vienna,202519).Responsibility for ensuring alignment between the workplace and school-based elements lies primarily with the two federal ministries(the Ministry of Labour and Economy for in-company training and the Ministry of Education,Science and Research for school curricula),which co-ordinate through formal consultation with the social partners and advisory bodies such as the Federal Advisory Board on Apprenticeship.Curriculum development processes for Berufsschulen are designed to align with the occupational profiles(Berufsbild)and learning outcomes of each apprenticeship trade,thereby ensuring that school instruction complements workplace learning.Regional apprenticeship offices(Lehrlingsstellen)also play a role in monitoring training quality and coherence.Assessment in Austrian VET combines continuous evaluation with final certification examinations.In all settings,teachers assess students through written,oral and practical tasks.Pupils receive semester and annual report cards.If performance in a subject is insufficient,students may sit repeat exams or under specific conditions progress conditionally,as regulated by the School Education Act.Apprentices workplace learning is monitored by their certified trainers,who may conduct internal assessments or organise training workshops to evaluate progress and ensure all required competencies are covered.In school-based VET programmes,students are also assessed during their internships,often through activity reports or supervisor feedback,which are reviewed by the school and may contribute to final project work or evaluations(see further details in Annex 2.A).However,official grades are issued by vocational schools,which also certify school completion(Eurydice,20255).Each VET track concludes with a formal examination process:Final Exam at BMS(Abschlussprfung):This exam,is conducted by a school examination board but follows national legal frameworks and guidelines defined in the School Education Act and relevant ordinances(Eurydice,20255).While individual schools have some flexibility in how the exam is implemented(e.g.choosing tasks or adapting content to the field of study),the general structure,subjects covered,and certification outcomes are standardised across the country.Exams typically include written and oral components and may integrate practical elements,depending on the subject area.The resulting certificate is state-recognised under the Vocational Training Act and may confer rights similar to those of an apprenticeship certificate in relevant 33 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 trades.One-or two-year pre-vocational schools do not have a final board exam;they end with a school certificate only(Eurydice,20253).Reife-und Diplomprfung(maturity and diploma certificate)at BHS:The five-year colleges culminate in the comprehensive matriculation and diploma exam.Since 2015/16,the format of this exam has been standardised nation-wide in line with the general education Matura,with some adaptations for vocational context.Students typically undertake a diploma project or thesis in their final year which is submitted and later defended(presented)as part of the exam.The exam itself has written and oral components:candidates choose either three written and three oral exams,or four written and two oral exams.Written exams include standard subjects(German,a foreign language,Mathematics)and a vocational subject and are administered simultaneously nationwide.The oral exams cover specialised vocational topics and/or general subjects(standardised nationally),with specific questions determined by the respective subject teachers of a school,and include the defence of the diploma project before an examination board that includes external commissioners.The certificate grants both general university access and a vocational qualification at EQF level 5.Students who fail one or more parts of the exam,can retake those parts in subsequent sessions(Eurydice,20253).Apprenticeship-Leaving Exam(Lehrabschlussprfung):The final examination for apprentices is administered by the regional Apprenticeship Offices within the Economic Chambers and governed by federal law(Berufsausbildungsgesetz).The content and structure of the exam are based on national training regulations(Ausbildungsordnungen),ensuring comparability across Austria.The exam is conducted by a board of industry experts and is only permitted once the apprentice has received the final certificate from the vocational school confirming completion of the school-based component.Successful candidates receive the Lehrabschlusszeugnis(certificate of apprenticeship),which confers nationwide recognition as a qualified skilled worker(Eurydice,20253).Retakes are permitted,with no fees for second or third attempts(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).2.3.Work-based learning(WBL)in school-based programmes Work-based learning is a central element not only of apprenticeships but also of Austrias school-based VET programmes.Although BMS and BHS students are in full-time schooling,their curricula are deliberately“practice-oriented”,integrating real and simulated work experiences to complement classroom learning(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).Many VET teachers themselves have industry experience(see Section 2.5),allowing students to encounter a real-world perspective.Additionally,there are several mechanisms through which practical learning is incorporated in school-based VET:Mandatory work placements(internships):Most school-based VET programmes also include mandatory work placements in companies.These internships,typically completed during summer breaks,are an official component of the curriculum and are required for graduation.BHS programmes include the most extensive internships usually totalling 8-12 weeks across the five years although the required duration can vary by field.For instance,a student at a tourism college may complete up to eight months of internship time,often distributed across seasonal periods(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).Engineering students at Colleges of Engineering and Crafts(Hhere Technische Lehranstalten,HTL)might undertake placements in industrial settings for four weeks each after the third and fourth years.BMS programmes generally require shorter placements,such as a four-week internship between the second and third years.Students arrange placements with support from schools,and they must document their activities,which may be assessed jointly by employers and teachers.These internships also allow companies to get to know students,which can serve as a recruitment pipeline.34 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Company projects and partnerships:Many VET schools maintain close relationships with local companies that contribute to curriculum delivery and assessment.These partnerships often result in co-developed learning projects,particularly in the final year.For example,business students may develop marketing strategies for local firms,or IT students might code a functional prototype for a client.These assignments are frequently counted as part of the diploma project