Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health Report European Agency for Safety and Health at Work Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 2 Author:Dr Ulrike Bollmann,German Social Accident Insurance European Network Education and Training in Occupational Safety and Health(ENETOSH).Project management:Maurizio Curtarelli,Emmanuelle Brun European Agency for Safety and Health at Work(EU-OSHA).This report was commissioned by the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work(EU-OSHA).Its contents,including any opinions and/or conclusions expressed,are those of the authors alone and do not necessarily reflect the views of EU-OSHA.Neither the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work nor any person acting on behalf of the Agency is responsible for the use that might be made of the following information.Luxembourg:Publications Office of the European Union,2024 European Agency for Safety and Health at Work,2024 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.For any use or reproduction of photos or other material that is not under the copyright of the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work,permission must be sought directly from the copyright holders.PDF|ISBN 978-92-9402-333-9|doi:10.2802/80935|TE-05-24-649-EN-N Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 3 Table of Contents Executive Summary.5 1 Introduction.8 1.1 Research questions.8 1.2 Structure of the report.8 2 Digital technologies in the education sector in Europe.9 2.1 Current state of use of digital technologies in the education sector.9 2.2 Traditional digital technologies in school.10 2.2.1 AI-based digital technologies in school.10 2.2.2 Learning analytics.10 2.2.3 Intelligent tutoring systems.11 2.2.4 The AI boom.12 3 The surge in digitalisation in the education sector due to the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on teachers.15 3.1 Disruption of education.15 3.2 Ad hoc digitalisation.15 3.3 Rate of change in digitalisation.15 3.4 Impact of the surge in digitalisation on the working conditions of teachers.17 3.5 The digital divide.17 3.6 Impacts of the surge in digitalisation on the mental load and stress experienced by teachers.18 3.7 Lessons from the pandemic.19 4 Structural model addressing the impact of digitalisation on teacher wellbeing.21 4.1 Key theoretical models.21 4.2 Impact of digital stress on teachers health.22 4.3 Factors determining teachers digital wellbeing.23 5 Opportunities and risks for teachers from the use of AI-based digital technologies.24 5.1 GenAI opportunities and risks and the impact on health,safety and wellbeing of teachers.24 5.2 Factor model.24 5.2.1 Workload.25 5.2.2 Autonomy.27 5.2.3 Professional development.29 5.2.4 Ethics.34 5.2.5 Regulatory framework.36 5.2.6 Costs.39 6 Reflections on a teacher-centred approach to the integration of AI-based technologies in schools.42 6.1 New risks and potential for teachers.42 Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 4 6.2 Strategies and measures for minimising the risks and exploiting the potential for teachers.45 6.2.1 European level.45 6.2.2 National level.46 6.2.3 Institutional level.47 6.2.4 Teacher level.47 References.49 List of Tables and Figures Table 1:Operationalisation of the conceptual framework for the assessment of teachers wellbeing according to Viac and Fraser.23 Table 2:Description of the seven levels of automation of the work of teachers.29 Table 3:Risks and potential from the use of AI-based technologies for teachers.43 Figure 1:Use of digital technologies by EU workers.9 Figure 2:Frequency of use of digital technologies in schools for teaching purposes(EU,Germany 2013,2018,2021-%).16 Figure 3:Factors ensuring safe and healthy use of GenAI-based educational technologies by and for teachers.25 Figure 4:The six competence areas of DigCompEdu.31 Figure 5:AI Act Risk pyramid.37 Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 5 Executive Summary Introduction This report examines the opportunities and risks associated with the integration of new digital technologies for the health,safety and wellbeing of teachers in schools.This is viewed both from the perspective of occupational safety and health(OSH)and a pedagogical perspective.A comprehensive overview of the possible risks and opportunities for teachers from the integration of technologies,in particular based on artificial intelligence(AI),is provided based on a systematic analysis.Suggestions are also given of potential measures for improving the health,safety and wellbeing of teachers in the digital age.Background The European Agency for Safety and Health at Work(EU-OSHA)has already submitted important findings for the education sector with the publication of Education-evidence from the European Survey of Enterprises on New and Emerging Risks(ESENER)(2022),OSH Pulse-Occupational safety and health in post-pandemic workplaces(2022)and the report Mental health at work after the COVID-19 pandemic(2024).Publications are also available from EU-OSHA specifically on the impact of artificial intelligence on OSH(2021;2022 AIWM;2022 AIWM Regulations).And,finally,the EU-OSHA campaign Safe and healthy work in the digital age 2023-2025,which is Europe-wide,provides the opportunity to further explore the topic of health,safety and wellbeing of teachers in the digital age.A focus on teachers So far,learners have been the primary focus when it comes to the integration of digital technologies in the education sector.Teachers have been viewed,if at all,first and foremost in their role as mediators and primarily as users of digital tools.With AI-based technologies making their way into schools,greater attention is now also being paid to teachers now in their role as those responsible for deploying these technologies and for coping with their challenges.The COVID-19 pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic was the trigger for a global disruption in the education system and an ad hoc surge in digitalisation,bringing an increased mental load and stress for teachers.For teachers in particular,the pandemic also brought great uncertainty,increased workload and digital stress,with both cognitive and emotional elements.Schools were also tested as organisations.The digital maturity of a school,that is,having a good digital infrastructure but above all technical and pedagogical support for teachers,and school processes focused on digital teaching and learning,contributed to lower loads and stresses being experienced by teachers.Evidence of the following strains on the digital well-being of teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic has been provided by initial longitudinal studies:uncertainty;a high workload,in particular at the end of the pandemic;and the feeling of being undervalued as an occupational group.Resources emerged in the form of the availability of social support,the ability to determine ones own work(work autonomy)and the use of functional coping strategies.New and younger teachers and those with prior illnesses were identified as being particularly at risk.Institutional decisions at school level have a key role to play in the perceived wellbeing of teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic.New challenges for teachers resulting from the use of AI-based digital technologies in schools Both traditional digital technologies and AI-based technologies contribute to greater flexibility for teachers.Use of these technologies,however,also increases the demands placed on the technical competencies of teachers,on their media skills in terms of didactics and their social competencies.The use of learning analytics for teaching and learning also imposes new demands on teachers competence.These are demands extending beyond technological knowledge,and concern their pedagogical and technological judgement.The development of generative AI(GenAI)and in particular the arrival of ChatGPT in schools means teachers are now also faced with a new uncertainty:GenAI independently generates new content that then has to be interpreted and its origin explained.Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 6 New risks and opportunities from the use of AI-based digital technologies for teachers The six factors of workload,autonomy,professional development,ethics,regulative framework and costs are used as the basis for specifying the following main risks and potential for the use of AI-based digital technologies for the health,safety and wellbeing of teachers.Risks Lack of transparency(and explainability)of AI systems increases the cognitive load.Digital control and surveillance using real-time data can affect mental health.Humanrobot collaboration may result in interaction being removed from the work of teachers.A tendency towards acting in machine-readable form(prompt engineering).An excessive trust in AI technology.There are also general challenges inherent in technology,such as:bias problems inherent in AI;problems of hallucination;lack of technical reliability and accuracy of AI systems;and risk of misuse of AI.Additionally,challenges for the teaching profession include:loss of specific skills;risk of deprofessionalisation;a lack of validation of AI-based systems for use in the education sector;and non-compliance with data protection when using AI-based technologies in the education sector.Opportunities To reduce teacher workload there is need for:reduction in workload for routine tasks,such as marking;support with lesson planning,e.g.course development;reduced amount of work and greater precision when grading;support with the development and implementation of alternative integrated learning scenarios,e.g.transdisciplinary approaches,vertical teaching,mixed classes;simplification of resource planning(task and time schedule)and optimisation of work organisation in the school;and involvement of AI-based systems in the schools risk assessment.To expand the scope of action available to teachers,recognise that:autonomy is maximised when teachers maintain control in a transparent manner over their entire work process(human-in-command approach);and more time is needed for pedagogical tasks and own professional development as well as being creative or developing creativity.To support teachers professional development,aim at:easier access to professional development for teachers;greater flexibility in the use of further training and consultation services;enabling new forms of exchange between colleagues,e.g.via platforms and eCommunities;and enhancing of the teaching profession as a result of AI expertise.Strategies and measures for minimising the risks and exploiting the opportunities for teachers In order to use AI in the education sector,which is an area defined as a high-risk one(EU AI Act),a proactive strategy must be developed where the health,safety and wellbeing of teachers and learners are given the highest priority.Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 7 AI-based technologies must be introduced gradually into the education system.In doing so,the risks and opportunities of AI-based technologies in relation to the health,safety and wellbeing of teachers must be considered.The development of an AI school strategy is a necessary prerequisite for the safe and healthy integration of AI-based technologies into teaching and school administration.The concept of AI literacy must be expanded to include the aspects of health,safety and wellbeing of teachers and learners.Measures must be offered to support teachers,for example,the self-management of wellbeing,socio-emotional support programmes,but also measures supporting role reward and to increase the attractiveness of the teaching profession.Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 8 1 Introduction 1.1 Research questions What are the opportunities and risks associated with the integration of digital technologies in education and everyday school life in terms of the health,safety and wellbeing of teachers?How do teachers and educational establishments deal with the challenges they face as a result of rapid technological development?Currently there are no simple or conclusive answers to these questions.Firstly,the rate of development of digital technologies is faster than the rate at which their integration within the education sector can be scientifically evaluated and conclusively assessed;secondly,the speed of integration of digital tools varies by country and educational facility;and thirdly,it is still unclear under which conditions digital technologies contribute to the quality of education and whether the use of new digital technologies has been tested for consistency with educational objectives.1 Whether the focus is on integration of digital technologies in education or even on digital education,attention has so far primarily been directed at the learners,in other words pupils and students.So far,teachers have been viewed,if at all,first and foremost in their role as mediators and therefore primarily as users of digital tools.Studies examining how digital technologies affect teachers health,safety and wellbeing are rare.2 This is also the case for studies addressing the proactive role for teachers in shaping related technological developments.3 This report focuses on the impact of digitalisation on teachers in general education schools.To explore the issue in greater depth,the subject is considered from both an educational as well as an occupational safety and health(OSH)perspective.Due to the speed of technological development,a distinction is drawn between the use of traditional digital technologies and teaching and learning technologies based on artificial intelligence(AI).The impact of traditional digital technologies on the health,safety and wellbeing of teachers is considered through the lens of the COVID-19 pandemic;the integration of AI-based technologies in education,the potential they offer and the challenges they pose for teachers are analysed and discussed to the best of current knowledge.At the time of preparing this report,research on the impact of AI on the health,safety and wellbeing of teachers is not yet available.1.2 Structure of the report The report starts with a short description of the current state of use of digital technologies in the education sector in Europe(EU-27)(Chapter 2).Following this,a more in-depth look is taken at what triggered the global surge in digitalisation in the education sector,at the COVID-19 pandemic as a never-before-seen disruption to the education system,and at its impact on the health,safety and wellbeing of teachers(Chapter 3).Reference is made to key theoretical models as well as to the concepts of digital stress and the digital wellbeing of teachers(Chapter 4).The potential and risks for teachers associated with the use of digital technologies based on AI are analysed on the basis of six factors.Due to the dynamic nature of technological development,particularly in the area of AI,the description here must necessarily remain partially incomplete(Chapter 5).The seventh and final chapter provides recommendations for a teacher-centred approach to the integration of AI-based technologies in schools(Chapter 6).1 EU-OSHA has been working on systematically integrating(mainstreaming)occupational safety and health(OSH)into education since 2002.The guiding principle of mainstreaming OSH into education is that the integration of safety and health into the curricula and the working and learning environment of educational institutions contributes significantly to improving the quality of education.See:https:/osha.europa.eu/en/themes/mainstreaming-osh-education 2 Since 2020,there has been an ever-increasing number of publications dedicated to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic specifically on the mental health of teachers.Digitalisation is not always mentioned in this context.See the literature study by Duarte Santiago et al.(2023).For the most recent literature study on the wellbeing of teachers,see Nwoko et al.(2023).3 See:Magnusson 2023;Giannini 2023.Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 9 2 Digital technologies in the education sector in Europe 2.1 Current state of use of digital technologies in the education sector According to the European Survey of Enterprises on New and Emerging Risks(ESENER),the use of digital technologies in the education sector is relatively high.Eighty-eight per cent of educational institutions use stationary PCs and 83%use laptops,smartphones and other mobile computer devices(EU-OSHA 2022 ESENER Education,67;cf.Vincent-Lancrin et al.2019,162).In the classroom,other mobile computer devices include,for example,tablets,interactive whiteboards,e-books,smart phones and use of the internet as a means of exchanging data and information;they are also used as an element in the digital infrastructure of an educational facility(BitKom 2023;Mumann et al.2021,98ff.).According to the ESENER study,use of the devices initially referred to above ranges from 71%in Sweden to 98%in Hungary,and in the case of mobile devices from 71%in Italy to 100%in Finland.According to the European Agency for Safety and Health at Works(EU-OSHA)OSH Pulse 2022 survey,59.7%of facilities in the education sector have high-speed broadband internet access,which is above the comparative figure of 55.2%for other sectors.Figure 1:Use of digital technologies by EU workers Base:all respondents,EU-27(n=25,683)Source:EU-OSHA 2022 OSH Pulse Alongside public administration and financial services,the education sector in Europe also has the highest prevalence of employees who occasionally or partly work remotely(Eurofound 2023,52).Differences however can be identified in the use of digital technologies for educational purposes between individual countries or groups of countries in Europe,for example between Scandinavian countries(with the exception of Norway)and eastern European countries(with the exception of Hungary and Estonia)(EU-OSHA 2022;ESENER 2019;Fraillon 2020,190;see also UNESCO 2023 GEM,69).The figures however also document that while the use of digital technologies in educational facilities in the EU-27 is relatively widespread,there are still organisations where use of digital tools is not the norm(EU-OSHA 2022 ESENER Education,67).According to EU-OSHAs OSH Pulse 2022,use of AI-based technologies such as wearables and robots is still much less in evidence in the EU-27 as a whole,but particularly in the education sector:discussion regarding risks from use of these technologies to health,safety and wellbeing is somewhat disproportionate to their use.For example,according to the ESENER study from 2019,a usage rate of 8.7%for wearable devices compares to a value of 50%when it comes to discussion of the potential influence of smartwatches,smart glasses,activity trackers or other integrated sensors(cf.EU-OSHA ESENER Education 2022,79;EU-OSHA 2022 AIWM,15).Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 10 To date,there are very few examples of the use of so-called social robots in schools in Europe:these include use for the early acquisition of a second language in a preschool setting in the Netherlands and the use of telepresence robots in Norway and France for pupils with long-term illnesses(OECD 2021,145,148;cf.Hein and Nathan-Roberts 2018;Anwar 2019).2.2 Traditional digital technologies in school Digital technologies have been used in schools since the 1980s which saw the emergence of personal computers and so-called e-learning in the form of programme-based learning(Auswald 2023).In the mid-1990s,the World Wide Web was made accessible to the general public.Virtually all digital applications in the education sector are based on the internet.These include learning management systems(LMSs),open educational resources(OERs)and massive open online courses(MOOCs)(Weller 2020,19).4 The internet enabled learning platforms to be integrated in teaching,such as the platform Moodle that was launched in 2002.Their LMSs gave teachers the opportunity to create and administer courses that pupils could work on independently.In the same year,the first OER was published.The OER approach means that training content is created with an open licence which means it is freely accessible and can be adapted.It is intended that content should also be free of charge and reusable.5 This increases teachers flexibility,but at the same time it also increases the demands on their technical and media competencies in relation to teaching methodology.Around 2006,attention shifted from static websites,with the user taking more of a passive role,to so-called Web 2.0,where the user not only consumes the content and it is characterised by social interaction,user-generated content,and sharing.Services for user-generated content such as YouTube,Flickr and blogs as well as Twitter(2006,named X since 2023)emerge.The metamorphosis of Web 2.0 into platforms supporting social media shifts the focus on to problems associated with this such as freedom of speech and abusive behaviour(Weller 2020,91ff.).As a consequence,the emotional load and stress on teachers increases.2.2.1 AI-based digital technologies in school The subject of AI is also not new and is discussed from the very beginning in relation to a change in perceptions of human thinking,learning and knowledge.6 AI can be defined as computing systems which are capable of engaging in human-like processes such as learning,adapting,synthesising,self-correction,and use of data for complex processing tasks(Salas-Pilco et al.2022,2 according to Popenici and Kerr 2017).7 2.2.2 Learning analytics With learners spending increasing time in digital learning environments,interest grows in data generated,for example,as part of using an LMS.The development of so-called learning analytics(LA)dates back to 2011 when George Siemens organised the first LA conference.At this conference,LA was defined as the measurement,collection,analysis,and reporting of data about learners and their contexts,for purposes of understanding and optimising learning and the environments in which it occurs 4 Sir Tim Berners-Lee invented the internet at CERN in 1989.By 2010 he had developed four technologies that made the internet work and remain the basis of it today:HTML;URL;HTTP;Web browser(Weller 2020,15f.).5 The OpenCourseWare(OCW)Initiative was started in 2002 by MIT(Weller 2020,77).To this day,the licensing issue is one of the critical obstacles to the use of digital technologies in school(see also EU 2023 Stakeholder Consultation Group on Digital Education Content in the EU).Owing to the rapid development and increasing provision of open(i.e.without access and admission restrictions),freely accessible online courses,which generally have a large number of participants,2012 is described as the year of the MOOCs(Weller 2020,129).(Wikipedia accessed 27 February 2024).6 The question Can computers think?has been discussed in this form since the 1950s.Alan M.Turing,English mathematician and leading computer theorist,sparked this debate with his article Computing Machinery and Intelligence(Turing 1950).The term artificial intelligence(AI)was coined in 1956 when Marvin Minsky and John McCarthy hosted the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence(Sheikh et al.2023).Seymour Papert was one of the first to address the impact of AI on education(Papert 1980;see also Bollmann 1988 and Bollmann 2001).7 The official and current definition of AI from the OECD is as follows:An AI system is a machine-based system that,for explicit or implicit objectives,infers,from the input it receives,how to generate outputs such as predictions,content,recommendations,or decisions that can influence physical or virtual environments.Different AI systems vary in their levels of autonomy and adaptiveness after deployment.https:/oecd.ai/en/wonk/ai-system-definition-update Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 11(Siemens 2013).This began the discussion that continues today around the understanding and impacts of the use of LA in the education sector.In 2012,Wolfgang Greller and Hendrik Drachsler developed the first comprehensive framework model for LA with six interdependent dimensions:stakeholders,objectives,data,instruments,external constraints,and internal limitations.This framework model addresses both pupils and teachers as well as the school as an institution.Pupils for example are able to compare their outcome with the overall outcome of a course or can receive personalised recommendations for appropriate learning resources,learning pathways or for peer students.Teachers can be provided with course monitoring systems informing them of gaps in knowledge for specific pupils and are able to make information available to support improved curriculum design and spontaneous adaptations.Schools can monitor the achievement of pupils in terms of drop-out and completion rates and in this way are able to evaluate courses and optimise course outcomes(Greller and Drachsler 2012,46f.;see also:Ebner et al.2020;Romero and Ventura 2020).The use of LA is intended to personalise the use of digital teaching and learning technology and to make teaching and the school more efficient.In terms of external constraints relating to LA,Greller and Drachsler cite data protection law(pliance with General Data Protection Regulation(GDPR);Are pupils properly informed?)and ethical considerations(e.g.How great is the risk of misuse/incorrect use of the data?Do the pupils/teachers/school benefit from the data?).In terms of internal constraints of LA,they point to the competencies required of pupils/teachers/institution to interpret the results and to act accordingly and in order to understand the visualisation or presentation of the information.Last but not least,the authors refer to the ability to think critically.Do the pupils/teachers/school understand which data are being presented and which are not?How will they use this information?(Greller and Drachsler 2012,45).According to Greller and Drachsler,the use of LA for teaching and learning imposes specific new and higher-order demands on the competency and acceptance of teachers that extend beyond technical knowledge and concern their judgement:in order to turn LA into an effective tool for educational practice,it is important to recognise that LA culminates in the presentation of outcomes achieved on the basis of algorithms,outcomes that must be interpreted and critically assessed.This means that the assessment and grading of a pupil should not be based solely on the visualisation of log files from an LA system,the simplicity and attractive presentation of which may,for example,distract teachers from the full reality in terms of pedagogy.Data not included within the respective LA approach are just as important,if not more important in fact,than the dataset included.Regardless of the necessary competencies,acceptance factors(such as the simplicity and usefulness of the system referred to above)can further influence the use or decision-making following an analysis process(Greller and Drachsler 2012,51f.).2.2.3 Intelligent tutoring systems Based on the assumption that individual tuition is more effective than one individual teaching several people,one-to-one computer-based tutoring continues to emerge as a practical alternative to one-to-one human tutoring(Sottilare et al.2018,226;see also WEF 2023).The 1980s also saw an initial boom in intelligent tutoring systems(ITSs)in the education system.At the time,however,the use of ITSs was limited to specific areas of knowledge,in other words it was domain-specific.8 An ITS uses a series of step-by-step tutorials to guide pupils individually through topics in structured courses such as mathematics and physics.The system uses the findings of experts and cognitive scientists dealing with the relevant subject,as well as data on each students individual misconceptions and performance,in order to produce a personalised course.ITSs are still criticised today for the fact that intelligent and adaptive tutoring systems such as these neglect aspects of collaborative and discovery learning and that personal contact between teachers and pupils lessens as a result of their use.Then there is the issue that,in an ITS classroom,the teacher generally spends a lot of their time tracking pupils activities on their screen.The teacher is therefore unable to see what pupils are doing in the 8 In the 1990s,interest in AI in the education sector was focused on expert systems.There was major interest in expert systems in particular in continuing vocational education and training.The automotive industry,for example,was anticipating a revolution in their initial and continuing education and training from expert systems.The problem in this case however was,on the one hand,developing a knowledge base from the knowledge of employees and,on the other,formalising the real-life experiences of employees.Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 12 room,which makes it difficult for them to decide where they should direct their attention.In order to resolve this problem,the ITS can be enhanced,for example,with augmented reality glasses that hover over the pupils heads and give the teacher detailed and continuous data on the learning progress of individual pupils(e.g.misunderstandings)or on their behaviour(e.g.lack of attention).The teacher can then react to this.This approach,however,raises issues relating to human rights,in particular the right to privacy.There is also a lack of solid evidence that ITSs,which are mostly commercial,are as effective as their developers claim(Kurni et al.2023,16f.).9 Stefan Kchemann et al.also draw attention to the high costs of developing ITSs(Kchemann 2023,6).The further development and effective use of ITSs require leaps forward in the development of AI.2.2.4 The AI boom AI developed rapidly in the period from 2012 to 2020 both in terms of pace of development as well as the processing of ever larger volumes of data.In 2012,the processing of larger datasets was made possible through the use of artificial neural networks and of deep learning techniques that surpassed all previous AI techniques.Deep learning is a subcategory of machine learning.Deep learning is concerned with the development and application of deep neural networks,used for example in the education sector,in order to simulate and predict educational outcomes(see Steimers and Schneider 2022,1).The term generative AI(GenAI)has been used since 2016/2017.Generative means that content can be created with the help of AI.This content may be texts,but images,videos and audio,codes,3D models and simulations(e.g.in the form of virtual reality or augmented reality)can also be produced.GenAI represents a revolution in machine learning(Kasneci 2023).OpenAI10 and GPTn11 are regarded as the most powerful models of GenAI.For GPT(generative pre-trained transformer),which is a large language model(LLM),algorithms are trained on the basis of large volumes of text data.They are able to generate human-like text responses and questions and they complete other natural language-based tasks with a high degree of accuracy.Two key factors contribute to this.The first is the transformer architecture,which enables the model to process contexts of words independently of their position in the sentence.The transformer makes it possible that natural language processes(NLP)no longer need to be processed sequentially.An LLM uses its earlier predictions as input for new predictions(automatic or auto-regressive)and the model learns from its own data.12 Second,the use of pretraining,where the model is initially trained using the large dataset prior to the fine-tuning for a specific task,contributes to the greatest possible approximation to natural human language(Kasneci 2023,2).9 Cf.with regard to the development of a Generalized Intelligent Framework for Tutoring(GIFT)by Sottilare et al.2018.Since 2011,Robert A.Sottilare had been developing a largely domain-independent ITS encompassing interaction in groups,e.g.team training,teamwork and collaborative learning.For this,he used,among other things,the results of neurophysiological studies.Solitaire and his team may however have been pursuing a top-down model that was overtaken by the development of generative AI and was therefore not further pursued.In a literature analysis on which the EU-OSHA Report 2022 AIWM is based,the paper by Sottilare et al.from 2018 was identified as the only article on AI with a reference to OSH.10 OpenAI,Inc.is a United States software company that has been researching AI since the end of 2015.Initially,the aim of OpenAI was to develop AI on an open source basis.To start with,OpenAI was run as a non-profit company.In 2019,the for-profit subsidiary OpenAI Global,LLC was established.(Wikipedia accessed 27 February 2024).11 GPTn Generative Pre-trained Transformer,where n stands for the iteration 1,2,3.This is the first large language model(LLM)developed by OpenAI,which was released in 2018(Kasneci et al.2023,4).12 A transformer is a method enabling a computer to translate a sequence of symbols into another sequence of symbols.This can be used,for example,to translate text from one language into another.For this,a transformer is trained on a large volume of example data using machine learning before the trained model can then be used for the translation.Transformers are one of the deep learning architectures.Transformers were introduced in 2017 as part of the Neural Information Processing Systems conference.Before transformers were introduced,recurrent models were used in natural language processing(NLP).These models processed an input sequence sequentially.These methods were later enhanced by means of an attention mechanism.Transformers build on the attention mechanism and dispense with the recurrent structure.They achieve similar or better results in the transformation of sequences than recurrent models and require less computational effort.(Wikipedia accessed 27 February 2024)The attention mechanism improved the ability of auto-regressive language models(the model uses its previous predictions as input for new predictions)and self-supervised(the model learns from the data themself,rather than being explicitly provided with correct answers as in supervised learning)to handle long-range dependencies in natural-language texts(Kasneci 2023,2).Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 13 The LLM ChatGPT-3 was the first easy-to-use tool for GenAI and was released to the general public on 30 November 2022.ChatGPT is able to create texts of all kinds on the basis of prompts or even become a chatbot.13 This can be combined with a text-to-speech system and integrated in a social robot,which as a result acquires extensive natural language capabilities,or installed in search engines as Microsoft and Google have done(Bendel 2023).Language is becoming the universal interface for every AI model(Kchemann et al.2023,2).With the aid of ChatGPT,it is possible to produce something technologically,the generation of which was previously the preserve of humans,namely language as the central basis for human creativity,and even to surpass humans in this regard:The example of ChatGPT shows that such technology can not only automate text creation but also increase human creativity(Kasneci 2023;see also Gannini 2023,2).14 Texts and images however do emerge which are incorrect and unrealistic-referred to as hallucinating-or which harm individuals(Bendel 2023).15 Developments in the area of AI have come thick and fast since 2022,which means innovation cycles are getting ever shorter.While the peak of LLM development seemed to have been reached with ChatGPT-3,the recent emergence of large multimodal foundation models(LMFMs),such as ChatGPT-4-Turbo from OpenAI and Gemini from Google,is forcing people to rethink and is bringing with it a series of new opportunities and challenges for education.LMFMs not only interact via written text with the user,they are also able to process spoken text,music,images and videos.This means GPT-4 is able to accept both text as well as images in its input requests.In this sense,it is multimodal(UNESCO 2023-Guidance to GenAI,11).16 The models represent a significant advancement compared to the first version of ChatGPT-3.This is not just due to the models multi-modality but also their increased accuracy,faster reaction times(reactions in real time),and a more nuanced understanding of the context and subtleties of language.According to Kchemann et al.,LMFMs could revolutionise personalised learning by enabling customised learning experiences that adapt to individual needs and learning preferences(Kchemann et al.2023,2).The following capabilities or functions are attributed to a multi-modal model:the capability to adapt to the depth of knowledge(from novice to enthusiast);to select the learning style(e.g.verbal,visual,active,intuitive,reflective);to define the communication style(e.g.formal,suitable for a layperson,storytelling,socratic);to adapt to the tone(e.g.encouraging,neutral,informative,friendly,humorous);and to determine the conceptual structure(e.g.deductive,inductive,analogue,causal)(VIWIS 2023).However,Kchemann et al.also refer to the fact that considerable challenges also come along with these opportunities.Resorting to AI-supported education raises the issue of the accuracy and reliability of the information provided by these systems.The potential for inherent bias in AI algorithms remains a critical issue with LMFMs,and this problem may even be increased due to the complexity resulting from processing multiple input modalities.They also explain that the integration of AI-based technologies in the education sector will require a reassessment of teaching methods and curricula.This also requires the development of new competencies among teachers and pupils,as these tools now enable interactive learning,for example,in dialogue with personalised chatbots,and formative feedback,which means that the focus of these systems is no longer on transferring knowledge but on developing complex skills.Kchemann et al.view this as a key step towards the democratisation of education which ensures that learning opportunities are accessible and equitable.It is even more likely now,they add,that people who are illiterate will be able to use AI without even being able to read and write.Nevertheless,the issue of the digital gap and accessibility continues to be a problem as not all education facilities have the resources to implement and maintain this advanced technology(Kchemann et al.2023,2).13 Chatbot=a text-based dialogue system that lets you chat with a technical system.(Wikipedia accessed 27 February 2024).14 Does this mean that the debate being held since at least 1950 on the difference between human and machine creativity is settled?See in this regard the text-immanent discussion by Steimers and Schneider(2022,15f.)on autonomy,determinism and the potential for a moral machine:A fully autonomous system would be a moral agent that has the ability to monitor and regulate its behaviour based on the harm its actions may cause or the duties it may neglect.Looking at the capabilities of todays AI systems,only the level of operational morality can be implemented,so that the requirement for an autonomous system is not met.The only exceptions are systems that are based on continuous learning and whose models can adapt further during operation.15 This abuse however is not exclusive to AI(Kasneci 2023,1).16 For an overview of alternative systems to ChatGPT or of tools based on this up to July 2023,see UNESCO 2023 Guidance for GenAI,10.This also provides further information on image GenAI and music GenAI.Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 14 This is all incredibly stressful for all those involved with such developments(Kleiber 2023).Conventional forms of communication and publication are also increasingly reaching their limits.17 The mood spreading among those familiar with these technologies is similar to that at the time of the invention of the internet(Kleiber 2023).In parallel with the hype,however,the understanding and explaining of AI-based processes are also reaching their limits.A distinct specialist field has now developed,so-called Explainable AI(XAI).18 Over vast stretches of history,technologies created by humans fulfilled precisely those tasks for which they were developed and the mechanisms upon which these were based were well understood(Moinul Zaber 2024)this still also applies to traditional digital technologies such as computers,the internet,learning platforms and the early forms of ITSs.The emergence of GenAI however has meant that the underlying mechanisms are becoming ever more opaque and the outcomes ever more unpredictable and unforeseeable.This raises important questions such as:Do teachers know what they are doing when they use ChatGPT to prepare lessons or for the semi-automatic grading of their pupils work?Are teachers aware that,in this case,AI tools are making decisions?Even if they do know,do they believe that these tools are morally and ethically unbiased?If the AI-based systems fail or cause harm,are the teachers and school leaders then accountable?Are teachers and school leaders responsible for the risk assessment of AI-based technologies used in schools?(see Zaber 2024).According to XAI,it is not sufficient to interpret an outcome such as information about gaps in knowledge acquired based on the use of LA or the level of a pupils attention as identified using eye trackers.According to XAI,it must be possible for teachers to understand the process of how and why the system arrived at its result given an input.XAI therefore distinguishes between interpretability and explainability:interpretability is concerned with the degree of understanding of the cause of a decision;explainability however goes further and involves explaining the process of how AI arrived at an outcome.This is about predictive accuracy and comprehensibility,but also about human trust.XAI is therefore also calling for a reliable,ethical AI.In the discussions surrounding AI,these aspects are frequently summarised under the term transparency.According to Steimers and Schneider(2022),however,the terms must be clearly differentiated from one another.Transparency is the feature of a system that describes the extent to which relevant information is passed on to participants via the system.Explainability describes the feature of an AI system for expressing key factors influencing the output of the AI system,and doing this in a manner that is understandable for humans(Steimers and Schneider 2022,19).If XAI projects consider explanations to be part of wider social contexts,such as schools,then teachers and pupils should ideally also be involved in the co-creative explanation processes using AI.19 Transparency can be important as systems with a low degree of transparency may constitute risks in terms of fairness,security and accountability.Transparency is also a precondition for the reproducibility of the systems outputs and improves its quality assessment(Steimers and Schneider 2022,19).On the other hand,a high degree of transparency can also lead to confusion due to information overload.Steimers and Schneider therefore distinguish between users and experts:they explain that users must be informed about the nature of the system,but only about its basic functionality.Teachers therefore need information about the use of the system but also about its aims and its known limitations(Steimers and Schneider 2022,19).17 This text,for example,will be outdated before it has even been completed.18 The discussion around Explainable AI was started by Adadi and Berrada in 2018(Rong et al.2023).19 Cf.Constructing Explainability:https:/trr318.uni-paderborn.de/en/Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 15 3 The surge in digitalisation in the education sector due to the COVID-19 pandemic and its impact on teachers 3.1 Disruption of education On a worldwide scale,the COVID-19 pandemic caused the greatest ever disruption in history to education systems(UNESCO 2022 REDS).Schools were closed in 102 countries around our globe with a further 11 countries experiencing regional closures.This caused abrupt changes to the work usually undertaken by teachers,meaning insufficient time for planning and careful implementation of measures(Herman et al.2021,483).Not only were educational tasks impacted but also the implementation of risk assessments and hygiene measures in light of the pandemic(Koestner et al.2023).The school closures in the 2020/2021 pandemic year also involved a so-called surge in digitalisation that led to a process of ad hoc digitalisation in schools.This focused on technical solutions for ensuring teaching,remote learning,alternating instruction and acute crisis management(Mumann et al.2021,3,234).The first representative study on the impact of digitalisation during the COVID-19 pandemic on the working conditions of teachers is that by Mumann and Hardwig(2021).Early studies specifically on the psychological stress and strain on teachers during the COVID-19 pandemic are available,for example,from Panisoara et al.(2020),Herman et al.(2021)and Pressley et al.(2021).These are descriptive studies limited to the short time period from 2020 to 2021 and,with the exception of the study by Mumann et al.(2021),cannot be considered as representative.The studies provide key indications as to how the teaching profession coped with a crisis that had a profound impact on the education system,and also pointers for dealing with future pandemics and regarding sustainable strategies to help meet the challenges of such technological development in schools.3.2 Ad hoc digitalisation The ad hoc digitalisation in the 2020/2021 pandemic year meant an increase in the demands on teachers in terms of new additional requirements,but also excessive temporary demands resulting from improvisation and short-term additional requirements.Teachers faced an increased workload for example due to home-schooling,hybrid and alternating instruction,the transition from analogue to digital materials,varying digital competencies among pupils or differing equipment being available to pupils and as a result of increased communication via app,email and mobile devices.Of the 2,750 teachers surveyed by Mumann et al.at 233 schools in Germany,90%said that home-schooling increased their workload and 77%specified the increased need for communication with parents and pupils(Mumann et al.2021).The surge in digitalisation caused by the COVID-19 pandemic also posed a challenge to school organisation:deficiencies in digital infrastructure instantly became clear(access to the WLAN;to a school or learning cloud;provision of sufficient digital end devices for use in teaching,rooms equipped to facilitate digital teaching and learning;support in the event of technical problems).Teachers frequently resorted to self-help in this situation:95%used their private electronic devices such as mobile devices,laptops or tablets or used them more frequently than previously for work and for teaching.Where digital technologies were available,these often could not be used due to technical failures;under-developed teaching materials and learning concepts also prevented the meaningful use of such technologies(Mumann et al.2021;EU-OSHA 2023 Event summary).3.3 Rate of change in digitalisation The first pandemic year also saw a high rate of change in digitalisation.This is shown by the fact that,compared to the ICILS study20 base year of 2018,during which,for example,Germanys figure of 16 The International Computer and Information Literacy Study(ICILS)from the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement(IEA)records the digital literacy(Computer and Information Literacy,or CIL for short)of children and young people in year eight in those nations participating in the study using a sophisticated set of tools that has been developed internationally.The ICILS 2013 study precedes the ICLS 2018 Study.The ICILS 2023 study is currently being conducted.Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 16 for portable digital devices for teachers was far below the European average of 41%,the German rate in 2020 rose to 38%and in 2021 to 48%,even though at that time devices were only available to all teachers in 18%of cases.This increased rate of change was also evident in the use of LMSs and in a marked increase in the usage intensity of digital technologies in the classroom(Mumann et al.2021).Figure 2:Frequency of use of digital technologies in schools for teaching purposes(EU,Germany 2013,2018,2021-%)Source:Hardwig(2023)When comparing countries,it can be noted that growth was more frequent and greater if digital technologies had previously not been used so frequently in the educational facilities of a country;this contrasts with countries such as Denmark and Finland where digital technologies were already part of everyday life in schools before the pandemic(Strietholt et al.2021,2).For the years of the pandemic,progress in general can be identified at the level of school organisation in terms of development of a recognisable digital school strategy and the setting up of the digital infrastructure to support this,whereas in those countries where teachers already had more experience with the use of digital technologies,a sharp rise was seen in the use of digital technologies for collaboration among teachers(Strietholt et al.2021,19).It is no surprise that teachers who were already using digital technologies before the COVID-19 pandemic also continued to do so during the pandemic:During school closures,teachers who have used ICT before were at an advantage by being able to draw on their previous experience.On the other hand,this evidence suggests that teachers,who have not used ICT before the COVID-19 pandemic,do not manage to catch-up with their more experienced colleagues.Consequently,in times of crisis,it helps As is already the case in the ICILS 2018 study,an additional module on the computational thinking(CT)literacy area is being added to the current study.This literacy area,for example,is relevant in the context of the use of algorithms and in many European countries is already established in teaching and learning processes.The results of ICILS 2023 will be published on 12 November 2024.For 2025,in-depth analyses,transfer of knowledge,and further practice-related results processing and feedback of specific findings to schools involved,are planned.The following countries/regions/cities took part in the ICILS study:Chile,Denmark,Finland,France,Germany,Italy,Kazakhstan,Republic of Korea,Luxembourg,Moscow,North Rhine-Westphalia,Portugal,United States and Uruguay.Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 17 if teachers are already familiar with using ICT.Strong correlations between the use of ICT by teachers in 2018 and again in 2020 were observed within all countries(Strietholt et al.2021,2).The surge in digitalisation therefore also meant that the urgent need for teacher training in the use of digital teaching and learning technologies became very obvious.3.4 Impact of the surge in digitalisation on the working conditions of teachers The teaching profession is,on the one hand,one of those occupations,such as medical doctors,social workers,prison officers and policemen,regarded as placing the greatest burden on physical and psychological wellbeing.It is assumed that the COVID-19 pandemic further increased the existing workloads of teachers as employees working on the front line of the pandemic(Herman et al.2021,483;Eurofound 2023,22;see also:Nabe-Nielsen et al.2022;Kotowski et al.2022;EU-OSHA OSH Pulse 2022,30).This applies in particular to the factors of high workload,increased working time,21 organisational obstacles,shortage of time and lack of technical support.However it also applies to even more complex work in terms of interaction under online conditions.The teachers surveyed by Mumann et al.(2021)said that on average they had clocked 29%more working hours during the 2020/2021 pandemic year.Members of the school leadership team said the impact was even greater and stated they worked for 50%more hours,an average of more than three hours of additional time per week(Mumann et al.2021,35;cf.workload in the education sector under normal conditions in Eurofound 2023,33).The study by Mumannet al.(2021)provides evidence for the period of the pandemic of a higher workload being involved in the organisation of pure online teaching compared to hybrid forms of teaching,most of all due to the organisational obstacles involved in implementing this entirely new task.Time shortages arose,for example,due to the unfamiliar requirement of having to provide written individual feedback to pupils.A lack of technical support adversely impacted on work processes(Mumann et al.2021,168).On the other hand,the teaching profession differs systematically from other occupations with a typical pattern emerging characterised by good availability of resources but also by very extreme stress(Mumann et al.2021,203).Or as Keith C.Herman and colleagues succinctly put it in the American context:the teaching profession is a stressful profession under the best of circumstances(Herman et al.2021,483).3.5 The digital divide The digitalisation of schools is not a uniform process but one that differs by school type and level of education,by school size and by the national context(EU-OSHA 2023 Event summary).Each school is also unique(EU-OSHA 2022 Better Schools;Mumann et al.2021,87).Teachers also differ in terms of how they view themselves as a teacher and how they view their working conditions(Hascher and Waber 2021,13).The impact of digitalisation on the teaching profession is however not just a matter for individual stakeholders in the education sector in this case teachers and school leaders but a matter for school organisation as a whole.In the context of digitalisation,a distinction is therefore made between school types,each of which have a differing digital maturity.What gave rise to the assigning of school types in line with how digital technologies have been integrated in the school was the finding that schools exist where,despite unfavourable contexts and despite the social situation of their pupil body,their pupils achieved above average results when testing digital competencies.In these schools,teachers gave a more favourable self-assessment of their own digital competencies and assessed the digital 21 In a number of European countries teachers working time is not clearly defined it extends beyond teaching time and includes,for example,administrative tasks and the marking of exams.These tasks are not calculated within the formal working time and end up as invisible additional time(EU-OSHA 2023 Event summary).Consequently,there is little compensatory time off and recovery time.This means that high workloads do not come with regular compensatory time off and recovery times,which can result in symptoms of exhaustion and other negative impacts on health(Mumann et al.2021,165).Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 18 infrastructure more positively.A feature of the actions of the school leadership team at these schools was the integration of digital media being given a greater priority(Mumann et al.2021,19;Eickelmann et al.2019,138;Pettersson 2018).These schools are designated digitally optimal schools and differ from less effective schools based on three characteristics:The teachers are more satisfied with the digital infrastructure,although when considered purely quantitatively,they are not better equipped.However sufficient broadband and greater availability of the internet makes the technical infrastructure more usable.Better support is available,including both technical and educational support services.The school-based processes are geared towards digital teaching and learning.This means that further training enables teachers to deliver digital lessons more professionally,that a more intensive use of tools in terms of didactic methodology is identified in teaching and that pupils are also permitted to make greater use of digital media(Mumann et al.2021,19f.;Eickelmann and Drossel 2020).The degree of digital maturity of a school is therefore not just determined by the existence of digital technologies at a school,but by how digital technologies are introduced at the school and how teachers are supported in this process as key implementers of technology in the day-to-day administrative and educational activities.Mumanns team of researchers diagnosed a digital divide between the schools nationally but also when compared internationally that becomes evident in terms of the development and implementation of a digital strategy and the setting up of a digital infrastructure in schools.The study distinguishes between four types of schools:digital forerunners,digitally oriented schools,digitally average schools and digital latecomers(Mumann et al.2021,75,87).22 Their study proves that more intensive use of digital potential at a school is not associated with an increase in digital stress:teachers at schools with a more developed digital strategy(digital forerunners)on average stated a slightly lower stress value than teachers at schools with a poor use of digital potential(digital latecomers).The differences are significant even if not very pronounced.According to Mumann and Hardwig(2021),however,the clear direction indicated by this correlation is critical:a more highly developed digital school strategy and greater use of digital technologies in school tend to be associated with less digital stress.Digital stress is more likely to occur if schools trail behind with digitalisation and the resources for meeting the new demands are lacking(Mumann et al.2021,218).3.6 Impacts of the surge in digitalisation on the mental load and stress experienced by teachers The sudden surge in digitalisation under the conditions imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic came with a huge amount of uncertainty for teachers.According to Herman et al.(2021),teachers were often uncertain of what their responsibilities were and how they were able to maintain the connection to pupils in order to support their learning.The process of switching over to learning platforms was often chaotic and frustrating,even under the best of circumstances.Uncertainty regarding the duration of school closures,the lack of training and preparation for online teaching,and the sudden nature of closures are cited in literature as factors that contributed to the stress of teachers.In some cases teachers were also regarded as essential workers who had to be on the ground in an infrastructure classified as critical,all of which further increased the stress and anxiety experienced by teachers.Subject to the premise that teachers wellbeing is related to the quality of their teaching and thus also influences that of pupils and also the quality of education,teachers wellbeing,in particular in emergency situations,is an important research theme(Herman et al.2021,483f.;cf.Klusmann et al.2016;Wartenberg et al.2023).22 For the systematic development of a digitally mature national school system,see Croatia and the example of the e-schools project(2015-2022):https:/www.carnet.hr/en/projekt/e-skole-establishing-a-system-for-developing-digitally-mature-schools-pilot-project/.It is worth noting in that case,for example,that the Croatian Academic and Research Network(CARNET),the agency responsible for implementing the project,introduced an additional,lower level into the typology:The Croatian Framework for the Digital Maturity of Schools consists of five areas and five levels of the digital maturity of schools:Digitally unaware;Digital beginners;Digitally competent;Digitally advanced;Digitally mature.Cf.in this regard also Austria with respect to the development of the digital competencies of teachers.Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 19 Contrary to expectations,however,the studies by Herman et al.(2021),Pressley et al.(2021)and Panisoara et al.(2020)do not provide evidence of a rise in stress and anxiety of teachers as a result of the surge in digitalisation under the conditions imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic:Contrary to expectations,teachers reported significantly lower levels of stress and higher levels of coping,well-being,and job satisfaction after the start of the pandemic(Herman et al.2021,490).23 As regards the increase in stress and anxiety during the COVID-19 pandemic,however,Pressley et al.identify an exception:the group of teachers forced to teach exclusively online reported increased levels of anxiety and stress(Pressley et al.2021,373).Their higher level of anxiety may,for example,be due to a lack of online teaching experience,new approaches to the planning and delivery of teaching,the lack of engagement with pupils in a virtual environment or the use of the required new LMSs(Panisoara et al.2020,18).The assumption that teachers,despite the disruption and associated uncertainties resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic and without the daily stress of face-to-face teaching,on the whole had less stress at work(Herman et al.2021,490)or,alternatively,much of the stresses and strains of the entirely normal madness of the school day suddenly disappeared(Mumann et al.2021,171),is confirmed by the study by Ahrens et al.(2021).24 3.7 Lessons from the pandemic The following lessons can be drawn from analysing the influence of digital technologies on the safety,health and wellbeing of teachers under the conditions of the COVID-19 crisis:A digital strategy is required at school level that equips school leaders and teachers with the necessary resources for cushioning the load and stress resulting from the integration of digital technologies in the school day.A healthy and safe introduction of digital technologies in school is not solely dependent on technical equipment but requires technical,educational and social support for teachers and school leaders.A sense of self-efficacy in the integration of digital technologies in the school day(e.g.use of digital media in teaching,digital classroom management,digital communication with pupils and parents)requires,on the one hand,technological and educational knowledge,while on the other,necessary room for manoeuvre must be provided for the use of digital technologies in schools.A key component of a digital school strategy is professional development diversified by target group(e.g.for young teachers;for experienced teachers enthusiastic about technology;for IT coordinators;for school leaders by school level)and in new formats(e.g.in communities of practice,experimental labs,forums,networks).To ensure that changes and future crisis situations are dealt with in a proactive manner,teachers and school leaders need specific support in terms of positive coping strategies.25 The COVID-19 pandemic teaches us that something previously unthinkable can occur.It may not be sufficient to simply think in terms of a return to a new normal,representing only a minor change to the status quo existing before the pandemic.The pandemic can instead be interpreted as a rallying call to consider the digitalisation of education and its impacts on teachers in terms of further potential crises 23 See by way of contrast EU-OSHA 2022 OSH Pulse.This survey is a representative survey following the COVID-19 pandemic.In terms of the experience of health problems,including stress,depression and anxiety,the education sectors value of 31%is the highest compared to other sectors.24 Ahrens and his team found an overall reduction of experienced daily hassles and(e)ven more,we found a general increase in mental health,indicating that mental health functioning can also improve after exposure to adverse events,a phenomenon called psychosocial gain from adversity.Ahrens et al.investigated if adjusting to the new circumstances may have deleterious effects on vulnerable groups,such as people with or at risk for depression or anxiety disorders.They differentiated between three subgroups:a“resilient”group with initially improved mental health over time,a“recovered”group with an initially high mental dysfunction followed by a quick return to baseline,and a“delayed dysfunction”group that showed a significant deterioration of mental health after the assessment period.Regarding perceived stress,the recovered group showed a reduction in initially high stress levels and loneliness after COVID-19 regulations started to be relaxed,while the vulnerable group displayed an exacerbation of stress levels at the same time(Ahrens et al.2021;2,5,7).25 Coping=Employing specific psychological mechanisms or strategies(both cognitive and behavioural)to respond to a stressor is referred to as coping(Lazarus and Folkman 1984).Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 20 such as the next pandemic,climate crisis,increasing militarisation,geopolitical destabilisation and populist authoritarian regimes.A structural model is introduced below.The model combines the three central theoretical models to explain the link between digitalisation and the health,safety and wellbeing of teachers.Following this,key factors relating to the occurrence of digital stress and digital wellbeing for teachers are explained.Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 21 4 Structural model addressing the impact of digitalisation on teacher wellbeing 4.1 Key theoretical models Ion Ovidiu Panisoara and colleagues developed a comprehensive structural model and tested it based on data from 980 teachers between April and May 2020 during the outbreak of COVID-19 in Romania.For the first time,the structural model combines three theoretical models in the context of online teaching and its impact on teacher wellbeing:(1)self-determination theory;(2)Job-Demands-Resources model;and(3)Technology Acceptance model.The researchers derive five factors from these three theoretical models in order to explain the intention of teachers to continue with exclusively online teaching in an unstable working environment:technological educational knowledge;self-efficacy;intrinsic work motivation;extrinsic work motivation;occupational stress(i.e.burnout and technostress).This complements the understanding of the motivation and intention regarding online teaching by highlighting the direct and indirect affective responses to the technology,that is,the emotional dimension complements the cognitive dimension(Panisoara et al.2020,2;see also Scherer et al.2019).Panisoara et al.describe the theoretical models in the context of online teaching and its impact on the wellbeing of teachers as follows:Self-determination theory(Deci and Ryan 2008)The self-efficacy of teachers has been shown to be a predictor of higher levels of commitment and lower levels of burnout.26 A study found that an 8-month computer training programme for teachers on the theme of integrating computers into the classroom significantly reduced teachers anxiety with regard to computers.This indicates that teachers level of knowledge about the use of technology influences their fear of using it.Technological and educational knowledge has a key role in reducing teachers technostress,27 which suggests that improving teachers technological and educational knowledge with support from the school is essential,as is increasing their self-efficacy when using computers.On the other hand,teachers who regard themselves as more digitally efficient and who receive better support from their institutions experience stronger positive emotions when they use digital resources in their teaching,and they are more motivated and more independent in their work.Intrinsic motivation is the factor in this case that has the key influence:if teachers take on online teaching because they find the method interesting,perceive it as a challenge for their personal development,and/or find it enjoyable,innovative,creative and successful,then this reduces occupational stress.By contrast,the requirement to teach online only due to the COVID-19 pandemic(extrinsic motivation)may lead to more occupational stress(e.g.fear of making mistakes when using online resources;not having sufficient capabilities and competencies for considering the design of virtual learning spaces;having only limited capabilities with regard to new information and communication technologies).In their study,Herman et al.establish the importance of the factor of self-efficacy as regards the health of teachers using the example of dealing with students with challenging behaviour in online lessons:the confidence teachers have in their ability to deal with pupil behaviour in an online setting correlated positively with managing conflict and teacher health,and negatively with stress(Herman et al.2021,489;cf.Pressley et al.2021,368:no correlation between student behaviour and stress when resources were available to teachers).Job-demands-resources model(Demerouti et al.2001)The relationship between occupation-specific requirements and performance in an educational context assumes that the health and well-being of employees is the result from a balance between positive(resources)and negative(demands)job characteristics(Schaufeli and Taris 2014,44).An extended job-demands-resources model that also takes into account the performance dimension describes burnout as something resulting from high work demands and poor resources(Demerouti et al.2001,502).A 26 Burnout=emotional exhaustion(Panisoara et al.2021,6f.,19).27 Technostress or digital stress is caused by limiting environmental factors and the large number of technical tasks that,in connection with the technology used,cause stress(Panisoara et al.2021,7f.,19).Technostress or digital stress develops once the available resources and capabilities of an individual are no longer sufficient to cope in a healthy way with the demands imposed by the use of digital media and technologies.Various tools have been developed and validated in the academic literature to measure technostress(Ragu-Nathan et al.2008;Ayyagari et al.2011;Nimrod 2017;Mumann et al.2021,70).The terms technostress and digital stress are used interchangeably in the literature.Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 22 high level of professional burnout among teachers can therefore be attributed in part to teachers having to familiarise themselves over a short space of time with the wide variety of forms of teaching supported by technology,and can also be attributed to demands resulting from working online with various digital tools,which can generate technostress.The study proves burnout and technostress have only a weak direct influence on teachers willingness to continue teaching exclusively online.Here,burnout and technostress are defined as mediator variables/latent variables.Technology acceptance model(Davis 1985)The technology acceptance model suggests that two attitudes specifically the perceived user friendliness(i.e.intrinsic motivation)and perceived usefulness(i.e.extrinsic motivation)provide the best predictors for the actual use of the system and for understanding behavioural intention over time.Due to its simplicity and parsimony,the technology acceptance model has been used extensively to predict intention to use various digital technologies such as MOOCs,mobile internet services or Facebook(cf.Scherer et al.2020).The preparedness for(continued and exclusive)use and the actual use of digital technologies in the classroom can therefore neither be derived directly from the availability of technological and educational knowledge nor directly from a teachers high level of intrinsic or extrinsic motivation to use technology,instead it is derived from whether the use of digital technologies is associated with stress for the teacher or leads to their emotional exhaustion.4.2 Impact of digital stress on teachers health A high level of digital stress brings with it a high risk of burnout in terms of emotional exhaustion.For teachers experiencing greater digital stress,burnout is more pronounced.There are also clear statistical correlations between the experience of technostress and a less favourable assessment of worklife balance and lower job satisfaction.Digital stress jeopardises both the health and wellbeing of teachers and compromises the attractiveness of the teaching profession(Mumann et al.2021,227f.).Four factors make a significant contribution to teachers experiencing more or less stress when using digital technologies:(1)digital competencies(a higher level of digital competence is associated with less stress);(2)IT affinity(own drive and expectation of gains result in reduced experience of technostress);(3)workload(teachers who report a generally higher level of stress from their work also experience greater technostress);and(4)support when using digital media and technologies(lack of school support is perceived subjectively as a stress and leads to experience of technostress)(Mumann et al.2021,219ff.).The lower stress levels among teachers for the pandemic year 2020/2021 established by the studies cited here are potentially due to the emergency situation of the pandemic.Mumann et al.report that the pressure to cope with the unfamiliar situation is likely to have increased teachers resources.This is because it does actually appear to be the case that:first,the operating culture within schools was experienced as more open,appreciative and collegial in the face of the challenges posed by the crisis;second,during the crises,there was a little more respect and less conflict in interactions between teaching colleagues and with parents and pupils(interactions were however also potentially more distanced);and third,there were more opportunities to take part in further training,to get involved and develop ones own knowledge and skills.Four,and contrary to expectations,barely any change is evident however in the assessment of creative scope,which in turn is probably due to the constraints of the pandemic and the accelerated,but in many cases more pragmatic ad hoc digitalisation.If teachers have a few more resources,they actually do have more scope to cope with or to regulate stress.Five,at the very least,it can be stated that emotional stresses are reduced,probably due to the high proportion of home office working during distance learning and also due to the smaller class sizes during alternating instruction.And,six,the assumption that home-schooling from the home office provided more opportunities overall for teachers to control the phases of work intensity themselves could also be confirmed(Mumann et al.2021,203;see also Ahrens et al.2021,5).It is possible,from the studies by Panisoara et al.(2020),Herman et al.(2021),and Mumann et al.(2021),to identify a need for research into the resilience of teachers,teams and schools in crisis situations and into the development of resilience for dealing in proactive ways with changes currently Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 23 being caused,and which will be caused in future,in particular by the introduction of AI-based digital technologies in schools(see also in this regard Schelvis et al.2014).4.3 Factors determining teachers digital wellbeing The literature shows no consensus on the definition of wellbeing and,in particular,on the wellbeing of teachers.Key anchor points for the development of the wellbeing of teachers concept are:firstly,the definition of health by the World Health Organisation(WHO)from 1946:Health is a state of complete physical,mental and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity;28 and secondly,the concept of subjective wellbeing(SWB),which was developed by Ed Diener:SWB refers to the extent to which a person believes or feels that their life is going well(Diener et al.2018,1;see also Diener 1984).29 In their literature study covering the period from 2000 to 2019,Tina Hascher and Jennifer Waber propose defining teacher wellbeing as a positive imbalance for the wellbeing of teachers concept.This is because:(1)positive components of well-being can coexist with negative components such as demands and stress although(2)the experience of positive dimensions is significantly more pronounced than negative dimensions.According to these authors,such a definition may help to avoid the misunderstanding of wellbeing of teachers as the mere absence of health problems,stress,strain or burnout symptoms(Hascher and Waber 2021,17).30 The four-dimensional conceptual framework for wellbeing of teachers developed by Carine Viac and Pablo Fraser comprises physical and mental wellbeing,cognitive wellbeing,subjective wellbeing and social wellbeing,and is important and viable in this context.When preparing the teacher questionnaire for the 2021 PISA study,these dimensions were used as follows:Table 1:Operationalisation of the conceptual framework for the assessment of teachers wellbeing according to Viac and Fraser Cognitive wellbeing Ability to concentrate on ones work,and teacher self-efficacy.Subjective wellbeing Satisfaction with ones current job and with the teaching profession,frequency of moods and emotions with regard to job activities,purposefulness and satisfaction with life.Physical and mental wellbeing Frequency of psychosomatic symptoms,and number of school days missed due to these symptoms.Social wellbeing Social function of relationships with principals,colleagues and students,and feelings of trust.Source:Hascher and Waber 2021,17;Viac and Fraser 2020 Teacher wellbeing is defined accordingly by Viac and Fraser as the reaction of teachers to the cognitive,emotional,health-related and social conditions of their work and their occupation(Viac and Fraser 2020,18).28 Constitution of WHO from 1946:https:/www.who.int/about/governance/constitution In 1984 WHO brought a new conception of health,not as a state,but in dynamic terms of resilience,in other words,as a resource for living.This revised definition of health defined it as the extent to which an individual or group is able,to realize aspirations or satisfy needs and to change or cope with the environment.https:/.ng/world-health-organizationwho-definition-of-health/29 Ed Dieners work provided key impetus for wellbeing research from the perspective of work and organisational psychology(Hascher and Waber 2021,2).30 For further literature studies on the wellbeing of teachers,see:Nwoko et al.2023;Zhang et al.2023;White and McCallum 2022;McCallum 2021;Naimah et al.2021.Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 24 5 Opportunities and risks for teachers from the use of AI-based digital technologies Expansion in the use of AI-based technologies in schools,such as via the integration of LLMs into learning platforms,has at best been slow(Cukurova 2023,152).However,in barely any other sector are the potential and risks of AI tools discussed as extensively as in the education sector(SWK 2024,7 according to Ftterer et al.2023).Now,under the umbrella of GenAI,teachers as well as pupils are increasingly the focus of attention and being given equal consideration in discussion about the use of AI-based technologies in education(see for example:UNESCO 2021 AI and education;SURF 2022;Cukurova et al.2023;Kasneci et al.2023;Kchemann et al.2023;Ng et al.2023;UNESCO Guidance for GenAI 2023;EC 2023 AI Report;Bekiaridis and Graham 2024).So far,figures from a 2021 UNESCO study are available on the status of the integration of AI into state-recognised curricula.According to this study,at this point in time,the following countries in Europe had taken steps to introduce AI curricula at primary and/or secondary level:Austria,Belgium,Bulgaria,Germany,Portugal and Serbia.Germany was given as a European example.At that time the country was in the process of developing state-recognised AI curriculum standards for primary and secondary education;China was cited internationally with its government already having developed standards for these three levels(HAI Report 2023,260).31 According to the UNESCO study,the four topic areas to which most time was devoted in K-12 curricula were algorithms and programming(18%),AI technologies(14%),data literacy(12%)and application of AI to other domains(12%).By contrast,topics such as the ethics of AI and the social implications of AI only had figures of 7%and 5%,respectively(HAI Report 2023,261).Austria is praised in the UNESCO report as an example where in 2021 the curriculum already included all of these dimensions.5.1 GenAI opportunities and risks and the impact on health,safety and wellbeing of teachers Achieving UN Sustainable Development Goal(SDG)4 seems within reach with GenAI:32 it seems possible to use AI to contribute to a world that provides general and equitable access to high-quality education at all levels(Cukurova 2022,161).LLMs in particular represent a significant advancement in the field of AI.The underlying technology is key to further innovations and,despite critical views and even bans within communities and regions,large language models are here to stay(Kasneci 2023,1;see also EC 2023 AI Report,22).The latest UNESCO report reminds us,however,that achieving SDG 4 with the help of GenAI comes with certain conditions:GenAI tools will not help address the fundamental challenges in education or the achievement of SDG 4 commitments unless such tools are made inclusively accessible(irrespective of gender,ethnicity,special educational needs,socio-economic status,geographic location,displacement status and so on),and if they do not by design advance equity,linguistic diversities and cultural pluralism(UNESCO 2023 Guidance for GenAI,24).Alongside the potential,GenAI also brings with it risks and challenges that have overtaken both the technical and political debates as well as the legal framework(UNESCO 2023 Guidance for GenAI,Summary).5.2 Factor model The following provides an overview of the opportunities and risks from using GenAI-based technologies in schools and their potential impact on the health,safety and wellbeing of teachers.31 In 2021,UNESCO released one of the most comprehensive reports to date on the international state of government-endorsed AI curricula.To gather information,UNESCO released two surveys:the first to representatives of 193 UNESCO member states and the second to over 10,000 private and third-sector actors.As part of these surveys,respondents were asked to report on the status of AI curricula for students in K-12 general education.According to the UNESCO report,Serbia has already endorsed and implemented certain kinds of K-12 AI curricula,but is also simultaneously in the process of developing others thus it is listed under both categories(endorsed and implemented and in development)(UNESCO 2022 K-12 AI curricula).32 UN Sustainable Development Goal SDG 4 Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all is one of the 17 Global Sustainable Development goals of the United Nations that are to be achieved by 2030:https:/en.unesco.org/education2030-sdg4/targets Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 25 The analysis is based on six factors:workload,autonomy,professional development,ethics,regulatory framework and costs.33 Figure 3:Factors ensuring safe and healthy use of GenAI-based educational technologies by and for teachers 5.2.1 Workload Thesis AI-based technologies increase the efficiency and effectiveness of educational work;counter-thesis:AI technologies are not facilitating less work,but worse jobs(Selwyn 2022,162 according to Wajcman 2017).The big AI promise,or the promise from the EdTech sector,is the reduction in the workload for teachers(Selwyn 2022,123).Opportunities LLMs,such as ChatGPT,are able to support teachers as follows:In supporting learning processes,in this case pupils writing and their responses.LLMs can provide tailored feedback and suggest materials geared to the specific needs of students(Kasneci 2023,3,5).34 AI can also perform a corrective role with respect to the human weaknesses of teachers(Selwyn 2022,153):the system knows the pupil better than the teacher(Selwyn 2021,6).In lesson planning:Teachers can input to the models the corpus of document based on which they want to build a course.The output can be a course syllabus with short description of each topic.Language models can also generate questions and prompts that encourage the participation of people at different knowledge and ability levels,and elicit critical thinking and 33 The analysis comes with the caveat that due to technological development and its speed and complexity,statements can only be made in relation to the present.34 Kasneci et al.also provide the following note with regard to lack of adaptability:Large language models are not able to adapt to the diverse needs of students and teachers,and may not be able to provide the level of personalisation required for effective learning.This is a limitation of the current technology,but it is conceivable that with more advanced models,the adaptability will increase(Kasneci et al.2023,9).Currently,LLMs also face problems when solving word problems in mathematics.Discussion,however,is dominated by the promise of the next model.This also applies to the reduction of bias and so-called hallucinations(Kchemann et al.2023,2).Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 26 problem-solving.Moreover,they can be used to generate targeted and personalized practice problems and quizzes,which can help to ensure that students are mastering the material(Kasneci et al.2023,3).An LLM can provide help with researching and written tasks both at the syntactic level(e.g.recognising and correcting typos)and at the semantic level(e.g.highlighting grammatical inconsistencies and suggesting strategies for improvement).Suggestions on style improvements for specific topics as well as the summarising and breaking down of complex texts are also possible.When assessing and marking student performance,LLMs enable teachers to mark pupil work semi-automatically by highlighting the potential strengths and weaknesses of the relevant work.According to Kasneci et al.(2023),LLMs can be used to reduce the work involved in marking by up to 85%,and with a high degree of precision and improved quality,which is perceived as such by the students(Kasneci et al.2023,5;see also Christodoulou 2020,4).Teachers can also use LLMs to check outcomes for plagiarism,which can help them to prevent cheating.When creating customised applications,teachers can tailor GenAI tools to their specific teaching requirement and use them for this purpose(Kchemann et al.2023,4).AI management systems mean that tasks can be allocated more easily,time planning can be improved and work organisation in schools can be optimised.They can also be used to provide information that can help identify OSH risks(EU-OSHA 2023 Press briefing,8f.).AI-based technologies,and in this case LLMs in particular,therefore have the potential to reduce the workload and stress on teachers by helping to save on time and effort,to relieve teachers from routine tasks and as a result allow them to focus more on other educational tasks besides teaching such as engaging the pupils,pupil observation and formative assessment(EC 2023 AI-Report,25;Selwyn 2022,153;Selwyn 2021,353f.).According to the latest study from the World Economic Forum,the share of teachers time reallocated as a result of AI from administration to supporting pupils with their learning is 20%to 30%(WEF 2023 according to McKinsey 2020).Risks and challenges Risks so far identified in relation to the workload for teachers as a result of using AI-based technologies are:Datafication Instead of an incentive to be more efficient,the datafication of school can be a source of extra work and indeed of extra hours of unseen stress behind the scenes and of additional work(Selwyn 2021,362).This serves to exacerbate the structural vulnerability of teachers(Selwyn 2021,355,358;Selwyn 2022,131).Fauxtomation In this context,Neil Selwyn makes reference to Taylor(2018)and her term fauxtomation which is a trend in the IT sector for developing online systems that purport to run automatically but which actually require a high level of unseen work by humans(Selwyn 2021,365).While GenAI might help teachers generate useful text and other outputs to support their work,it is not necessarily a straightforward process.It can take multiple iterations of a prompt before the desired output is achieved(UNESCO 2023 Guidance on GenAI,12).Blurring the work/private life boundaries Increased unseen work means a blurring of the boundaries between work and private life.At the same time,there is increasing pressure on pupils,parents and even teachers own families,in the form of unpaid work,to produce usable data(Selwyn 2021,364).Increasing the pace of work AI-based systems can contribute to an increase in the pace of work for teachers and thus generate stress(see also Eurofound 2023,35).Increasing cognitive demands The complexity,impenetrability,and resulting lack of explainability and predictability of GenAI increase the cognitive load.This includes the demand placed on teachers of having to distinguish between GenAI-generated products and human-generated products and the increased uncertainty associated with this(Giannini 2023,2,6).Kchemann et al.however draw attention to a reduced cognitive load in the use of LMFMs Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 27 compared to traditional programming;this could also develop computational thinking skills(Kchemann et al.2023,6f.).Strengthening monitoring Smart schools35 enable digital monitoring and surveillance not just of pupils but also of teachers using real-time data.This may exceed the extent of monitoring required and transgress legal regulations(EU-OSHA 2021 Policy brief AI;EU-OSHA 2023 OSH News).Isolation Reduction of cooperative learning and support by using AI-based technologies resulting in the risk of isolation(EU-OSHA 2021 Policy brief AI;cf.Magnusson 2022,4).Erosion of human relationships Human collaboration changes into humanbot collaboration,e.g.by using generative twins as teaching assistants(Kchemann et al.2023,7f.)Eurofound points out that algorithmic management can remove the human interaction element from work(Eurofound 2023,37).It should be noted that AI-based technologies,and here in particular LLMs,seem not to be a magic silver bullet for workload problems(Christodoulou 2020,2).5.2.2 Autonomy Thesis AI-based technology supports teachers in their actual educational work;counter-thesis:the teacher is not replaced by a robot but works like a robot(Selwyn 2022,135f.).During the COVID-19 pandemic,no change in the scope for action available to teachers was observed(Mumann et al.2021,200).But how does the use of GenAI impact the autonomy of teachers?What influence on the autonomy of teachers do AI-based systems have which function autonomously,or to a certain degree autonomously,and which not only support a teacher but also take on tasks that previously were the preserve of the teacher?36 Neil Selwyn distinguishes in this regard between institutional forms of AI(supporting the teacher)and the undertaking of tasks for the teacher by,for example,facial recognition systems,teacher assistance systems for detecting cheating,systems for automatically assessing essays,for NLP-based feedback,for supporting pupils with the help of chat bots or even using a holographic teacher(Selwyn 2022,150,174;see in this regard also OECD 2021).Opportunities Maximised when teachers maintain control in a transparent manner over their entire work process.Teachers no longer have to perform non-creative,repetitive tasks that need doing on a daily basis.Teachers have more time for pedagogical tasks,for their own continuous professional development,and for being creative or developing their creativity(see EU-OSHA 2023 Press briefing,8).The digital automation of education is an opportunity to use GenAI to provide high-quality education in those locations where the challenges and deficits faced in the education sector are the greatest(Giannini 2023,7).Risks and challenges Reducing teachers control over the content and direction of their work(Selwyn 2022,161).35 Smart school=An educational environment that is replete with sensor technology that measures,monitors and regulates the building and all its occupants(Selwyn 2021,6).36 Automation=Use of systems or technical procedures with some degree of autonomy,to perform physical or cognitive tasks that were previously,or could potentially be,carried out by a human.They can be embodied(robotics)or non-embodied(smart applications)(EU OSHA 2023 Press briefing,8).Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 28 Undermining the status and authority of teachers,even when more is demanded of them(disempowerment)(Giannini 2023,7;cf.UNESCO 2023 Guidance on GenAI,13).Accentuating the trend towards acting in a machine-readable form,e.g.in view of facial recognition and prompt engineering(Selwyn et al.2021,17).Overconfidence from the teacher in AI-based technologies(EU-OSHA 2023 Press briefing,8).Reduction in human situational awareness(the quick sideways glance,which can give the teacher an immediate impression of a person or situation;but also attentiveness/mindfulness may be lost with regard to unforeseeable negative impacts on the safety,health and wellbeing of pupils)(EU-OSHA 2023 Press briefing,8).Loss of specific capabilities of a teacher such as the ability to assess outcomes fairly or write examination questions(see EU-OSHA 2023 Press briefing,8).Reduction of teaching positions in the education sector due to the automation not only of cognitive but also of interactive processes(chatbots)(Guralnick 2024).Increasing the call for further automation of education by means of future opportunities to use AI:teacher-less schools,school-less education,and other dystopic visions(Giannini 2023,7).The opportunities and the risks and challenges resulting from automation of the education system are dependent on which and how many functions of teaching activities are/can be automated,or on the degree of automation and control(see EU-OSHA 2023 Press briefing,8).In general,a tension exists between the autonomy of a teacher and the degree of automation of the AI system(see Steimers and Schneider 2022,13).As a rule,a high degree of automation restricts the opportunities for control and influence and thus ultimately the autonomy of the individual,in this case the teacher.According to Steimers and Schneider,it must therefore be ensured that the human activity always takes priority when using an AI system,that is,the health,safety and wellbeing of teachers and learners are always at the heart of the application.For this purpose,the roles should be distributed appropriately and responsibly between humans and the AI system when the system is being developed.The best method for achieving this would be the appropriate involvement in the development of AI-based systems of teachers,students,education providers(e.g.schools)and those responsible for education policy.According to Steimers and Schneider,the degree of automation must also be appropriate to the context of the application,in this case an educational context,and it must offer the participants the necessary opportunities for control.If all this is taken into account,then this would ultimately result in AI that is geared towards humans(Steimers and Schneider 2022,13).The degree of automation can be divided into different levels.Anne Horvers and Inge Molenaar have adapted the six-level model of automation to teachers(Molenaar in OECD 2021,60).In Table 2,however,the seven-level model as developed by Steimers and Schneider is used.Steimers and Schneider also introduce the distinction between heteronomous and autonomous systems.The table also shows how the degree of control by teachers reduces as the degree of automation increases(Steimers and Schneider 2022,13).37 37 Steimers and Schneider note the following in their paper submitted in January 2022:There is some confusion amongst the public,including developers,about the concept of autonomy in the context of AI systems.In general,it must be noted that it is not yet possible to produce artificial autonomous systems by technical means.AI systems as we find them today,can still all be classified as heteronomous systems.Heteronomous systems are distinguished from autonomous systems by being governed by external rules or the fact that they can be controlled by an external agent.In essence,this means that they are operated using rules that are defined or validated by humans.In contrast,an autonomous system is characterised by the fact that it is a system governed by its own rules and not subject to external control or oversight(Steimers and Schneider 2022,13).Artificial intelligence and education a teacher-centred approach to safety and health European Agency for Safety and Health at Work EU-OSHA 29 Table 2:Description of the seven levels of automation of the work of teachers System Level of automation Degree of control Comments Example Autonomous Autonomy.Teacher out of the loop.The system is capable of modifying its operation domain or its goals without external intervention,control or oversight.ChatGPT
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Did you know?Though consumers are watching their spending,travel is still an area they are willing to spend,and even splurge.US consumers will spend 6%to 13%more on travel in 2024 compared with last year,per a May 2024 report by Deloitte.Undeterred by inflation and rising interest rates,consumers will prioritize experiences like concerts and sporting events.In this infographic,we dig into consumers travel motivations,spending trends,and shifting buying behavior to help advertisers better engage with this jet-setting audience.Travel Industry Outlook 2024:How Advertisers Can Capitalize on the Resiliency of TourismS N A P S H O TA U G U S T 2 0 2 42024 is already a strong year for travelThe big pictureWhat we expectCopyright 2024,EMARKETER Inc.All rights reserved.Page 1Q1 2024 broke records in travel.The quarter saw an all-time high of 15.9 million Americans who traveled internationally,according to the Mastercard Economics Institute.46%of US travelers said they are at least somewhat likely to adjust their travel plans due to inflation,per Forbes Advisor.Made possible byAmong those who would make travel changes,Nine of the last 10 record-setting spending days in the airline and global cruise industry were in 2024.Global travel is also showing signs of a strong rebound post-pandemic.The organization expects this years international arrivals to grow 2ove 2019 levels.In Q1 2024,more than 285 million people from around the world traveled internationally,marking a 20%increase from the year prior,per a May 2024 finding by UN Tourism.International Tourist Arrivals%change over 2019,2021-2024Four in 10 plan to travel more than they did last year.19%would take fewer trips,would drive instead of flying,andwould shorten the duration of their trips.WorldEuropeAsia and the PacificAmericasAfricaMiddle East-69%-34%-12%-3%-59%-20%-6%2%-93%-75%-35%-18%-63%-29%-10%-1%-72%-31%-4%5%-58%-56 21202220232024About 91%of US consumers plan to travel domestically this year,while 50%plan to go abroad,per a survey by Nationwide Travel Insurance.Source:UN Tourism22%of millennials26%of Gen Z&Less than$50K$50K-$100KMore than$100K51.31.4.2H.4!.5 .2.2f.1 .7%TotalTravelersNontravelersUndecided18.03.7H.3%Consumers are prioritizing experiencesThe big pictureWhat we expectMajor sporting,entertainment,and special events,such as Taylor Swifts Eras Tour and the US Open Tennis Championships,will continue boosting travel this year.US consumers are spending more on travel partly because theyre prolonging their trips.Theyre spending around one day extra,relative to 2019 averages,per the Mastercard Economics Institute.Did you know?Copyright 2024,EMARKETER Inc.All rights reserved.Page 2Made possible byThe average US traveler will spend according to a January 2024 data by USA Today Blueprint,Additionally,Note:n-2,127 Source:PYMNTS.com,“consumer Credit Economy Monitor:Summer Travel 2024,”June 25,2024US Consumers Who Plan to Travel During the Summer,by Income%of respondents in each group,April 2024TravelersNontravelersUndecidedsay they will always prioritize summer travel,regardless of their finances,per June 2024 data by Credit Karma.39%of millennials38%of Gen Z&$1,742.90per vacation,but likely more if expensive event tickets are involved.say theyve spent money they dont have on travel after being influenced by others on social media,the same report found.Consumers are increasingly centering their plans around big events like the solar eclipse,the Olympics,and concert tours no matter the cost.Did you know?Sports are fueling big travelThe big pictureWhat we expectCopyright 2024,EMARKETER Inc.All rights reserved.Page 3Sports are attracting travelers from around the world.Sports fans are craving more immersive experiences.Made possible byare interested in traveling for sporting events this year,according to February 2024 data by American Express.want the same access to statistics,analysis,and replays at live sporting events as they do when viewing sports events from home,per a June 2023 report by Deloitte.Sports tourism is a according to an April 2024 report by the Sports Events and Tourism Association.$52.2Bindustry30%New York CityMiamiLondonLas VegasParis26%Top Cities for Sports Travel Summer 2024%of population,worldwide67%of millennials and Gen Zersand58%of total adults worldwideLast year,US travelers took204.9Mrecordsports-related trips.Digital out-of-home(DOOH)advertisers can capitalize on these interactive opportunities with adjacent content,interstitials,or relevant contextual messaging.Nearly 6 in 10(58%)sports fansSource:American ExpressDid you know?AI is making its impact on travelers and travel providers The big pictureAI assistance is becoming the baseline.What we expectCopyright 2024,EMARKETER Inc.All rights reserved.Page 4Made possible byIn March 2024,according to an April 2024 report by Adobe.up 7 percentage points from a year before,according to data from Oliver Wyman.Integrating the technology is widening the upper funnel,too.the same Adobe report found.believe new AI tools will enhance the customer journey at least somewhat positively,per an April 2024 report by Skift Research.41%of US and Canadian consumers said they had recently used generative AI(genAI)to assist with travel inspiration or planning,202334%Online traffic to travel sites jumped553%YoYfrom genAI tools,95%of travel industry workersConsumers are using AI-powered tools to help find accommodation,create itineraries,and compare pricing.52%of US consumers expect brands to use genAI to personalize shopping,travel booking,and other tasks,Did you know?Copyright 2024,EMARKETER Inc.All rights reserved.Page 5Made possible byConsumers will seek deals and rewardsThe big pictureDespite decreasing travel prices,consumers will still look for cost savings.One in five travel loyalty program providers agree car rental,and hotel prices in June 2024 fell from the same time last year,according to a July 2024 report by NerdWallet.Airfare was down before the pandemic-fueled erratic cost fluctuations.What we expect6.3%compared with June 2019&5.1%YoYAirfare,I am interested in finding flight deals so I can spend more on accommodations or upgrades%of population,worldwide,2024This year,89ults worldwide plan on using“travel hacks,”such as flying during off-peak times or using credit card points,according to American Express.85%Millennials and Gen Z70by Boomers78%Gen Xthat demonstrating the value of rewards is a major challenge,per a Q1 2024 report by arrivia.Source:American ExpressDid you know?Copyright 2024,EMARKETER Inc.All rights reserved.Page 6Made possible byWhat we expectThe big pictureHowever,travel will account for onlyAccommodation providers,including hotels,resorts,and vacation rentals,are the biggest digital ad spenders.Travel advertisers are spending more on digitalFor the fourth consecutive year,travel advertisers will increase their digital advertising spend faster than any other industry we track.2.7%TravelRetailCPGOtherMedia&entertainmentFinancialservicesAutomotiveHealthcare&pharmaTelecomTechnology&electronics18.4.0.5.4.5.2.2.2%8.1%5.4% 18.4%$8.23BThis year,digital ad spend in the travel industry will growreaching according to our December 2023 forecast.of total digital ad spend in 2024.Digital Ad Spending Growth,by Industry%change,US,2024Note:includes advertising that appears on desktop and laptop computers as well as mobile phones,tablets and other internet-connected devices on all formats mentioned;numbers may not add up to total due to roundingSource:EMARKETER Forecast,December 2023Strong consumer travel and a return to profitability for airlines,hotels,and cruise lines have enabled them to reinvest in advertising.Travel advertising is still recovering from its collapse in 2020.The US industry digital ad spend will grow next year,reachingper our forecast.9.6%$9.02B,This subcategory will account for 41.6%of spendingin the overall travel industry.Did you know?Copyright 2024,EMARKETER Inc.All rights reserved.Page 7Made possible byTravel advertisers still favor search but keep an eye on videoThe big pictureWhat we expectVideo is a burgeoning ad opportunity that may help travelers spark inspiration.While search ad spend is set to capture Video formats across streaming platforms and social networks are bolstering growth in programmatic ad spend.will go toward programmatic this year,per our June 2024 forecast,as advertisers turn to the format for its flexibility in spending cadence and channel mix.and outpacing other channels such asaccording to our forecast.2025$5.512021$2.902022$3.7228.1 23$4.2915.3 24$5.0317.3%9.5T.0!.4.5%SocialDisplay&growing 25.4%Video is the fastest-growing format for travel ads,Travel Industry Search Ad SpendingUS,2021-2025Note:includes advertising that appears on desktop and laptop computers as well as mobile phones,tablets and other internet-connected devices on all formats mentioned;numbers may not add up to total due to roundingSource:EMARKETER Forecast,December 2023driven by the industrys responsiveness to consumer interest,advertisers should not overlook the benefits of an omnichannel strategy.Balancing search with video ads and other channels increases engagement.61.1%of travel digital ad spend this year,More than 9 in 10(91.3%)digital display ad dollarsbillions%changeAn advertisers travel checklistCopyright 2024,EMARKETER Inc.All rights reserved.Page 8Made possible by2Keep a calendar.Keep an eye out for events attracting tourists and align your audience targeting accordingly.of the Taylor Swift concerts last year gained an incremental 68%in business,per the Mastercard Economics Institute.Restaurant sales within 2.5 miles 3Invest in tech.Work with product development teams to create enhanced experiences for consumers who want help with travel planning.Consider integrating AI-powered tools such as chatbots,language translators,or personalize recommendations.1Highlight excitement.More than three-quarters(77%)of consumers worldwide care more about the right travel experience than the cost of the trip,according to American Express.Brands should hone their creative and messaging on unique sights and stays.P84Offer a loyalty program.More than half(55%)of adults worldwide say brands should offer points and rewards systems to keep them coming back,according to November 2023 data by Econsultancy and Marigold.Other incentives,such as exclusive products or discounts and access to contests will give your loyalty strategy a boost.5Leverage video.Lean into visually oriented ad formats,such as video,to stir consumers interest in unique travel experiences ranging from natural wonders to culinary quests.A person sees 6,000-10,000 ads daily.A person planning a trip takes 71 days to lock in travel plans.Turn those 71 days into a seamless journey.Learn MoreThere are plenty of opportunities for travel brands to make an impression.Engage your ideal travel at every step,from inspiration to booking,using StackAdapts precise targeting and measurement solutions.Turn those 71 days into a seamless journey.Learn MoreThere are plenty of opportunities for travel brands to make an impression.Engage your ideal travel at every step,from inspiration to booking,using StackAdapts precise targeting and measurement solutions.A person sees 6,000-10,000 ads daily.A person planning a trip takes 71 days to lock in travel plans.Turn those 71 days into a seamless journey.Learn MoreThere are plenty of opportunities for travel brands to make an impression.Engage your ideal travel at every step,from inspiration to booking,using StackAdapts precise targeting and measurement solutions.Watch industry thought leaders on webinars,and ask questions liveCheck out our upcoming and on-demand events.Stay informed with daily newslettersSign up for timely digital trends delivered straight to your inbox.Hear us analyze news and trends on podcastsTune in to Behind the Numbers:The Daily,Reimagining Retail,and The Banking&Payments Show.Get the bigger pictureOur research is trusted by industry leaders.Over 100,000 business decision-makers,including many of the Fortune 1000 and most major media companies and agencies,subscribe to EMARKETER research.Learn if your company subscribes.Sources and MethodologyThis EMARKETER Snapshot features data,research,and interviews conducted between June 2024 and July 2024.Contributors and ProductionThe Snapshot was compiled by members of EM Studio,EMARKETERs in-house research and creative studio composed of analysts,designers,content marketers,and video producers.We are here to helpIf you are an EMARKETER research client and have questions,please contact ii-helpEMARKETER.comIf you are not a research subscriber,please send inquiries to ii-salesEMARKETER.comTo learn about advertising and sponsorship opportunities,contact advertisingEMARKETER.comEMARKETER is the leading research,data,and insights provider for marketing,advertising,and commerce professionals.Our data-centric forecasts and rigorous analysis empow ers strategic decisions for revenue-driving teams.Through context from our expert analysts,carefully vetted data sources,and our proprietary research methodology,EMARKETERs forecasts,reports,and benchmarks enable companies to anticipate tomorrows market trends for confidence today.EMARKETER is a division of Axel Springer S.E.LEARN MORE EMARKETER is the leading research,data,and insights provider for marketing,advertising,and commerce professionals.Our data-centric forecasts and rigorous analysis empowers strategic decisions for revenue-driving teams.Through context from our expert analysts,carefully vetted data sources,and our proprietary research methodology,EMARKETERs forecasts,reports,and benchmarks enable companies to anticipate tomorrows market trends for confidence today.EMARKETER is a division of Axel Springer S.E.LEARN MORE
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Beyond subsidising training costsPolicies to increase training provision in micro,small and medium-sized enterprisesResearch paperEN1831-5860Beyond subsidising training costs Policies to increase training provision in micro,small and medium-sized enterprisesLuxembourg:Publications Office of the European Union,2024 Please cite this publication as:Cedefop.(2024).Beyond subsidising training costs.Policies to increase training provision in micro,small and medium-sized enterprises.Publications Office of the European Union.Cedefop research paper.http:/data.europa.eu/doi/10.2801/027705 A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the internet.It can be accessed through the Europa server(http:/europa.eu).Luxembourg:Publications Office of the European Union,2024 Cedefop,2024.Except otherwise noted,the reuse of this document is authorised under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International(CC BY 4.0)licence(https:/creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).This means that reuse is allowed provided appropriate credit is given and any changes made are indicated.PDF ISBN 978-92-896-3779-4 ISSN 1831-5860 doi:10.2801/027705 TI-BC-24-002-EN-N The European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training(Cedefop)is the European Unions reference centre for vocational education and training,skills and qualifications.We provide information,research,analyses and evidence on vocational education and training,skills and qualifications for policy-making in the EU Member States.Cedefop was originally established in 1975 by Council Regulation(EEC)No 337/75.This decision was repealed in 2019 by Regulation(EU)2019/128 establishing Cedefop as a Union Agency with a renewed mandate.Europe 123,Thessaloniki(Pylea),GREECE Postal:Cedefop service post,570 01 Thermi,GREECE Tel. 30 2310490111,Fax 30 2310490020 Email:infocedefop.europa.eu www.cedefop.europa.eu Jrgen Siebel,Executive Director Mario Patuzzi,Chair of the Management Board 1 Foreword Skills and lifelong learning are the key to ensuring successful digital and green transitions,strengthening competitiveness and resilience to external shocks.They also and guarantee social fairness.Skills empower individuals to participate fully in the labour market and in society.They are essential for achieving long-term and sustainable growth,productivity and the competitiveness of businesses.Companies play a vital role in investing in skills as they sponsor the vast majority of CVET.However,the evidence suggests that micro,small and medium-sized enterprises(MSMEs),provide,on average,less job-related non-formal training to their employees than their larger counterparts.Since MSMEs are the backbone of EU economic and employment growth,the lower training provision in MSMEs requires attention from policymakers.This report contributes to a better understanding of the policies which can effectively support MSME to increase their training provision.On the one hand,it is necessary to help MSMEs to identify and meet their given training needs as shaped by their current way of doing business and organising work.On the other hand,MSMEs should be encouraged to expand their skills-in-use notably by promoting innovation at their workplaces.The increased skills-in-use will likely lead to higher and more effective training in the long run.Further,MSME may be incentivised to cooperate with public institutions in educational outreach activities targeting MSME employees(or other groups entering the company for educational purposes)so increasing MSME training provision.Addressing the MSME training gap requires a holistic approach and seeking synergies and complementarities between different policy domains,including lifelong learning and skills,business development and innovation,and employment policies.There is a need for an integrated or coordinated set of instruments and mechanisms financial and structural that will effectively help MSMEs to move from a situation where training is limited,to an approach where the potential of training as a source of company success is fully explored.We hope that by demonstrating how important it is to apply a holistic view on policies supporting training in MSMEs,and by providing examples of policies applied throughout the EU,this publication will serve as inspiration for policy-makers,social partners and other relevant stakeholders on how to assist MSMEs in developing training culture.Jrgen Siebel Antonio Ranieri Executive Director Head of Department for skills and qualifications 2 Acknowledgements This publication was produced by Cedefop,Department for VET and skills,under the supervision of Antonio Ranieri,Head of Department.Patrycja Lipinska,Cedefop expert,was responsible for the publication and coordinated/managed the study.Ernesto Villalba-Garcia,Cedefop expert,provided valuable support and peer-reviewed the report.Cedefop would like to thank its contracted institutions:3s Unternehmensberatung GmbH,Austria(consortium leader)and Visionary Analytics,Lithuania for their research work under the project.Cedefop would like to acknowledge the contribution of Gnter Hefler(3s)who acted as research team leader at the consortium.Cedefop is grateful to all national experts who actively participated in the project and shared their expertise,experience and opinions(see Annex II).Thanks also go to the Advisory Board members(see Annex II)for their valuable feedback and support.The work was carried out under the service contract 2019-0162/AO/DLE/PMDFON-PLI/Support&Incentives/002/10-Lot 2.3 Contents Foreword.1 Acknowledgements.2 Executive summary.7 Chapter 1.Introduction to the study.19 1.1.Context and rationale.19 1.2.Objectives,scope and structure.20 1.3.Methodology.21 1.4.Limitations.22 Chapter 2.Conceptual and analytical framework.24 2.1.MSME training gap.24 2.2.Reasons for the MSME training gap.25 2.3.Policies to increase MSME training provision.31 2.4.How to study the effectiveness of policies to increase MSME training provision:the concept of support arrangement.37 Chapter 3.Targeted support for training in MSMEs.43 3.1.Financing instruments.43 3.2.Structural instruments.55 Chapter 4.Mediated support for training in MSMEs.72 4.1.Financing instruments.73 4.2.Structural instruments.74 Chapter 5.Cooperating in educational outreach activities with MSMEs.86 5.1.Promoting the participation of MSMEs employees in external CVET opportunities offered to individuals.86 5.2.Providing work experience or on-site training spells to non-employees.88 5.3.Providing training(on-site or external)to the employees of one organisation.91 Chapter 6.Using the support arrangement concept to explore the effectiveness of policies in increasing MSME training provision.95 6.1.Selected support arrangement examples for MSME training.95 6.2.Observations on all analysed support arrangements(15 case studies).107 6.3.Key lessons.118 Chapter 7.Conclusions and suggestions for policy-making and further research.120 7.1.Conclusions.120 7.2.Policy suggestions.125 7.3.Further research.130 Contents Acronyms.133 References.134 Annex I.Supporting overviews.140 Annex II.Research team.145 5 Tables,figures,boxes Tables 1.Barriers to training in enterprises,especially MSMEs.26 2.Key policy instruments for providing targeted support for training and related key barriers addressed.31 3.Key policy instruments within the mediated support for training and related key barriers addressed .33 4.Training funds with a systemic role:overview of collection mechanisms47 5.Examples of counselling/consulting services on HRD and training in MSMEs.58 6.Summary of ratings for three dimensions of the support arrangement.107 7.Case studies overview(including topics selected for the in-depth analysis).107 8.Summary of support arrangement features across the 15 case studies .117 9.Evaluation studies on financial incentives identified during the project.140 10.Evaluation studies(public)on structural instruments identified during the project.142 Figures 1.MSME training gap:CVTS indicators by size.25 2.Taxonomy of policy instruments to increase MSME training provision.36 3.Graphic representation of the support arrangement as a part of the skill ecosystem or skill formation system.40 4.Training funds across the EU-27 and the UK.46 5.Grants for companies across the EU-27 and the UK.52 6.Payback clauses across the EU-27 and the UK.55 7.Interplay of financial and structural instruments within the support arrangement for the machine-tool sector in the Basque Country (skill ecosystem level).97 8.Interplay of financial and structural instruments within the support arrangement in the Warmia-Mazury region in Poland(skill ecosystem level)102 9.Interplay of financial and structural instruments within the support arrangement at national(skill formation system)level in Ireland.105 Boxes 1 Nationally collected resources for sectoral and regional skill ecosystems:the French training fund after its 2018 reform.50 Tables,figures,boxes 2.AT_01 Counselling for SMEs Impulsberatung.57 3 FR_01 Work-situation-based training actions,Action de formation en situation de travail,AFEST.60 4.IE_01 The Skills to advance programme(2019 ).61 5.NL_05 SME idea,MKB!dee.62 6.FR_06 Innovation awards,InnovTrophes.64 7.BG_02 MyCompetence.64 8.SI_02 Competence centres for human resources development,Kompetenni centri za razvoj kadrov(KOC).66 9.FI_03 Joint purchase training,Yhteishankintakoulutus.67 10.UK_11 Learnwithunite.70 11.LT_02 EU-funded business innovation promotion measure Experiment,ES finansuojama verslo inovacij skatinimo priemon Eksperimentas.73 12.SI_04 Slovenian Enterprise Fund,Slovenski podjetniki sklad.74 13.SE_02 The robot boost,Robotlyftet.75 14.LU_04,Fit 4 Digital.76 15 ES_03 Technology workshops,Barnetegi Teknologiko.77 16.HR_05 Zicer(Zagreb Innovation Centre)Start-up Factory,Zagrebacki inovacijski centar.78 17.DK_03 Digital catalyst,Digital katalysator.79 18.AT_02 Support for digitalisation,aws Digitalisierung.79 19.HU_07 Model factory programme,Ipar 4.0.Mintagyr Program.81 20.DE_02 Competence centres digitalisation for SMEs,Mittelstand-Digital.81 21.PL_05 Business mentoring in the Opolskie Voivodeship,Mentoring biznesowy w Wojewdztwie Opolskim.82 22.RO_07 Digital competences for SME employees,Competene digitale pentru angajai.84 23.ES_08 Support for innovative business groups(clusters)in the Autonomous Community of Galicia,Axudas s agrupacins empresariais(clster)innovadoras na Comunidade Autnoma de Galicia.84 24.Community Centres for Lifelong Learning,Centre comunitare de nvare permanent.87 25.CY_05 Scheme Promoting e-Government and Digital Skills Systems,.87 26.Denmark Bonus-Malus system for workplace training,Praktikplads-AUB.89 27.EE_02 Work-place based learning,Tkohaphise ppe 89 28.BE_01 Job coaching of new employees,Jobcoaching op de werkvloer.90 29.FR_08 FIT Integrated training at work,Formation intgre au travail(FIT)196 FR.91 30.UK(In-depth case study),the Union Learning Fund and the Union Learning Representatives.92 7 Executive summary Rationale and objectives of the study Micro-,small-and medium-sized enterprises(MSMEs)(1)provide less employer-sponsored training to their employees than large organisations.A higher proportion of MSMEs(as compared to large enterprises)provides no training at all and MSMEs include fewer employees in training,spend less on training and provide fewer training hours per capita than larger organisations.Given that the MSMEs represent more than a half of the EU economy,identifying effective levers for increasing training provision in MSMEs and narrowing the MSME training gap is a priority for EU policy-making.The aim of the study is to contribute to better understanding of those policies which can effectively induce change in MSME behaviour and work towards a new approach for reviewing these policies.First,the study investigates the causes of the MSME training gap.Second,it develops a novel taxonomy of policy strategies and instruments supporting MSMEs in increasing their training provision,which allows framing the exploration of the relevant policies.Third,the study analyses a broad range of policy instruments implemented across the EU-27 and the UK aiming at mitigating the MSME training gap,with roots in different fields of policy-making including lifelong learning and skills,business development and innovation,and active labour market and employment.Fourth,the study provides insights into the effectiveness of the policy strategies and instruments supporting MSME increase in training provision.Particular attention is paid to how different policy instruments interact or are combined,as their effectiveness likely depends on their complementarity.The report proposes the novel concept of support arrangement which refers to all forms of support available to MSMEs located in a given sector or region;it empirically explores the support arrangements in selected skill ecosystems and skill formation systems.Fifth,the study provides suggestions for policy-making and further research.The study builds on the following strands of empirical work.(a)Collection data for Cedefops database on Financing adult learning(with 1 February 2020 as the cut-off date).Key insights into financing instruments/cost-sharing schemes to support training provision in enterprises,and in particular MSMEs(training funds,tax incentives for enterprises,grants for enterprises and payback clauses)are presented in this report.(b)Collecting examples of a broad range of structural instruments(i.e.going beyond targeted financial support)providing support for training in (1)MSMEs are understood as firms with up to 249 employees,in line with EU documents.Executive summary enterprises,particularly MSMEs.Around 190 case vignettes were produced which are an integral part of this study.(c)Conducting 15 case studies to provide further insights into the effectiveness of policy instruments in supporting training provision by MSMEs.These are an integral part of this study.MSME training gap and its causes MSMEs face several barriers preventing them from providing(higher levels)of training.These may include low cost-effectiveness(2),liquidity constraints,high risks(3),lack of know-how or managerial capacities,or lack of time to implement training.MSME personnel may have low interest in CVET,lack awareness of CVET benefits and of existing training opportunities.Training tailored to MSME needs may not be on offer in the market.Also,weak cooperation among MSMEs and between large companies,MSMEs and training providers,as well as insufficiently developed collective agreements on training-related issues,may hamper MSME training provision.These barriers prevent MSMEs from meeting their given demand for training that corresponds to their current way of doing business and organising work,hence their current level of skill use.The MSME training gap can also be explained by the seemingly limited on average skills in use in MSME workplaces.While acknowledging that some smaller organisations can even be technological leaders,in aggregate,MSMEs use a smaller range of technologies,are less likely to cater to international markets,and apply less complex organisational processes.They are likely to utilise,on average,a smaller range and quantity of skills,which results in limited opportunities to make good use of CVET.MSME skills in use could be expanded through innovation and organisational learning but they are likely to face the potential barriers to innovation.These are similar to the barriers to training(mentioned above)and may include lack of funding or managerial capacity to implement innovation,or lack of know-how.MSME personnel may not be aware of the importance of(specific types of)innovation and may lack proper skills and attitudes to pursue it(weak absorptive capacity).Weak cooperation between MSMEs,large companies and R&D organisations may also hinder innovation.(2)The costs may be too high in relation to the expected training outcomes/returns on investment.This may be due to low economies of scale.(3)MSMEs face higher risks of losing out on their training investment.This includes the situations where skills acquired by employees remain underused or trained employees leave the company due to labour market competition(talent poaching).Beyond subsidising training costs 9 Policies to increase MSME training provision Cedefop has identified three main policy strategies for improving training provision in MSMEs.Policy instruments can provide targeted support,helping MSMEs to identify and meet their training needs as shaped by their current business activities,work organisation and skill use.Instruments of targeted support are used to overcome/reduce specific barriers to the training(see above).They are offered within a broad range of policy fields including lifelong learning and skill,active labour market and employment,and to a lesser extent business development and innovation.Alternatively,instruments can offer mediated support for training that seek to unleash innovation in MSMEs expand their business activities or change their work organisation and therefore increase skill use at their workplaces.In this perspective,policies aimed at achieving goals other than training,such as technological upgrading and entering new markets,may support training as a means to achieve these goals in a mediated way.With increased range and/or quantities of skill use at the workplaces(as a result of innovation),the options for making good use of training are expected to expand in the long run.Instruments providing mediated support are mainly grounded within the policy fields of business development,innovation,and regional development.So far,the lifelong learning policy field has not paid due attention to them.Instruments can also seek to win over MSMEs to cooperate in educational outreach.This reflects the fact that MSME employees are not only less likely to receive training provided(i.e.organised or paid)by their employer but also demonstrate a lower propensity to engage independently in CVET activities,even if supply-side funded learning opportunities at low or no cost are available.Through the cooperation of public entities(providing funding for CVET)with MSMEs to reach out to their employees,both the individual employees and the MSMEs can make substantial gains.These instruments have roots in the lifelong learning policy field and within active labour market and employment policies.Cedefop has also classified policy instruments considering different ways of supporting MSMEs,i.e.different levers used to induce change.Financing instruments are a group of vital importance.They may provide public(co)funding(e.g.tax incentives or grants from general taxation)or induce forms of cost-sharing among employers(training funds,i.e.levy-grant schemes)or between employers and employees(payback clauses).Offering financial contributions frequently serves as a level for all three strategies:targeted support,mediated support and cooperation in educational outreach.Beyond financial contributions to the training costs(or to the costs of other organisational activities(e.g.innovation)aiming at indirectly increasing the provision of CVET),various other types of instruments aiming at overcoming Executive summary specific barriers hampering MSME training provision can be subsumed under the heading structural instruments.They include:(a)offering organisational counselling/consultancy services to MSMEs;(b)expanding the range of CVET provision(offered by public and non-public providers)tailored to the needs of MSMEs;(c)promoting knowledge creation e.g.pilot projects delivering novel solutions for MSMEs and supporting transfer of outcomes among MSMEs;(d)supporting awareness-raising activities to promote the benefits of continuing learning(or of other organisational activities(e.g.innovation)aiming at indirectly increasing the provision of CVET);(e)supporting networking among MSMEs and MSME cooperation with other relevant actors(large enterprises,training providers,R&D institutes);(f)supporting interest aggregation between employers/MSMEs and facilitating collective bargaining on training in relevant issues(or on other organisational activities(e.g.innovation)aiming at indirectly increasing the provision of training).(g)The review of existing policies clearly indicated that a particular policy intervention can combine different strategies(targeted,mediated,cooperation in educational outreach)and a policy package can provide both financial and one or more forms of structural instruments.The taxonomy is therefore used mainly to analyse the ways policies combine instruments,identifying each interventions signature,instead of placing policies into distinct silos.Targeted support:financing instruments Providing financial contributions to enterprises training expenses,is a long-established form of targeted support to overcome the cost barrier.Practically all financing instruments targeting enterprises covered in the study are accessible for MSMEs;about 40%of instruments give them preferential treatment.Where financing instruments must comply with de minimis regulation(4)(more than 70%of all instruments analysed),MSME are typically less affected by the set threshold for support set at EUR 200 000 within 3 years for any public subsidy.However,as concluded from the scarce relevant data,MSMEs are often underrepresented among the beneficiaries of financial support schemes.In several Member States(such as Belgium(Flanders),Denmark,Greece,Spain,France,Italy,Ireland,Cyprus and the Netherlands)and the UK,training funds have a systemic role in supporting training,particularly employer-sponsored CVT;in other Member States they only have a complementary/specialised role,being established only in some sectors(e.g.Germany,Luxembourg,Austria)or on voluntary basis(Slovenia).Training funds are heterogenous and typically complex (4)Aid granted to a single undertaking over a given period that does not exceed a certain fixed amount and is not subject to the notification procedure.Commission Regulation(EU)No 1407/2013.Beyond subsidising training costs 11 structures which use the levies collected from enterprises to provide financial support to training enterprises and supply-side funding of CVET(5).They put in place various structural instruments and services(e.g.consulting/counselling services for employers,support for interest aggregation,research on skills needs,development of novel/tailored forms of training),often adapted to sectoral/regional needs,and provide incentives targeting individuals(employees,the unemployed).Grants or vouchers supporting training in companies/MSMEs are established in nearly all EU Member States and the UK(6).They play an important role in promoting employer-provided training in Europe.In many countries,grants for companies support direct costs(typically covering a proportion of the costs)and wage costs.EU funds play an important role in co-financing grants for companies(7).Only a few Member States(e.g.Bulgaria,France,Croatia,Romania,Slovenia and Finland)have tax incentives for training activities of companies,going beyond the ubiquitous treatment of training costs as operational costs.However,they typically have specific objectives(e.g.allowing tax deductions for scholarships)and do not have systemic importance.Payback clauses can be used for mitigating the risks and costs of talent poaching.Regulations on payback clauses vary extensively across Europe in terms of limits set;for example,the maximum application period ranges from 2 to 5 years.More than a half of the EU countries have defined general legal limits for the application.The study collected little evidence regarding the frequency of the use of payback clauses in enterprises and MSMEs.Targeted support:structural instruments The study sorted the observed instruments(going beyond financial support)according to their application of key mechanisms.However,many instruments apply more than one mechanism.(a)Consulting/organisational counselling services are widely used to mitigate MSMEs barrier of lack of know-how and(management)lack of capacity/time to take proper care of CVET.Organisational counselling/consultancy may concern any step of the training cycle(identification of needs,planning/designing training activities,selecting appropriate providers/delivering training,assessment/evaluation of learning outcomes,transfer of learning(Becker,2005).Counselling offers can also promote the use of other instruments,including co-funding;(5)Financial support is provided to dedicated training organisations(public training providers,institutions run by employer organisations or/and trade unions).(5)No grant schemes were reported for Greece(though grants are provided through the national training fund)and Sweden.(7)Around 40%of the grants reported were EU co-funded.Executive summary Counselling for SMEs,Impulsberatung,provided by PES in Austria represents such example.(b)To address a shortage of suitable training offers in the market,development of new forms of(typically supply-side funded)training opportunities more tailored to MSMEs may be supported through public funding.Training providers and enterprises/MSMEs are often joint creators of the new forms of training.Beyond support for non-formal courses,the new offers include the workplace training often preferred by MSMEs and their employees.The novel work-based training actions in France(Action de formation en situation de travail AFEST)are a good example of this group of instruments.(c)Another way to overcome a shortage of solutions addressing the needs of MSMEs is promoting collaborative pilot projects,aiming at creating new knowledge,expertise,and skills as relevant for the MSMEs and the transfer and diffusion of the outcomes of these projects among them.Beyond providing the funding for the projects,public intervention can aim at creating a supportive infrastructure for these activities(e.g.by the implementation of dedicated R&D centres in collaboration with local HE and VET providers).The SME idea(MKB!dee)in the Netherlands is an example of a framework promoting experimentation with new forms of training projects in the MSME sector.(d)Some instruments aim at increasing awareness of the importance/benefits of CVET among MSME management and employees.This includes providing(public)awards to enterprises/MSMEs for their excellence/good practices in the field of HRD and training,and developing the web platforms bringing together all relevant information and tools on HRD and training-related matters relevant for(MSMEs)business owners and managers.Such web platforms may allow access to public funding or consultancy/organisational counselling services;they have developed into key components for promoting training in MSMEs in Poland(Entity financing system)and Bulgaria(My competence project).(e)A further approach to supporting MSMEs concerns promoting company networks that could include MSMEs and also large organisations.Coordinating/pooling the training demands of participating enterprises and by mutual learning within the networks can help MSMEs overcome some liabilities of smallness,such as a lack of economies of scale when commissioning tailored training services.MSME networks can strengthen their buying power,and therefore market position,vis-vis the training providers,which are more likely to provide the tailored services where the training projects are substantial compared to the demand of a single MSME.An alternative approach for overcoming the liabilities of smallness is illustrated by the Joint purchase training(Yhteishankintakoulutus)Beyond subsidising training costs 13 initiative in Finland,where the local PES cooperate with group of enterprises/MSMEs to design and buy training tailored to their needs.(f)Instruments can help MSMEs aggregate their interests:identify common needs related to CVET(going beyond individual organisation needs)and agree on promising approaches.Collective bargaining at national/sectoral/regional level regarding training related issues(e.g.mutual rights and obligations,such as paid training leave and the ways training is rewarded)might be incentivised.Many instruments indirectly support interest aggregation and social dialogue(e.g.with business interest organisations responsible for implementing instruments,with business and labour interests represented in the governance).However,instruments explicitly supporting related matters seem to be more exceptional.An example is the UK Union Learning Representatives framework and its underpinning Union Learning Fund.Mediated support:financing and structural instruments For mediated support,the study looked at the cases where policy packages supporting innovation in MSMEs included embedded support for training.The selected instruments can be summarised as follows.(a)Providing co-funding for innovation(including related CVET)in MSMEs is used in isolation or in combination with other structural instruments.The study paid particular attention to examples of financial support for innovation which also explicitly offer financial contributions to any training related costs incurred as part of innovation activity.The Lithuanian Eksperimentas initiative,for example,provides financial support(partly EU-funded)to encourage R&D projects in companies while giving preferential treatment to small organisations(higher proportion of eligible costs can be reimbursed).The funding may be spent on R&D related training costs.(b)Providing organisational counselling/consultancy services(to overcome gaps in know-how or a lack of managerial resources to implement innovation activities)is one of the most often observed approaches within mediated support,either as the stand-alone instrument or as part of broader packages of instruments.The Swedish Robot boost programme(Robotlyftet),for example,offers funding to SMEs for counselling/consulting services related to automation projects/processes and relevant training activities.Mutual learning activities and workshops are offered free of charge.