in BHS programmes and must meet both academic and industry standards.Final assignments in school-based VET are frequently developed in collaboration with companies,providing students with opportunities to engage with real-world workplace challenges(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).2.4.Provider types Austrian ISCED 3 vocational education and training(VET)is delivered by different types of providers operating under a nationally standardised framework.The main provider types are i)full-time vocational schools and colleges,and ii)part-time vocational schools.The schools and colleges are typically specialised by field,e.g.healthcare VET schools and business colleges.While the focus of this subsection is on institutional providers(“school”-type providers),it should be noted that companies are an integral part of VET provision in Austria.In the dual system,companies are official training providers.Around 27 000 firms,from small workshops to large enterprises,are authorised to provide apprenticeships(Wirtschaftskammer sterreich Abteilung fr Statistik(Austrian Federal Economic Chamber-Department of Statistics),202320)and are formally recognised as part of the VET systems provider network.To train apprentices,companies must meet certain criteria(adequate facilities,qualified trainers,coverage of the main aspects of a profession)and are subject to approval and periodic checks by the Economic Chamber and apprenticeship authorities.Some large companies run in-house training centres to deliver parts of the curriculum,acting similarly to schools.Supra-company training centres(BA)offer apprenticeship training for young people who cannot find a regular company placement,especially those from disadvantaged backgrounds(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).2.4.1.Vocational schools and colleges(Schulische VET)These full-time institutions include Intermediate Vocational Schools(BMS)and Higher Vocational Colleges(BHS).Both follow national curricula developed by the Federal Ministry of Education,Science and Research,with the exception of agriculture BHS under the Ministry of Agriculture,and some healthcare programmes historically under Health(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).There are over 500 BMS and BHS schools combined,serving around 40%of upper-secondary students(OECD,201721).Common types of BMS schools include:Technical and Trade Schools(e.g.electrical engineering,carpentry,metallurgy),preparing mid-level technicians and skilled craft workers.Schools of Business and Administration(Handelsschulen),focused on office administration,accounting and business skills.Schools for Social and Service Professions,including tourism and design at intermediate level.Healthcare VET Schools,offering nursing assistant programmes.Higher Vocational Colleges provide the five-year programmes BHS programmes.Key sub-types of these institutions include:Colleges of Engineering and Crafts(Hhere Technische Lehranstalten,HTL),specialising in areas such as civil and mechanical engineering,IT,and electronics.Business Colleges(Handelsakademien,HAK),focused on economics,marketing,finance and general education.35 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 Colleges for Management and Services(HLW),offering programmes in hospitality,tourism,nutrition and design.Colleges for Agriculture and Forestry,operated under the Ministry of Agriculture.Colleges for Early Childhood Education,training preschool teachers with a teaching qualification and Matura.The provinces(Lnder)may be involved in administering these schools(e.g.providing facilities through provincial school boards),but curricular control and teacher employment are largely federal(see Section 2.6).Most vocational schools and colleges are under the responsibility of the Ministry of Education,Science and Research,but there are some exceptions.For example,the Agricultural and Forestry Schools(Land-und forstwirtschaftliche Schulen),are overseen by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture,Forestry,Regions and Water Management in collaboration with provincial authorities.They offer vocational education programmes that typically culminate in diplomas and school-leaving examinations,providing qualifications equivalent to those from other vocational schools.These schools primarily serve students from rural areas or those interested in green and land-based sectors,and often integrate practical training in school-owned farms or forestry sites(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232;Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry,Climate and Environmental Protection,Regions and Water Management,n.d.22).The VET institutions are mostly public or publicly funded private institutions(see Section 2.7).In the case of private institutions,these are often run by religious organisations,charitable foundations,or sectoral associations.Many of these schools hold public-law status(ffentlichkeitsrecht),which grants them official recognition equivalent to public schools.This status allows them to deliver state-approved curricula and enables students to sit for national examinations,such as the Matura.Programmes offered mirror those of public BMS or BHS tracks and lead to the same qualifications.While technically private,most of these schools receive public subsidies and do not charge significant tuition fees.Other schoolssuch as Montessori or Waldorf education-are completely private and cannot issue school certificates such as Matura and also do not receive state funds(Berka and Wieser,201823).2.4.2.Part-time vocational schools(Berufsschulen)The part-time vocational schools deliver the off-the-job component of apprenticeship training.They are public schools organised by province and vocational field.Depending on regional demand,a province may have multiple Berufsschulen offering the same or different specialisations.For example,there may be several vocational schools for metal trades across different cities within a province,as well as multiple schools for retail,particularly in urban areas with higher concentrations of learners.Attendance follows a weekly or block-release model.Apprentices typically attend the Berufsschule nearest to their training company or in their province,sometimes boarding there during block release.These schools are supervised by the Education Ministry(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).There are over 100 part-time VET schools across Austria,collectively training tens of thousands of apprentices each year(Cedefop&ibw Austria,20232).Institutions like WIFI(Institute for Economic Promotion,run by the Economic Chamber)or bfi(run by the Labour Chamber)provide preparatory and compensatory training for apprentices and supplement company-based learning where needed.While primarily considered adult or continuing education providers,they intersect with initial VET in supporting the dual system for those who need an alternative path.36 VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING SYSTEMS IN NINE COUNTRIES OECD 2025 2.5.VET teachers and trainers qualifications and professional 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