(c)Another form of support for innovation in MSMEs is to ensure adequate CVET provision to develop skills required for the specific innovation activity and/or for strengthening the absorptive capacity of MSME in general.This form of support may only focus on MSME managers and key forces or also serve larger parts of the MSME workforce.The technology workshops Executive summary provided in the Basque Regions(Barnetegi Teknologiko)may serve as an example.(d)MSMEs may receive support through public funding of the pilot projects aimed at developing novel ways to achieve innovation in MSMEs.The outcomes of these pilot projects can be diffused among a broad range of MSMEs.The Danish project Digital catalyst is an example.(e)Exchange/demonstration programmes can strengthen MSME manager and employee awareness of the benefits of innovation.The Hungarian model factory programme(Ipar 4.0 Mintagyr Progamme)aims to help MSMEs start digitalising and offers visits to model factories,business consultation,workshops,training programmes,the night of modern factories special event,and an entrepreneur portal.(f)Another form of structural support to innovation is promoting cooperation and networking among MSMEs and other relevant organisations.The Business mentoring programme in Poland(Mentoring biznesowy w Wojewdztwie Opolskim)is an example where networking plays a marked role.It seeks to popularise the idea of business mentoring and to transfer the knowledge and successful experiences of Opole entrepreneurs to the young managers of SMEs with high growth potential.(g)Improving coordination and interest aggregation among enterprises/MSMEs(particularly belonging to the same economic sector)can be a key lever in effectively supporting innovation.Organised business may be invited to participate or even lead the governance of frameworks aimed at supporting innovation.The Digital competences for SME employees framework in Romania demonstrates such an approach,where employer organisations,business associations,chambers of commerce and industry are invited to participate in ESF-funded calls/projects.Strengthening the cooperation between organised business and organised labour can also facilitate innovation activities,with agreed safeguards for employees whose employment opportunities are negatively affected by the innovation(e.g.retraining programmes)and agreed distributions of the economic returns of innovation activities implemented(e.g.by wage determination reflecting progress made in labour productivity).Cooperation in educational outreach Approaches inviting MSMEs to partake in educational outreach fall into three broad categories:(a)Gaining MSME support in motivating employees to participate in external CVET opportunities;these are typically supply-funded,i.e.provided free of charge or at low fees.MSME owners/managers can agree with their employees to make use of CVET opportunities that would also meet MSME/organisational needs.In a further step,outreach frameworks aim to Beyond subsidising training costs 15 win the support of MSMEs in encouraging their staff to take advantage of available external training offers,even if the learning outcomes are not of immediate use for the organisation/MSME.(b)Encouraging MSMEs to offer workplace learning(work placements,traineeships,internships,apprenticeships,including for adults).Promoting workplace learning(Tkohaphise ppe),from the Innove Foundation in Estonia,is an example of such an approach.Many schemes within the active labour market policy offer support to employers where they provide places to individuals who potentially could be employed.Alongside wage subsidies,schemes often foresee contributions to training costs for the newly hired.In Belgium(Flanders),external coaches are provided to support job integration,on-the-job training of newly hired employees.(c)Incentivising MSMEs to organise on-site CVET activities(delivered by third parties)exclusively for their employees,even if the training provided is understood mainly as within the interest of the individuals targeted.Integrated training at work action(Formation intgre au travail),in the construction sector in France,demonstrates such approach.Policy effectiveness in increasing MSME training provision Little evidence is available about the effectiveness of public policy instruments in changing the training behaviour of companies,including MSMEs.This applies to different financing instruments and,even more,to structural instruments.However,as has been demonstrated for individual participation in CVET(Rubenson and Desjardins,2009),cross-country differences in the availability and interplay of sets of policy instruments may explain some observed differences in the training behaviour of organisations,including MSMEs.Concept of support arrangement in skill ecosystem and skill formation system This study proposes the concept of support arrangement which refers to the set of policies aiming at supporting CVET in enterprises,especially MSMEs,as accessible for a particular enterprise belonging to an economic sector and located in a particular geographic area.The relevant forms of support include financing and structural instruments supporting CVET in enterprises,following a targeted or a mediated strategy.Also considered are instruments seeking enterprise support for educational outreach and the instruments supporting CVET where enterprises(particularly MSMEs)are only indirect beneficiaries:these include supply-side funded provision of CVET opportunities and demand-side co-funding schemes targeting individual(MSME)employees.Support arrangements may include Executive summary instruments offered at national level(as part of a skill formation system)and instruments specific to a particular economic sector and/or a particular region(as an element of a skill ecosystem).Support arrangements have various characteristics:density,i.e.the number of support instruments and their distribution across types of policies and policy levels(national,sectoral regional);complementarity,i.e.the coexistence of various support instruments which together addresses all barriers to training,including innovation/organisational learning,in MSMES;targeted elaboration.i.e.the degree of adaptation of the support arrangements to the needs of a skill ecosystem(national-level support instruments adopted to the particular needs of a sector or region;existence of instruments developed in a particular sector or region).Support arrangements are expected to provide a more effective boost for MSME training activities when their density is high(not low or medium),their complementarity is strong(not weak or moderate)and their targeted elaboration is advanced(not rudimentary or fairly developed).Examples of support arrangements in skill ecosystem and skill formations systems Three examples of support arrangements are presented in more detail in this report.As demonstrated for the skill ecosystem and its relevant support arrangement of the machine-tool sector in the Basque region,a regional skill formation system can provide much more support(for MSME training)than the national skill formation system.As shown for one disadvantaged region in Poland,support arrangements(for MSME training)can be developed considerably despite unfavourable overall conditions.Ireland illustrates how national training fund resources(based on a company levy)can be used for different purposes/activities,including support for MSME training.Based on the(non-comprehensive)evidence collected within the project,and especially the 15 case studies,support arrangements at skill formation system level have been rated as high across all three categories(density,complementarity,targeted elaboration)in Denmark,Ireland,France and Malta,with the arrangement for Finland rated as almost as good as the former.At skill ecosystem level,the examples for the Basque machinery sector and for the construction sector in Hessen have been rated high across all three categories.Examples of support arrangements with a strong rating in one or two dimensions,and weaker ratings for the remaining dimensions,include the examples of Italy(skill formation system level)and Austria and Poland(skill eco-system level).Examples of support arrangements with mainly weak ratings include Bulgaria,Lithuania Hungary and the UK(all observed at skill formation system level).The support arrangement in place within the Romanian skill formation system is considered the weakest and received the lowest ratings.Details are available in the corresponding case studies.Beyond subsidising training costs 17 Lessons learned include that support arrangements depend on the complementarity of instruments,but the availability of at least some larger,substantially funded policy instruments remains crucial.It seems desirable that one organisation(or a smaller number of organisations)assumes a coordinating role within the support arrangement,especially at a skill ecosystem(i.e.sectoral or regional)level.Working towards better coordinating/integrating policies rooted in the adult learning and/or employment policy field with those rooted in the business development field is expected to be particularly promising.Representatives of business and labour are often well-positioned and should be encouraged to contribute to further integration of the policies making up the support arrangement.Policy suggestions Helping MSMEs to improve their training provision requires a well-coordinated or,better,an integrated set of policies and instruments,offering targeted and mediated support,as well as inviting MSMEs to cooperate in educational outreach.This calls for broad stakeholder cooperation including policy-makers and social partners and holistic policy approaches linking different policy domains:lifelong learning,employment,business development and innovation.Much can be gained from better coordination/integration of the support services relevant for MSMEs provided by the organisations established in various policy fields:those aiming at developing organisations on the one hand and those oriented more towards supporting individuals/MSMEs employees.There is a particular need to combine financing and structural instruments to tackle different root causes of MSME low training provision.Suggestions regarding targeted support include to:(a)strengthen and systematise the instruments providing targeted financial support.Pay particular attention to the ways in which the instruments currently understood as financing instruments combine financial and structural support(e.g.training funds);(b)offer(further)instruments going beyond financial support,referred to as structural support;(c)aim at comprehensive mix of instruments within the overall support arrangements which,in combination,address all barriers to training in MSMEs;(d)make good use of existing intermediary organisations providing services to MSMEs for implementing new instruments;(e)pay particular attention to the instruments aiming at ensuring that CVET provision is tailored to the needs of MSMEs and their employees;(f)develop approaches for supporting workplace-based forms of CVET.Suggestions regarding mediated support include to:Executive summary (a)mainstream policies increasing the use of skills(notably,supporting innovation and organisational development)as a fundamental component of strategies to foster training in enterprises/MSMEs;(b)strengthen frameworks supporting the creation of learning-conducive workplaces.Reinforce the interaction between policies working towards an increase in decent jobs and policies aiming at the improvement of skill use,(informal)workplace learning and CVET;(c)offer more policy packages combining support for innovation and training.Suggestions regarding the strategy of cooperating in educational outreach include to:(a)promote and fund educational outreach projects targeting MSMEs;(b)provide incentives for CVET providers to include MSMEs in educational outreach projects.Further research This study broke new ground by bringing together different approaches to mitigate the MSME training gap.Nevertheless,the proposed conceptional and analytical framework is open for further refinement,e.g.integration of other barriers to training and innovation areas of organisational development,as well as interventions designed specifically to meet the related challenges.Beyond such refinement of the framework,further research needs include:(a)developing and applying more fine-grained,systematic mapping of instruments within a single support arrangement;(b)systematically collecting data on how MSMEs effectively use combinations of instruments;(c)designing an evaluation strategy for measuring the effectiveness of support arrangements in improving MSME training performance;(d)developing a realistic benchmark approach to MSME training performance;(e)further exploring the variated role of different industrial relation systems for training in MSMEs.19 CHAPTER 1.Introduction to the study 1.1.Context and rationale Safeguarding access to lifelong learning opportunities for everyone has been a top priority of European Union policy-making for the past two decades,with support for lifelong learning restated in the European Pillar of Social Rights and the 2020 European Skill Agenda(European Commission,2020).The EU set the target that by 2030,60%of the adult population should participate in adult learning each year(Porto Social Summit,implementation of the European Pillar of Social Rights).In a similar vein,promoting the expansion of European companies investments in skills,and continuing vocational education and training(CVET)in particular,forms the backbone of the European Unions economic policy,underpinned by an employment policy giving priority to upskilling the European workforce.It is acknowledged that skills and lifelong learning are crucial for long-term and sustainable growth,productivity and innovation and therefore a key factor for the competitiveness of businesses of all sizes,in particular small and medium-sized enterprises(SMEs).(2020 European Skill Agenda).The European Year of Skills aimed at promoting increased,more effective and inclusive investment at all levels,inter alia,by public and private employers,in particular by SMEs,into all forms of reskilling and upskilling,education and training.It is undisputed that employers play a vital role in making lifelong learning a reality.They sponsor a vast majority of CVET:nine in 10 participants in job-related education and training received support from their employers,who either contributed to the costs of participation or have devoted employed working time to the training activity itself(Cedefop,2015).Therefore,employers turn into key partners in any coherent strategy to safeguard individual access to lifelong learning.However,they are targeted by policy-making not only for their role as providers of learning opportunities to their employees but equally as beneficiaries.The economic performance of an enterprise relies heavily on the development and use of a broad set of skills,with CVET as a key source of skills acquisition.Policies targeting enterprises and aiming at increasing their training provision seek also to improve their economic performance and long-term survival.It is still argued among scholars and policy-makers whether employers invest sufficiently in CVET(CIPD,2019;Sloof et al.,2007).The large differences between individual enterprises training investments,within and across economic sectors or countries support the view that many enterprises might not be fully tapping into what CVET can offer them.It is evident,however,that MSMEs provide considerably less employer-sponsored training than their larger counterparts(Section 2.1).Given the MSMEs Chapter 1.Introduction to the study role as a motor of employment and economic growth,accounting for 99.8%of all non-financial enterprises in the EU-27(NFBS),53%of the total value-added produced,and 65%of employment(2022),their lower training provision must attract the attention of policy-makers.It poses a twofold challenge.First,due to their lower training provision,MSMEs are likely to suffer from a competitive disadvantage compared to larger enterprises and are hampered in their overall growth and performance.Second,MSME employees are disadvantaged in access to lifelong learning due to the organisational behaviour of their employers.The challenge might also be exacerbated as occupations associated with lower skill intensity are overrepresented among MSMEs(8),so they face a greater challenge accessing high-skilled workers(OECD,2021).Identifying effective levers for increasing and better targeting training provision for MSMEs is a priority for EU policy-making,as reflected,for example,in the 2020 European Skill Agenda or SME strategy for sustainable and digital Europe.1.2.Objectives,scope and structure The overarching objective of this study is to contribute to better understanding of the policies which can effectively induce change in MSME behaviour and narrow the MSME training gap,and to work towards a new approach for reviewing these policies.The study:(a)looks into the causes of the MSME training gap.In doing so,it takes companies skill utilisation as a starting point to explain the differences in their training provision.It also points to various barriers to training that may be more prevalent in MSMEs than in large enterprises and that need to be addressed by adequate policies(Chapter 2,Sections 2.1 and 2.2);(b)develops a novel taxonomy of policy strategies and instruments targeting MSMEs/enterprises intending to increase their training provision(Chapter 2,Sections 2.3 and 2.4),which allows framing of the exploration of the policies concerned.While various relevant policies and instruments had been developed across the EU-27,there has been a lack of both a holistic conceptional framework and comprehensive mapping.The study helps to mitigate this gap;(c)analyses a broad range of relevant policy instruments implemented across the EU-27 and the UK,while mapping them against the developed taxonomy.The study looks at instruments having roots in different fields of policy-making including lifelong learning and skills,business development and innovation,and active labour market and employment(Chapters 3,4 and 5 in this report and supporting document Case vignettes);(8)Own calculations based on Eurostat data,Structure of Earnings Survey,2018.Beyond subsidising training costs 21(d)provides insights into the effectiveness of the policy strategies and instruments supporting MSMEs to increase their training provision.To this end,the study pays particular attention to how different policy instruments interact or are combined,as the effectiveness of those often depends on their complementarity.The report proposes the novel concept of support arrangement which refers to all forms of support available to MSMEs located in the given sector or region.This includes policy strategies and instruments covered in the developed taxonomy,as well as those not targeting enterprises directly(Chapter 2,Section 2.4.2).The study empirically explores the support arrangements in selected skill ecosystems and skill formation systems(see Chapter 6 and supporting document Case studies);(e)provides policy suggestions and proposes how to take forward the work of this study(Chapter 7).1.3.Methodology The report builds on two strands of empirical work.The first concerns updating the Cedefop Database on financing adult learning,with 1 February 2020 as the cut-off date for the new data collection.Information on the most significant examples of eight types of financing instruments/cost-sharing arrangements supporting CVET/adult learning(9)(training funds,tax incentives for companies and individuals,grants for companies and individuals,loans,training leave and payback clauses)was collected(via desk research and expert interviews)for the EU-27 and the UK(10).For instruments used with variations across many regions or sectors in one country,only selected examples were included in the database.In this report,the key insights on financing instruments/cost-sharing arrangements targeting enterprises,specifically MSMEs,are presented in Chapter 3,Section 3.1).The second strand of empirical field work aimed at establishing a collection of a broad range of policy approaches,supporting training in MSMEs,implemented across the EU-27 and the UK,going beyond the targeted financial support for (9)In the 2020 database edition,demand-side funding instruments providing 100%coverage of the incurred costs are also included,except for support provided exclusively for the unemployed(these instruments were excluded from the scope of the 2015 edition of the database).Altogether,over 270 financing instruments/cost-sharing arrangements are covered in the 2020 edition of the database(including around 240 single instruments,some 10 groups of instruments and around 25 examples representing groups of instruments).(10)The information was collected in two phases of the field work between April and June 2020,and October to December 2020.In-depth quality assurance took place between February and May 2021.Further revisions were implemented before publishing the updated database on-line in November 2022.Chapter 1.Introduction to the study training.This meant covering so far uncharted territory as information on the variety of further(non-financial)incentives had not been systematically collected before within a cross-country comparative framework.Depending on the size of the country,between four(for small country)and 15(for large country)examples of policy instruments going beyond financial support for training were collected(via desk research and expert interviews),analysed and summarised in a case vignette(11).All case vignettes(approximately 190)included in the final analysis are provided in supporting document Case vignettes.These include around 30 vignettes on policy approaches which are considered as borderline cases(for example,covering only a narrowly defined group,e.g.targeting self-employed engineers or professionals in adult education,or promoting CVET in MSMEs only as a minor activity among many others).Based on the results of these two strands of empirical work,a taxonomy was developed of policy strategies and instruments targeting MSMEs/enterprises intending to increase their training provision.The framework distinguishes the three main strategies:targeted support,mediated support and cooperation in educational outreach.Two main types of policy instruments/levers identified are financing and structural instruments(Chapter 2,Section 2.3).The study proposes the concept of support arrangements to explore how different policy instruments interact or are combined(Chapter 2,Section 2.4);15 case studies were developed to analyse support arrangements in selected skill ecosystems and skill formation systems.For the case studies,additional desk research and additional expert interviews were conducted.1.4.Limitations The current study has been deliberately explorative in nature and has attempted to explore and to systematise policies supporting MSME training activities which are going beyond the provision of targeted financial support.Emphasis has been placed on establishing examples of instruments across all EU Member States and the UK,meaning that only a selection of instruments per country were considered.While the chosen approach was deemed appropriate for achieving an account of the various types of policies and instruments in place and for working towards a framework for systemising this variety,it has clear limitations,summarised below.(a)Some policy approaches might have remained uncharted based on the developed taxonomy.The main intention has been to demonstrate the need for going beyond accounts of instruments of targeted financial support.It is (11)Short descriptions of the instruments going beyond financial support for training were collected in the field phase 1(May July 2020),and then reviewed and selected for further elaboration in field phase 2(August November 2020).Beyond subsidising training costs 23 expected that future research will identify further policies supporting MSME training activities,though it should be possible to integrate the latter in the taxonomy developed and presented in this report.(b)Achieving comprehensive accounts of all forms of support available for MSMEs in one country or one skill ecosystem has not been an intention of this study.For providing full accounts,it would be necessary to focus on selected countries and/or skill ecosystems and develop a methodology for systematic mapping of all current policies(beyond training policies),before discerning the potential impact of mapped policies on MSME training activities.By this approach,most likely further policies not covered so far can be detected.(c)The study did not include qualitative or quantitative survey(s)among MSMEs,harvesting information about the sources of support accessible and used by the enterprises.Information on the potential joint use of policies was not collected in a systematic way,although anecdotal evidence was available in several interviews with experts responsible for one or more policy instruments.24 CHAPTER 2.Conceptual and analytical framework 2.1.MSME training gap Evidence indicates that MSMEs provide,on average,less job-related non-formal training to their employees than their larger counterparts;this may be referred to as the MSME training gap.All key data sources of the European system of statistics on lifelong learning the European labour force survey(LFS),the Adult education survey(AES)and the Continuing vocational training survey(CVTS)show lower training provision among smaller organisations.The training gap is evident irrespective of the indicator used to measure training in companies.A comparison of four indicators from CVTS(12)(incidence,participation,intensity,total monetary expenditure(13)clearly shows that at an aggregate level,fewer SMEs provide any training,they include fewer employees in training,spend less on training and provide fewer training hours per capita than their larger counterparts.For example,in 2015 in EU28,large enterprises devoted on average 7.4 hours to CVT courses per 1 000 hours worked,compared to 5.7 hours in medium-sized enterprises and 4.4 hours in small enterprises(for more indicators on the SME training gap,see Cedefop,2019).While CVTS data also shows that the gap has been shrinking over time(14),it still poses major challenges and attracts policy-maker attention.Given the paramount significance of employer-sponsored,job-related training(15),any reduction in the MSME training gap would boost overall participation rates in (12)CVTS provides the data for enterprises with 10 and more employees.Micro-enterprises(less than 10 employees)are not considered,thus the use of SMEs instead of MSMEs(13)Incidence:training enterprises providing any type of CVT in all enterprises(%),Participation:employees in all enterprises participating in CVT courses(%);Intensity:total number of hours of CVT courses in the total number of hours worked by all employees in all enterprises(per 1 000 hours worked);Total monetary expenditure(TME):total costs of CVT courses(direct costs plus contributions minus receipts)in total labour costs of all enterprises(%)(Cedefop,2010).(14)Between 2010-15,the training gap between large and small enterprises narrowed in relation to all four indicators,both in terms of absolute and relative performance gaps(Cedefop,2019).The preliminary analysis of the latest CVTS 2020 data set does not confirm an overall pattern of reduced differences between small and large organisations with regard to training;there are some countries where the data suggest that the training gap has further narrowed and some where the training gap seems to have greatly increased.However,the data are affected to an unknown extent by the impact of the first COVID year and manifold lockdowns during 2020.An in-depth analysis of the CVTS 2020 data is currently not available.(15)Job-related non-formal training makes up the lions share of all education and training activities(formal and non-formal adult learning)measured.Beyond subsidising training costs 25 lifelong learning.This would achieve two goals:raise productivity,and thereby the competitiveness of the MSMEs sector;and contribute to social equality in access to education and training,as the sector employs a larger proportion of groups of adults(such as low-qualified(16)who face below-average access rates to lifelong learning.Consequently,there has been a need for better understanding of the reasons for the MSME training gap and finding policy levers to narrow it.Figure 1.MSME training gap:CVTS indicators by size Source:Cedefop,based on CVTS 2015 data.2.2.Reasons for the MSME training gap 2.2.1.Barriers to training In the literature,a broad range of barriers to training in enterprises are discussed,and are more prevalent in MSMEs than in large enterprises(Cardon and Stevens,2004;Cardon and Valentin,2017)(Table 1 for summary).These barriers are considered to contribute to the observed differences in the aggregated indicators on training provision between MSMEs and large organisations(17).(16)As explained above,occupations associated with lower skill intensity are overrepresented among MSMEs(own calculation based on Eurostat data,European Earning Survey,2018).(17)However,in surveys such as the CVTS,representatives of small,medium and large organisations provide practically the same answers with regard to the perceived reasons for not providing training.Chapter 2.Conceptual and analytical framework Table 1.Barriers to training in enterprises,especially MSMEs Barrier Short description Effects on MSMEs Costs/ROI/Liquidity constraints Costs are too high regarding the expected outcomes(return on investment,ROI),the perceived risks(e.g.that acquired skills find no use)or the available liquidity/stock of capital.Training includes high costs of hiring additional staff to step in during training spells(as the given workforce is too small to cover for colleagues away for training).MSMEs have limited options to profit from economies of scale and therefore face higher unit costs for training;risks are less well distributed or more pronounced than in large organisations;liquidity constraints are more pronounced Risk of losing training investment due to poaching Danger of losing employees after training(poaching)MSME are at a disadvantage in the competition for skilled labour(due to average lower level of pay,restricted career options,etc.)and so face higher risk of losing employees after training Lack of know-how/experience,(managerial)capacity/time to implement training(in efficient and effective way).Low awareness of the potential benefits of training.A lack of knowledge about the potential use/benefits of training and how to implement training properly reduces the motivation for training investment and increases the proportion of failing training projects(18).Lack of capacity for organising training.MSMEs have less dedicated personnel responsible for training;management capacities are more likely to be overstretched;MSME owners/managers are often captured by other pressing tasks than training,considered more vital to enterprise survival.MSMEs accumulate less(positive)experience with regards to training which results in higher efforts required for implementing new training activities/long-term training plans.The overall low experience with training makes it also less likely that MSMEs develop an expansive training culture(19)(18)SME owner or manager lack of knowledge and positive experiences may lead to their unfavourable perception of what training can deliver,which is sometimes mentioned as a barrier in its own right.(Cardon and Valentin,2017).(19)By developing an expansive training culture MSMEs could profit(more)from exploiting all advantages CVET can deliver for the organisations.Instead,they are more likely to stay with a reactive training culture,providing training only to the extent that it is practically non-avoidable(e.g.for meeting legal health and safety regulations)(Hefler,2013;Hefler and Markowitsch,2008).Beyond subsidising training costs 27 Barrier Short description Effects on MSMEs Lack of appropriate training provision in the market.Shortage of viable models of implementing training.Weak/underdeveloped cooperation among companies and training/CVET providers Lack of suitable training provision on local training markets(content,timing,unit prices).MSMEs are less in the position to provide internal training than large enterprises.Internal training with external facilitators is no option as too few employees are in need.of one type of training.MSMEs depend more on external training provision.Low motivation of employees to participate in training due to poor/insecure rewards Lack of formalised reward systems for improved performance/participation in training.More restricted options to make use of new skills within day-to-day work MSMEs are less likely to have formal reward systems for participating in CVET in place Lack of interest aggregation.Detrimental outcomes to training from industrial relations/collective bargaining.A lack of(sectoral)interest aggregation hampers identifying common training needs,going beyond single organisation needs(therefore,reduces opportunities for developing tailored training)Industrial relations may lead to unclear or unfavourable collective arrangements(on sectoral level)for distributing costs and benefits of training;MSMEs depend more on collective resources provided by dedicated business interest associations MSMEs are more affected by detrimental industrial relations/a lack of conducive collective agreements on training(20)Source:Cedefop.It is difficult to isolate the impact of a specific training barrier on the observed enterprise training provision and the evidence available is limited.Yet,it is reasonable to assume that barriers work in combination and reinforce each other;the removal of one relevant barrier may not be sufficient to increase MSME level of training activity,as the limitations of one or more further barrier(s)may persist.The existence(combination)of these barriers helps explain the difficulties of MSMEs in responding to their given training demand,as shaped by their current way of doing business and organising work,i.e.at the current level of skill utilisation.However,the weaker training provision of MSMEs can also be explained by their presumably lower levels of skill utilisation in the workplaces that MSMEs offer,as discussed in the following Section 2.2.2.2.2.2.Skills utilisation Several authors have proposed that training provision in a company can be understood best as depending on key features of the workplace,particularly the (20)This argument refers to countries with no or only a few binding sectoral agreements,with MSMEs less likely to achieve a collective agreement at company level to fill the gap.Chapter 2.Conceptual and analytical framework quantities of skills used(Fournier,2016;Holm and Lorenz,2015;Holm,2010;Valeyre,2009).Workplaces with a broader range of tasks,and/or with more demanding ones,require more skills.Jobholders bring these skills with them yet typically acquire many of them while performing their job over time,turning day-to-day work and informal learning into an indispensable source of skill acquisition.Informal skill formation,however,can be complemented by CVET provided by the company to support acquisition of skills required for the job.Evidence shows that a higher level of task complexity and job design are associated with higher potential for informal learning at the workplace and higher levels of employer-sponsored training(Fournier,2016).The complexity of tasks performed within an organisations workplaces depends on the type of products produced and services provided,which is reflected in steep differences in skill use across economic sectors and mirrored by differences in the use of CVET.However,the applied form of work organisation also plays a decisive role.The work can be organised either in a way that complex tasks are concentrated in a smaller number of workplaces,leaving skill demands limited for most workplaces,or complex tasks can be assigned across the vast majority of workplaces,thereby increasing strongly the skill utilisation of an organisation as a whole.The ways work is organised(Parker et al.,2017),can therefore be taken as the key starting point for understanding how much training might be useful or required.There are reasons to believe that MSMEs,on average,are engaged in a smaller range of tasks than larger organisations,resulting in a lower level of skill utilisation.While accepting that some smaller organisations can even be technological leaders,at aggregate level,MSMEs are less likely to adopt advanced technologies,develop new,more complex products and services,enter international markets or rearrange their internal processes in ways which contribute to increased levels of productivity or employee well-being(thus to increased skills utilisation)(Ashton et al.,2008).Considering how CVET responds to the given skill needs of an organisation,the potential for using training is lower in MSMEs than their larger counterparts,as MSMEs use a smaller range of skills.This difference in skill utilisation explains the differences observed in training activity between MSMEs and large enterprises:even if MSMEs faced no barriers to training(discussed in Section 2.2.1),they would still train less because they have less potential for using CVET to support skill acquisition in the workplace.To increase skill utilisation and the consequent potential for using training successfully,MSMEs need support to expand their range of business activities and the tasks to be mastered.Adding more and/or more complex tasks drives skill utilisation and given tasks can be distributed more equally across categories of employees,increasing the skill utilisation in formerly de-skilled workplaces.Such Beyond subsidising training costs 29 changes are covered by the term innovation,including changes in markets,products,technologies,processes,and forms of organisation.By supporting innovation,skill utilisation can be expanded,which can invite more use of CVET.The immediate training implications of innovation activities are less often studied in a systematic way,although it is widely accepted that some innovation activities may require considerable amounts of training for a substantial fraction of the staff.For a company,any innovation might come with a price tag for related training activities,as planning for a specific organisational innovation makes visible skills needs and gaps.Training will be considered as one option among others to close this gap and meet skills needs.MSMEs may face the barriers to implementing innovation.Although the literature on barriers to innovation in MSMEs is less well developed compared to training,similar barriers are typically reported including(Hadjimanolis,2003;MadridGuijarro,2009;Mirow,2007;Sandberg and Aarikka-Stenroos,2014):(a)lack of funding or access to finance;(b)lack of know-how regarding identifying,selecting and implementing innovation activities;(c)lack of skills,competences and attitudes of employees required for implementing the innovation(weak absorptive capacity);(d)shortage of successful models and know-how regarding the implementation of particular types of innovation(e.g.the adoption of one technology)in MSMEs;(e)lack of/low awareness among MSME owners/managers of the importance of specific types of innovation;(f)weak cooperation regarding innovation among MSMEs and between MSMEs,public higher education and research institutions or R&D service providers;(g)low level of interest aggregation within the MSME business arena,the interest of MSME therefore having little impact on public R&D support policies.By helping to overcome these barriers to innovation and eliciting organisational learning,a key mechanism for increasing learning opportunities of MSME workforces is established,including mediated by the expansion of skill use their access to training.2.2.3.Preference for less formal approaches to skill development MSMEs also provide less training for reasons other than a higher exposure to training barriers and the likely average lower level of skills utilisation compared to large organisations.To explain lower MSME training provision,it is vital to acknowledge the key role of informal learning for skill formation.Compared to large organisations,MSMEs are more likely to choose informal approaches to support skills acquisition than participation in training courses.Chapter 2.Conceptual and analytical framework Most micro and small enterprises do not have a dedicated HRM or training unit;even among smaller medium-sized organisations,many do not have any specialist responsible for HRM or training(training decisions are made either by the general management or by line managers for their team members).MSMEs also reserve a training budget less often and they can do without many tools of formal training management,such as training plans.HRD and training activities may be planned,but they are neither stated in formal plans nor reported in any systematic way(Bishop,Daniel,2012;Cedefop 2019).The MSME preference for informal approaches to skill formation also reflects their limited options to profit from any economies of scale to outweigh the costs of formal approaches.MSMEs also have fewer opportunities to provide internal training courses,given that only a small number of employees may need a particular type of training.Case study research across the globe has demonstrated that informal learning is taken seriously in MSMEs;owner-managers are aware of the vital importance of workplace learning and apply their ingenuity to developing staff skills on a day-to-day basis(Eurofound and Cedefop,2021).Even when not outlined in any training plans,in many MSMEs there are fine-grained pedagogies of the workplace(Billett,2002),allowing new workers to acquire the skills of the trade in a long-term learning pathway.Substantial proportions of employees in MSMEs see it as an important part of their occupational roles to instruct their colleagues informally and engage in more formal activities(such as giving short presentations)to develop skills(Cedefop,2015c).However,they would not perceive themselves as trainers,nor is their activity likely to be counted as training(21).While informal workplace learning forms the backbone of skill formation in MSMEs,it is well established that the need,and the opportunities,for informal learning in the workplace are directly linked to the propensity of employer-sponsored job-related training(Fournier,Lambert and Marion-Vernoux,2016;Gallie,2013;Skule,2004;Skule and Reichborn,2002;Valeyre,2009).For example,using the data of the European social survey,it can be stated that adults with jobs,which require constant learning of new things,participate five times as much in employer-sponsored training as adults with jobs which do not require constant learning(ENLIVEN Project Consortium,2020).Only where MSMEs design adequate environments conducive to learning,or provide larger numbers of jobs requiring constant learning and allowing using high quantities of skills,may they also provide more employer-sponsored training.(21)Currently,there is a lack of sources for differentiating between small firms,which may not provide much training,yet still support the skill acquisition of their employees by designing adequate environments conducive to learning(Fuller and Unwin,2004),and firms which fail both to support learning in the workplace and to provide training.For the latter,more comprehensive strategies are needed to improve the situation as simply adding training does not work.Beyond subsidising training costs 31 Attracting the attention of MSMEs management to CVET requires acknowledging the role and impact of informal learning first,with CVET understood as operating in a supportive,complementary role.Any CVET offered needs to be characterised by the way it responds to the skills in use in the relevant workplaces and how it can go beyond what readily used forms of informal workplace learning can deliver.2.3.Policies to increase MSME training provision Based on the discussion in the previous sections,the following key policy strategies to mitigate the MSME training gap can be identified:targeted support for training,mediated support for training,and cooperating in outreach activities.2.3.1.Targeted support for training Targeted support refers to policies that address an organisations current demand for training,corresponding to its current way of doing business and the related skills needed in its workplaces.Policy instruments are specifically promoted as support for training,so the approach builds on sufficiently high interest among MSME management in the subject matter.The idea is to use the full potential for training as present in an organisation by contributing to the improvement of all stages of the training circle(skill/training needs identification,planning,selection of training providers and forms of training,implementation of training,evaluation and transfer of learning outcomes)and mitigating related barriers.Policy instruments of the targeted support are offered within a broad range of policy fields including lifelong learning and skills,active labour market and employment,and to a lesser extent business development and innovation.Table 2 lists key policy instruments for providing targeted support for training,(addressing the key barriers to training).These include(co-)funding along with other various instruments that go beyond providing financial support and which can be addressed under the heading structural instruments.Table 2.Key policy instruments for providing targeted support for training and related key barriers addressed Type Key policy instruments Key barriers addressed Financing instruments(3.1)Provide(co-)funding of the costs of training(including personal absence cost)Lack of funding,risk aversion Structural instruments(3.2)Offer organisational counselling/consultancy services at any step required to implement training in enterprises(training circle)(3.2.1)Lack of know-how and(managerial)capacity/time in the organisation Chapter 2.Conceptual and analytical framework Type Key policy instruments Key barriers addressed Structural instruments(3.2)Expand the range of targeted,suitable CVET offers,meeting the demand of MSMEs(3.2.2)Lack of appropriate training offer in the market(tailored to MSME needs)Provide support for knowledge creation(pilots)within MSMEs and the transfer of outcomes across MSMEs(3.2.3)Shortage of viable models how to address organisational problems via CVET Support frameworks for awareness raising about the importance of CVET and the motivation of mangers/owners of MSMEs and their employees to participate in CVET activities(3.2.4)Lack of/low level of awareness of CVET benefits/opportunities;low levels of motivation Support the networking and the cooperation of MSMEs in the provision of CVET and related activities(3.2.5)Weak cooperation among companies and/or between companies and CVET providers Improve interest aggregation among employers(e.g.MSMEs in a sector or region)and facilitate collective bargaining on training relevant issues(3.2.6)Lack of/low level of interest aggregation Source:Cedefop.2.3.2.Mediated support for training Policies can apply a mediated approach to support training,by aiming at increasing the skills in use within organisations,instilling in a broad sense specific types of innovation.Policies seek MSMEs management attention for specific topics other than training,like technological upgrading,development of(particular)international markets and so forth.Training comes in to achieve the selected organisational goal and therefore in a mediated way only.However,through expanding the range of skills used within the organisation,the options for making good use of training are expanded in the long run,thereby holding the promise that the mediated policy intervention will increase the organisations training provision in a sustainable way.Policy instruments of mediated support are mainly grounded within the policy fields of business development,innovation and regional development.So far,lifelong learning policy has not paid enough attention to them.Policy instruments of mediated support(aiming at strengthening innovation in MSME and therefore,also expanding the opportunities to use training by MSMEs)can be organised along the similar lines as policies providing targeted support for training(as barriers to training and innovation are considered similar,Section 2.2.2).Beyond subsidising training costs 33 Table 3.Key policy instruments within the mediated support for training and related key barriers addressed Key policy instruments Key barriers addressed Financing instruments(4.1)Provide(co-)funding of the costs of innovation Lack of funding Structural instruments(4.2)Offer organisational counselling/consultancy services at any step required to implement innovation(4.2.1)Lack of know-how Support innovation-related CVET activities which strengthen the skills required for implementing specific innovation or for expanding the absorptive capacity in general(4.2.2)Lack of skills,absorptive capacity Provide support for knowledge creation(pilots)within MSMEs and the transfer of outcomes across MSMEs(4.2.3)Shortage of viable models Support frameworks for awareness raising about the importance of innovation among MSME owners/managers(4.2.4)Lack of/low level of awareness Support networking and cooperation among MSMEs in the implementation of innovation(4.2.5)Weak cooperation among companies,between companies,R&D and other relevant organisations Improve interest aggregation among employers(e.g.MSMEs in a sector or region)and facilitate collective bargaining on innovation(4.2.6)Lack of/low level of interest aggregation Source:Cedefop.2.3.3.Cooperating in educational outreach activities Policies within this category aim at winning over MSME management support for(educational)outreach activities targeting employees and/or taking place at work premises.This reflects the fact that MSME employees are not only less frequently invited to participate in employer-provided training,but they also participate less frequently in individually arranged CVET activities,even when supply-side funded opportunities(at low or no cost)are available.Moreover,the MSME workforce has more hard-to-reach groups with a lower propensity to enter CVET compared to large organisations.In contrast to targeted support and mediated support approaches,an organisations potential to use training,or any barriers to training,are not the starting point:the goal of involving hard-to-reach groups into extended training activities forms the core of the strategy.Enterprises are sought to be won over to supporting educational provision for groups of their employees irrespective of an Chapter 2.Conceptual and analytical framework immediate organisational interest in their participation as well as for groups of adults entering the organisations just for educational purposes.CVET provision is thus tailored mainly to individual learner needs,although it may be advantageous for the organisations as well.Enterprises are expected to participate in,and profit from,their participation in the educational outreach activities for various reasons:(a)organisations may support an outreach framework for normative reasons,demonstrating their social responsibility and gaining in visibility and social recognition in their local environments;(b)organisations participate in the positive effects of the CVET provided to their own employees,speaking of expanded skills and higher level of motivation,even when the education provided might not be ultimately required for their job(courses in the local language for workers who hardly use the local language in their current type of work);(c)organisations might profit from positive spill-over effects,with the outreach project expanding the resource base for CVET selected in line with a companys needs or specific interests.Positive experiences with the training projects implemented as part of the outreach framework may strengthen an organisations positive attitudes towards training and support the development of an expansive training culture(Hefler and Markowitsch,2008);(d)organisations might receive compensation for at least a share of their efforts,for example,when wage costs for internal personnel engaged in the training activities are subsidised.Outreach frameworks involving enterprises differ in how support from the organisation is sought.Schemes typically only reach out to and seek enterprises support for employees belonging to vulnerable groups(e.g.low-qualified or low-skilled employees,former long-term unemployed,refugees).In some cases,working for micro or small enterprises is seen as a potential source of vulnerability,meaning that all employees of an organisation are targeted.Schemes can be summarised under three main headings:(a)promoting the participation of MSME employees in external CVET opportunities offered to individuals:with the help of the instrument,the enterprise should be motivated to promote the participation of its own employees in external CVET opportunities(these are not restricted to the members of own workforce);(b)providing work experience/on-site training spells to non-employees:the organisation is encouraged to support the education of adults by providing opportunity for workplace learning and/or the acquisition of work experience,as part of work placements,internships,traineeships.Workplace learning might allow for the implementation of CVET programmes closer to formal programmes like apprenticeships.Besides Beyond subsidising training costs 35 regular apprenticeship schemes accessible to adults,where possible,other specific forms of apprenticeship for adults might be supported.The organisation might consider employing the learner at a later stage;(c)providing training(on-site or external)to the employees of one organisation:the enterprises allow a third party(an education provider,a trade union),to organise CVET within the corporate facilities.Alternatively,it supports extramural provision.The policy instruments of cooperation in outreach are rooted in business,lifelong learning and active labour market and employment policies.2.3.4.Summary Figure 2 below brings together the identified key policy strategies(targeted support/mediated support/cooperating in educational outreach)and instruments(financial/structural)aiming at supporting MSMEs to increase their training provision.The developed taxonomy helps to frame further discussion and(empirical)exploration of the relevant policies.While the taxonomy has been developed with the aim of getting a better grip on the variety of approaches for supporting training in MSMEs,many policies combine several different instruments.Therefore,the policies do not necessarily fall neatly within one or another category,yet represent a specific blend marked by a unique profile.Even more important,MSMEs working in one economic sector and/or geographic region might have access to and potentially make use of various support instruments offered within their relevant environments(including the instruments going beyond the ones covered in the developed taxonomy).Instruments might be effective only via their complementarity with other instruments also in place.To capture this reality,the next section introduces the concept of support arrangement as a part of skill ecosystem or skill formation system and proposes the criteria for studying the effectiveness of such an arrangement.Chapter 2.Conceptual and analytical framework Figure 2.Taxonomy of policy instruments to increase MSME training provision Source:Cedefop.Beyond subsidising training costs 37 2.4.How to study the effectiveness of policies to increase MSME training provision:the concept of support arrangement 2.4.1.Towards a holistic approach in supporting MSME training The different policy strategies presented above are ways of increasing MSME training provision.Effective policy instruments instil meaningful change in one or more dimensions.Adopting an instrument should cause(within some margin of uncertainty)an intended change in the desirable outcomes dimension(as measured by indicators chosen).Further,unintended negative side effects should not call into question the desirability of the approach.Effective policies(and the accompanying instruments)help improve training provision,whether in the short or in the long term.Policies thereby following the taxonomy presented in 2.3 pursue either a targeted approach,a mediated approach or an approach based on cooperating in educational outreach activities.Stakeholders need evidence when deciding on introducing or keeping instruments that make a difference and on phasing out ineffective policies.However,significant challenges hinder direct evaluation of instruments to improve MSME engagement in training.This section presents these challenges and suggests a fresh starting point and a way forward.Few studies evaluate the effectiveness of public schemes in changing the training behaviour of companies,including MSMEs.This is true for various forms of financial support/incentives(Mller and Behringer,2012)and even more for structural support/incentives of all kind.Counterfactual results for financial incentive impact on company training performance are mixed,with some studies suggesting their effectiveness(Brunello,2012;Grg and Strobl,2006),while others report less encouraging results.(Grlitz,2010).Despite of the diffusion of instruments providing support for training,many investigations provide only descriptive statistics with no counterfactual for the assessment of the policy impact(Brunello and Wruuck,2020,p.26)(22).Measuring policy-induced change in organisational behaviour is more demanding than observing policies impact on individual behaviour(Dvoulet,2021).To start,it is methodologically more demanding to design counterfactuals,for example,by using a matching approach for developing a control group of non-treated companies,or by finding any instrumental variable allowing for a counterfactual design(Leuven and Oosterbeek,2004).Further,to (22)Studies identified as part of the current project are reported in the Annex(Table 10.Evaluation studies(public)on structural instruments identified during the project9,10).Counterfactual evaluations are practically absent.Chapter 2.Conceptual and analytical framework establish a causal relationship between the policy and the outcome,it is even more difficult to control for the myriads of other factors which have an impact on organisational behaviour.A whole policy package affects organisational behaviour and it is difficult to assess how a specific policy has contributed to the mix and whether the policy would be equally(un-)successful when applied as part of a different mix(OECD,2007).Finally,it is difficult to establish whether a policy is the root cause of an observed additionality(e.g.more training,more R&D),because policies serve as mere steps in organisational development that may remain insignificant until a final breakthrough changes the organisational behaviour in the desired direction.As stated in an often-quoted paper on the impact of public support for R&D:repeated treatment appears to be the only trigger for substantial changes to the way in which a company carries out its R&D&I related activities.In other words,different forms of multiple policy interventions are necessary to produce scope additionalities in the form of more cooperation or a greater willingness to engage in risky basic research.When one acknowledges that the success of policy intervention does not solely depend on individual funding schemes,it becomes clear that future work should focus more on the evaluation of programme portfolios and their interactions.(Falk,2007,p.676)The interplay or embeddedness of any observed policy in wider support arrangements or wider societal structures also poses other challenges to the most common evaluation strategies.The conventional counterfactual argument builds on the idea that only the treated entities and not the untreated benefit from an evaluated policy.However,where single policies have large spill-over effects or contribute to wider arrangements that favour all entities under study,then comparison with the control group may underestimate the overall contribution of policies to the observed outcomes.Cross-country comparisons provide an invaluable corrective.It is already well established that the wider policy arrangements supporting lifelong learning play a key role in explaining cross-country differences in the individual participation of adults in further education(Rubenson and Desjardins,2009).However,similar arguments have rarely been used for explaining the observed differences in the training behaviour of organisations(Markowitsch,2013),although they do disentangle the large country effects(Brunello,2007).Despite the well documented and stark cross-country differences in employer-provided training across Europe,research on observed country patterns of employer-provided job-related adult learning using data on companies is rare(Brunello,2007;Markowitsch and Hefler,2008).The available evidence shows,however,that overall training of organisations of all sizes differs considerably within Beyond subsidising training costs 39 and across EU countries.The countries also differ greatly regarding size of the MSME training gap(23).According to(Hefler and Markowitsch,2008;Markowitsch et al.,2013),the cross-country differences in the level of company training provision can be explained by the following three layers:(a)compositional effects(across territories and time)due to differences in the structure of the economy,such as sectoral composition,distribution of employment across differently sized companies,and the mix of economically strong and weak organisations;(b)differences/changes in the organisational behaviour(across territories and time)resulting from changing preferences for type of work organisation or for particular forms of prior(occupational)training.Firms develop specific approaches to(cultures of)training;firms that develop an expansive training culture have,on average,more training;(c)differences in the general institutional environment(the political economy)including specific policies to support CVET and/or firm-provided training result from the whole set of factors explaining the diversity of capitalism.Single factors drive demand for firm-provided training in a direct or mediated way(Busemeyer and Trampusch,2012b;Hall and Soskice,2001;Roosmaa and Saar,2017;Saar and Ris,2016;Saar,2013).Based on the above discussion,the study proposes the novel concept of support arrangement with the aim of contributing to studying the effectiveness of policies supporting companies and particularly MSMEs training provision.The term support arrangement refers to all forms of support for training made available to MSMEs through dedicated policies in a country(going beyond the policies targeting enterprises/MSMEs directly).Support arrangement may be a key component of skill formation system(national level)or skill ecosystem(regional or sectoral level).The skill ecosystem approach reflects the possibility that different economic sectors and regions can have stark differences in how they develop and use skills.Section 2.4.2 presents the concept of support arrangements as part of skill formation or skill ecosystem in more detail.2.4.2.MSME training support arrangements in skill formation systems and skill ecosystems The novel term support arrangement refers to the set of policies aiming at supporting CVET in enterprises,especially MSMEs,as accessible for a particular enterprise belonging to an economic sector or cluster and located in a particular geographic area.By displaying all relevant instruments of support,the interplay of (23)Cedefop.(2019).Continuing vocational training in EU enterprises:developments and challenges Chapter 2.Conceptual and analytical framework various policies is made visible,as seen from the standpoint of a single enterprise,allowing study of the level of complementarity of instruments.Support arrangements include instruments offered at national level,meaning that in principle they should be accessible for enterprises irrespective of their local or economic sector.They can also include groups of instruments established at a regional or sectoral level,where particular types of support are available in the majority of regions or for the majority of sectors,so this level is of systemic importance.However,support arrangements may comprise instruments specific to a particular economic sector(or cluster)and/or a particular region(in the sense of a political sub-unit entitled to implement relevant policies).The support arrangement thereby expresses the set of policies which one enterprise located in one sector and region might be entitled to profit from.In line with the previous discussions,the forms of support relevant for training in enterprises/MSMEs include(see also Figure 3 for graphic representation):(a)instruments providing financial support for CVET,following either a targeted or a mediated approach.(Left side Label:A of the triangle.Two segments(where applicable)are represented:A-1 instruments established at national level and therefore accessible irrespective of sector and region;and A-2 instruments available only at a A-2-1 regional or at a A-2-2 sectoral level);(b)instruments offering structural support for CVET in enterprises,again either by applying a targeted or a mediated strategy;(Right side Label:B of the triangle.Two segments(where applicable)are represented,following the same logic as above);(c)instruments not targeting enterprises directly,with the supply-side funded CVET arrangements and demand-side instruments supporting individual employees as the two groups of instruments selected.(The bottom line Label C of the triangle.It represents only the instruments available at national level or in the case of analysing the support available in a skill ecosystem the support available in a particular economic region or sector).Beyond subsidising training costs 41 Figure 3.Graphic representation of the support arrangement as a part of the skill ecosystem or skill formation system Source:Cedefop.Support arrangements are analysed either as elements of national skill formation systems or as elements of skill ecosystems.The skill ecosystem concept has been introduced for studying local orders of skill formation,which can differ considerably from the features which are characteristic for the overall skill formation system of a country.The project examined support arrangements but could not study in detail other elements of the skill ecosystems or skill formation systems such as the landscape of CVET providers or the patterns of work organisation and the consequent role of standardised qualifications.Policy instruments displayed by the support arrangement(Figure 3)are rooted in different fields of policy-making(such as education/lifelong learning,employment,business development,industrial relations)and so have specific goals going beyond the support for CVET in enterprises.Any representation of support arrangements would remain incomplete when including only one out of different types of policy instruments.Support arrangements are studied according to three key dimensions:density,complementarity and targeted elaboration:(a)density refers to the number of support instruments and their distribution across types of policies and policy levels(national,sectoral regional).Some support arrangements have many instruments,on both a general and a specific(sectoral,regional)level,that provide financial and structural support for individuals or organisations.In contrast,other arrangements have only a few instruments,not well distributed across the type of support contributing to the overall arrangement.B-2_2 Sectoral levelB-2_1 Regional levelA-2_2 Sectoral levelA-2_1 Regional levelC-1 Supply-side funded provision at low/no feesC-2 Demand-side funding instruments targeting individualsA-1 National levelB-1 National levelB Structural instruments within the targeted approach and the mediated approachA Financial instruments within the targeted approach and the mediated approachC Instruments NOT targeting enterprises,however,of relevance for enterprises CVET activitiesRepresentative MSMEorganisationChapter 2.Conceptual and analytical framework (b)complementarity captures the coexistence or its absence of instruments providing financial support and those providing structural support(both following targeted and/or mediated approach).Complementarity covers mainly the coexistence of support mechanisms which together address all barriers to training,including barriers to innovation.As a further issue,complementarity captures the coexistence of instruments targeting MSME organisations and further measures relevant for the enterprises(supply-side funded CVET,demand-side schemes supporting employees).(c)targeted elaboration refers to the degree of adapting the support arrangements to the needs of a skill ecosystem.As a part of the overall skill formation system,targeted elaboration can take place by adapting national-level support instruments to the particular needs of a skill ecosystem(such as a sector).In a
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5星级
广东省广东省 2022024 4 年全国导游资格考试年全国导游资格考试现现 场场 必必 读读（英语）（英语）广东省导游人员考评委员会广东省导游人员考评委员会2022024 4 年年 9 9 月月导游服务能力考试大纲导游服务能力考试大纲一、考试目的一、考试目的本科目考试（现场考试）是导游资格考试的重要组成部分，主要本科目考试（现场考试）是导游资格考试的重要组成部分，主要考查考生对广东主要景点的讲解能力和相关知识的掌握程度，以及对考查考生对广东主要景点的讲解能力和相关知识的掌握程度，以及对时政、经济、文化、时政、经济、文化、入境便利化入境便利化等综合知识的了解程度；考查考生对等综合知识的了解程度；考查考生对导游服务规范及工作程序的掌握和应用；考查考生处理突发事件和特导游服务规范及工作程序的掌握和应用；考查考生处理突发事件和特殊问题的能力；考查外语考生在导游讲解过程中现场翻译能力殊问题的能力；考查外语考生在导游讲解过程中现场翻译能力、口语、口语水平。水平。二、考试内容二、考试内容（一）景点讲解：主要是考（一）景点讲解：主要是考查查考生考生的的导游讲解是否符合规范程序导游讲解是否符合规范程序，考生对旅游景点的熟悉程度，以及讲解景点的考生对旅游景点的熟悉程度，以及讲解景点的语言语言能力，包括讲解能力，包括讲解内内容容的正确性、全面性、条理性，是否详略得当、重点突出，具有一定的正确性、全面性、条理性，是否详略得当、重点突出，具有一定的讲解技巧，以及回答景点问题的正确性。考生先讲解景点，的讲解技巧，以及回答景点问题的正确性。考生先讲解景点，再再回答回答三个与其余景点相关的问题。三个与其余景点相关的问题。（1 1）中文类考试景点讲解范围中文类考试景点讲解范围：广州市长隆旅游度假区广州市长隆旅游度假区概述及概述及长隆野生动物世界长隆野生动物世界、广州市农民运动讲习所旧址广州市农民运动讲习所旧址概述及崇圣殿概述及崇圣殿、深、深圳圳市市华侨城旅游度假区华侨城旅游度假区概述及锦绣中华概述及锦绣中华民俗村民俗村、珠海市海泉湾度假珠海市海泉湾度假区区概述及海洋温泉概述及海洋温泉、佛山市西樵山景区、佛山市西樵山景区概述及白云洞景区概述及白云洞景区、韶关、韶关市丹霞山景区市丹霞山景区概述及长老峰概述及长老峰、梅州市、梅州市叶剑英纪念园叶剑英纪念园概述及叶剑英概述及叶剑英纪念馆纪念馆、中山市孙中山故里旅游区、中山市孙中山故里旅游区概述及孙中山故居、概述及孙中山故居、江门市开江门市开平平碉楼与村落碉楼与村落自力村碉楼群自力村碉楼群、阳江市、阳江市广东海上丝绸之路博物馆景区广东海上丝绸之路博物馆景区概述及南海概述及南海号主题展区号主题展区、肇庆市、肇庆市七星岩七星岩风景区风景区概述及龙岩洞和摩概述及龙岩洞和摩崖石刻群崖石刻群、潮州市广济桥文物旅游景区潮州市广济桥文物旅游景区概述及桥墩概述及桥墩。（2 2）外语类考试景点讲解范围外语类考试景点讲解范围：世界地质公园世界地质公园丹霞山丹霞山、开平碉开平碉楼、中山纪念堂、楼、中山纪念堂、南越王博物院（王墓展区南越王博物院（王墓展区）、陈家祠。、陈家祠。（二）导游规范：主要是考（二）导游规范：主要是考查查考生在接待过程中向旅游者提供规考生在接待过程中向旅游者提供规范化、程序化服务的水平。范化、程序化服务的水平。如：如：考生在整个考试过程中规范化的表现考生在整个考试过程中规范化的表现（包括语言、举止、接待程序和标准（包括语言、举止、接待程序和标准）。考生须回答一个考生须回答一个相关相关问题。问题。（三）应变能力：主要是测试考生在接待过程中处理应急事件和（三）应变能力：主要是测试考生在接待过程中处理应急事件和机智回答旅游者提出的疑难问题的能力。如：机智回答旅游者提出的疑难问题的能力。如：旅游安全旅游安全事故事故、旅游者旅游者突发疾突发疾病病以及不当言行等以及不当言行等事件的处理。考生须回答一个事件的处理。考生须回答一个相关相关问题。问题。（四（四）综合知识综合知识：主要考主要考查查考生对本省重要景点知识的掌握程度考生对本省重要景点知识的掌握程度，以及以及对时政、经济、文化、对时政、经济、文化、入境便利化入境便利化等方面的综合知识是否全面了等方面的综合知识是否全面了解。考生须回答一个解。考生须回答一个相关相关问题。问题。（五）口译（外语类考生）（五）口译（外语类考生）主要考主要考查查考生在导游服务过程中现场中外互译能力考生在导游服务过程中现场中外互译能力、口语、口语水平。水平。内容侧重于所考查的五个景点中的部分内容。每位考生内容侧重于所考查的五个景点中的部分内容。每位考生“中译外中译外”和和“外译中外译中”的试题的试题各一题各一题。导游口试考试流程导游口试考试流程“外语类外语类”每场考试总用时每场考试总用时 60 分钟：分钟：包含 2 分钟景点讲解准备时间、29 分钟答题时间、29 分钟系统回放检查。一一、试题说明、试题说明“外语类外语类”考生考试试题包括“景点讲解”、“景点问答”、“口译”和“知识问答”四部分，共 9 道题。第一部分：“景点讲解”，共 1 题，总分值 41 分。“景点讲解”总用时 18 分钟，其中：准备时间为 2 分钟，考生进行答题准备。“景点讲解”自动抽取景点，考生进行讲解准备。考生答题时间为 8 分钟分钟，答题结束后，系统自动回放检查 8 分钟。第二部分：“景点问答”，共 3 题。每题 3 分，总分值 9 分。“景点问答”总用时 12 分钟，其中：第 1 题考生答题时间为 2 分钟分钟，答题结束后，系统自动回放检查2 分钟；第 2 题考生答题时间为 2 分钟分钟，答题结束后，系统自动回放检查2 分钟；第 3 题考生答题时间为 2 分钟分钟，答题结束后，系统自动回放检查2 分钟。第三部分：“口译”，共 2 题。中译外和外译中各 1 题。每题 10分，总分值 20 分。“口译”总用时 12 分钟，其中：中译外：答题时间为 3 分钟分钟，答题结束后，系统自动回放检查 3分钟；外译中：答题时间为 3 分钟分钟，答题结束后，系统自动回放检查 3分钟。第四部分：“知识问答”，共 3 题。导游规范问答、应变能力问答及综合知识问答各 1 题。每题 10 分，总分值 30 分。“问答题”总用时 18 分钟，其中：导游规范问答：答题时间为 3 分钟分钟，答题结束后，系统自动回放检查 3 分钟；应变能力问答：答题时间为 3 分钟分钟，答题结束后，系统自动回放检查 3 分钟；综合知识问答：答题时间为 3 分钟分钟，答题结束后，系统自动回放检查 3 分钟。二、答题方式二、答题方式闭卷，所有试题通过计算机完成答题，考生在计算机上录制视频作答。三、答题注意事项三、答题注意事项1 1、设备调试、设备调试考试开始前，考生输入准考证号登录考试系统，进入设备调试界面。请考生在“听音测试”界面点击“开始试音”按钮检查耳麦听音是否正常；在完成试音后，点击“下一步”进入“录制测试”界面，点击“开始录制”、“结束录制”、“回放视频”按钮调试摄像头位置和检查耳麦听录是否正常，如不能正常使用可举手示意。调试结束后，请考生点击“下一步”进入等待考试开始界面。2 2、答题、答题考生答题无需进行其他操作，均由系统自动切换；注意：考生只能按试题顺序进行答题，不可选题，离开当前试题注意：考生只能按试题顺序进行答题，不可选题，离开当前试题后将无法返回作答。后将无法返回作答。考生答题时，需保证整个考试录像过程中，头部位于视频窗口正中央，不得遮脸，也不可将头部置于视频窗口侧面或角落。景点导游图一、世界地质公园丹霞山二、开平碉楼三、中山纪念堂四、西汉南越王博物馆五、陈家祠现场考试内容现场考试内容一、景点讲解提问1.How does“Danxia”landform form in Shaoguan?Geological studies show that,twenty-five million years ago,this place was a vast expanse of alow-lying lake.Later,movements of the earths crust made it rise above the ground and the water recededaway,thus turning it into a mountain and the former sediment at the bottom of the lake gradually oxidizedand became red rocks.1.韶关的韶关的“丹霞丹霞”地貌是怎样形成的？地貌是怎样形成的？地质研究表明，二千五百万年前,这个地方原是一片低平的湖泊，后来因地壳运动的作用，地面上升，湖水尽退，形成了高耸的山峰；原来湖底的沉积物受到氧化作用，变成了红色的岩石。2.Who named such kind of red-rock land configuration Danxia Land-form?In the 1930s,Professor Chen Guoda of the Sun Yat-sen University made an intensive investigation andstudy of the geomorphic features of the Danxia Mountain and other red-rock mountains in South China.Hedenominated this kind of red-rock land configuration the“Danxia Landform”,which was soon approved anduniversally adopted by the academic circles,thus making the mountains name Danxia a nomenclature ofgeology.2.是谁将红色砂石的地貌命名为是谁将红色砂石的地貌命名为“丹霞地貌丹霞地貌”?二十世纪 30 年代，中山大学教授陈国达对丹霞山及华南地区的红石山地作了深入的研究之后，将这一类红色砂石的地貌命名为“丹霞地貌”，并很快被学术界接受并采用；此后世界上凡是由红色砂砾岩构成、以赤壁丹崖为特征的地貌均被称为丹霞地貌。3.Why is the sight of the rocks beyond the Jinjiang River named The Elephant Crossing theRiver?Those rocks appear to be a herd of elephants wading across the river and coming up to us.Their trunks,tusks,ears and eyes are all lifelike.So,this sight is named“The Elephants Crossing the River”.3.为什么在锦江的那些山峰景观被命名为为什么在锦江的那些山峰景观被命名为“群象过江群象过江”呢？呢？那些山峰就像一头头大象正要跨越锦江向我们走来，象鼻、象牙、象耳、象眼形神俱备；所以，这一景就叫“群象过江”。4.Why is the sight at the hill looking from the Yangyuan Bridge to your right in the distancenamed“the beautiful girl blocking the river”?Please look to your right at the hill in the distance.It looks as if a young girl is lying down to sleep:From right to left,the outlines of her head,her neck,her chest and her belly are all clearly discernible.So,this sight is called“The Sleeping Belle”or“The Beautiful Girl Blocking the River”.4.为什么从阳元大桥看过去在你右边远处的那座山被命名为为什么从阳元大桥看过去在你右边远处的那座山被命名为“玉女拦江玉女拦江”?请看你右边远处的那座山，它就像一个入睡的少女，从右到左是头部，颈部，胸部和腹部，轮廓分明；故此景叫“睡美人”或“玉女拦江”。5.Please say something about the Yangyuan Hill on the Danxia Mountain?This hill is called Yangyuan Hill,meaning“The Hill of Male Sex”.It is so named because the stonecolumn here is the very image of mans external genitals.According to geological studies,this stone columnwas a part of the cliff and it is over three hundred thousand years since Mother Nature severed it from themountain body and carved it into this shape.In the old days,men were regarded as superior to women andpeople often prayed for having more sons to carry on their family name;therefore,this stone column washighly worshiped by the pilgrims.5.请说说韶关丹霞山上的阳元山请说说韶关丹霞山上的阳元山?这座山叫阳元山，即“雄性之山”。这根石柱叫阳元石，高 28 米，直径 7 米，酷似男根；阳元山因此得名。据专家考证，阳元石原为山体石壁的一部分，大自然的鬼斧神工把它从山体中分离出来并雕琢成这个样子，至今已有 30 万年了。旧时人们都祈求家族男丁兴旺、子孙绵延，所以此石常受人膜拜。6.What titles have been honored to Kaiping Diaolou?Kaiping Diaolou has been hailed as a Typical Works of the Overseas Chinese Culture,and the World Architectural Art Museum,which is listed by the Chinese State Council as a key cultural relicprotected by the state.Its total number amounted to 3,300 in the peak years and now the registered numberare 1833,and twenty of the better ones are inscribed on the World Heritage List by UNESCO.6.开平碉楼被授予哪些荣誉头衔？开平碉楼被授予哪些荣誉头衔？开平碉楼被誉为“华侨文化的典范之作”、“世界建筑艺术博物馆”。是国务院公布的国家重点文物保护单位。开平碉楼在鼎盛时期达 3300 多座。目前，登记在册的有 1833 座。开平碉楼是国务院公布的国家重点文物保护单位。而较好的二十座被列入联合国教科文组织的世界遗产名录。7.What are the three forms of watchtowers in Kaiping?These buildings take three forms:communal tower jointly built by several families for use astemporary refuge,residential tower built by individual rich family and used as fortified residence,and watchtower for guarding against bandits.7.开平碉楼有哪三大类开平碉楼有哪三大类?这些建筑有三种形式:有用作家族居住的居楼、村人共同集资兴建的众楼以及主要用于打更放哨防匪的更楼三大类。8.Please say something about the structure and the decoration of the Diaolou structure in ZiliVillage.Among them the Mingshilou is the best of all.Built in 1925,it is a 5-storeyed reinforced concretestructure,with a hexagon observation pavilion on the top and a blockhouse built on the outside walls at eachof the four corners on the fifth floor.This huge and imposing tower is installed with heavy iron doors andstrong iron windows,and is luxuriously decorated and well furnished.8.请说说自立村碉楼的结构与装修。请说说自立村碉楼的结构与装修。其中最精美的碉楼是铭石楼，建于 1925 年，是钢筋混凝土结构的居楼。楼高 5 层，顶部正中有一中西合璧的六角形瞭望亭，第五层四角均建有角堡（又名“燕子窝”）。铭石楼楼身宽大，外形壮观，有厚重的铁门和坚固的铁窗，内部陈设豪华，生活设施齐全。9.Why did theAmerican Chinese,Xie Weili name his garden“Li Garden”?The gardens name“Li”(立)was derived from the name of its owner and it gives expression to themeaning of a Chinese idiom Xiu Shen Li Ben(修身立本),which is written on an archway in the garden,meaning that cultivating ones moral and character is the key to success in ones life and work.This idea ofthe owners is also embodied in many other inscriptions and couplets written in the garden.9.为什么美籍华人谢维立把他的花园取名为为什么美籍华人谢维立把他的花园取名为“立园立园”?花园的名字“立园”来源于它的主人,它清楚地表达了一个中国成语的意义“修身立本”。此名字被写在花园的拱门上,意思是处世兴家的根本在于自身的修养。园主的这种立意也体现在园中其他许多碑文和对联上。10.Why can we say the residential buildings in Li Garden are combinations of Chinese andWestern architectural elements?The residential buildings in the villa area are also combinations of Chinese and Western architecturalelements.While their main structures are foreign-styled,some are roofed like a Chinese palace,and insidethey are decorated and furnished with both Chinese and foreign artifacts:Western fireplace and pendentlamps,Italian ceramic tiles,Chinese wooden furniture,wall paintings depicting Chinese folk stories,Chinesegilded wood-carvings etc.10.为什么我们说立园的住宅建筑是中西建筑元素的组合为什么我们说立园的住宅建筑是中西建筑元素的组合?别墅的楼顶按照中国宫殿式的建筑风格；而楼身却采用了西式建筑风格，楼内的楼梯和地面、墙壁装饰也是中西结合。如西式壁炉、吊灯，意大利瓷砖、中式的酸枝家具，民间故事壁画，涂金木雕等。11.Why did Sun Yat-sen quit his illusions about the Qing government and decided to overthrowit?Chinas defeats by foreign invaders and the corruption and incompetence of the Qing governmentintensified his patriotic indignation.He decided that the Qing court was rotten to the core and must beoverthrown and replaced by a democratic republic.11.孙中山为什么放弃对清朝政府的幻想孙中山为什么放弃对清朝政府的幻想,并决定推翻它并决定推翻它?中国被外国侵略者打败和清政府的腐败无能加剧了他的爱国的愤慨。他决定,清廷是坏透了,必须推翻,取而代之的是一个民主共和国。12.When and where did Sun Yat-sen found Chinas first political party?In 1905,Sun Yat-sen went to Japan,where he founded Chinas first political party called“ChinaRevolutionary League”(the Tong Meng Hui),which later developed into the Nationalist Party(theGuomintang).12.孙中山于何时孙中山于何时,何地建立了中国第一个政党何地建立了中国第一个政党?在 1905 年,孙中山到日本,在那里他创立了中国第一个政党称为“中国革命联盟”(同盟会),后来发展成为国民党。13.What do you know about the great architect who designed Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall?The magnificent Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall was designed by a young Chinese architect,by the name ofLu Yanzhi,who was born in Tianjin,graduated from the Qinghua University in Beijing and later studiedarchitecture in the Cornell University in the USA.He died of lung cancer in 1929,at the age of 36,before theconstruction of the hall was completed.13.请你简要介绍请你简要介绍中山纪念堂中山纪念堂的设计师。的设计师。中山纪念堂由中国近代杰出的建筑师吕彦直先生设计。吕彦直出生在天津，北京清华大学毕业，后赴美国康奈尔大学学习建筑，1929 年在纪念堂落成之前因患肺癌病逝，时年仅 36 岁。14.What are the features of Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall in terms of appearance and technique?The Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall is an octagonal palace-like reinforced concrete structure,58 metershigh with a floor space of 12 thousand square meters.It looks like a traditional Chinese palace in appearancebut was constructed with modern architectural technique.14.中山纪念堂的外观和技术中山纪念堂的外观和技术有有什么什么特色特色?中山纪念堂是一座八角形的宫殿式钢筋混凝土建筑；在外形上具有中国传统建筑艺术风格，在结构上则采用了当时最新的建筑技术。纪念堂的主体建筑高 58 米，建筑面积 1.2 万平方米。15.What modern architectural techniques were used in constructing Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hall?Thanks to the ingenious designing of the architect,the acoustics of the hall are excellent and there isno pillar to obstruct spectators view because the eight pillars sustaining the four long-spanned steel trussessupporting the huge domed roof are hidden in the walls.15.请问设计师采用了请问设计师采用了哪些哪些现代建筑技术来建造中山纪念堂现代建筑技术来建造中山纪念堂?由于设计师的巧妙设计,大厅的音响效果非常好,没有柱子遮档观众的视线,因为支撑着扛起巨大圆顶屋顶的 4 个大跨度的大型钢桁架的八根大柱子都巧妙地隐藏在墙内。16.Please tell us about the owner of Nanyue Kings tomb.The tomb owner,Zhao Mo by name,who styled himself“Emperor Wen”and was the second king of theNanyue Kingdom,being on the throne for 16 years in 137-122BC.16.请介绍一下南越请介绍一下南越王墓王墓的墓主。的墓主。墓主赵昧是南越国第二代王，汉武帝建元四年继位，称文帝，在位 16 年（公元前 137122 年）。17.Where did the archaeologists excavate the ruins of the Nanyue King palace?The archaeologists have excavated on trial 500 square meters of the ruins of the Nanyue King palace inthe original site of Guangzhous Childrens Park.17.考古工作者在哪里发掘了南越国宫殿遗址考古工作者在哪里发掘了南越国宫殿遗址?考古工作者在广州原儿童公园东边试掘出约 500 平方米的南越国宫殿遗址。18.Which is the only extant emperors seal left over from the Qin and Han dynasties?The gold seal of Emperor Wen unearthed from the Nanyue Kings tomb is the only extant emperorsseal left over from the Qin and Han dynasties.18.哪个金印是我国考古发掘出土的第一枚帝印？哪个金印是我国考古发掘出土的第一枚帝印？南越王墓出土的“文帝行玺”金印是我国考古发掘出土的现存唯一的秦汉皇帝印章。19.Of the weapons unearthed from the Nanyue King tomb,what kind of background can weknow about the copper dagger-axe engraved with an inscription?Of the weapons unearthed from the Nanyue King tomb,one copper dagger-axe is engraved with aninscription“王四年相邦张义”,from which we can know that this dagger-axe was made under thesupervision of Zhang Yi during the reign of King Hui in the Qin and brought to the South.19.南越王墓出土的兵器中，我们了解到刻有铭文的铜戈南越王墓出土的兵器中，我们了解到刻有铭文的铜戈什么什么背景背景?南越王墓出土的兵器中，其中一把铜戈上刻有“王四年相邦张义”的字样，说明此戈是秦惠王时由张仪监造、从秦带入南越的。20.In the Nanyue Kings tomb,how many persons were found buried alive with the dead?Whowas in the front chamber?Who was in the outer coffin?In the Nanyue Kings tomb,fifteen persons were found buried alive with the dead:one in the frontchamber,who was perhaps a eunuch;and one in the outer coffin,probably a cart-driver20.在南越王墓中，有多少具殉人在南越王墓中，有多少具殉人?在前室在前室的是谁的是谁?在外藏椁中在外藏椁中的是谁的是谁?南越王墓中共发现 15 具殉人。前室一具，身份是“景巷令”；另一具在外藏椁中，可能是车夫。21.What are the functions of the Chen Family Temple?Chen Family Temple is used as a place of their clannish activities on special occasions as well as ashrine for offering sacrifices to their common ancestors.Otherwise,it is called Chen Clan Academy,for itwas also a school for children of the Chen families.21.陈家祠有那些功能？陈家祠有那些功能？陈家祠用以供奉他们的共同祖先，并作为他们在喜庆或其他场合进行宗族活动的地方。陈家祠又名陈氏书院，又是陈氏子弟读书求学的学堂。22.Why is Chen Family Temple known as the Pearl of LingnanArtisticArchitecture?Chen Family Temple is Known as the Pearl of Lingnan Artistic architecture,because the templestructure itself is a comprehensive expression of the exquisite Guangdong folk arts and crafts.Hence,in1959,it was converted into the Guangdong FolkArt Museum.22.为什么陈家祠被誉为为什么陈家祠被誉为“岭南艺术建筑明珠岭南艺术建筑明珠”？在建筑装饰艺术上，陈家祠集广东民间工艺之大成，被誉为“岭南艺术建筑明珠”，故 1959年辟为广东民间艺术博物馆。23.Please explain the stone drums at the main entrance of Chen Family Temple.The stone drums at the main entrance are a symbol of social status of the Chen family.In the feudalsociety of the Qing Dynasty,people could place a pair of drums in front of their house only when someone intheir family had been conferred an academic degree of(or higher than)“jinshi,a title given to the successfulcandidates in the imperial examination.23.请请介绍介绍一下一下陈家祠陈家祠正门外两侧的石鼓。正门外两侧的石鼓。正门外两侧的石鼓为门第的象征。在封建旧中国，只有当某家族中有人在科举中取得进士以上的名次时才能在其宅第前安放大鼓。24.Please explain“theAdvent of Good Fortune”of Chen Family Temple.This is an inverted Chinese character for“happiness”or“good fortune”It is on the reverse side ofthe wood-carving and so is placed the other way round.The Chinese word for“inversion”and the word for“advent”are homophones of each other,so an inverted character for“good fortune”implies“the advent ofgood fortune”or“the coming of happiness”.24.请请解释解释一下一下陈家祠的陈家祠的“福到福到”图（背面的图（背面的“福福”字字）。这也是一个“福”字，一个左右倒置的“福”字。中文里“倒”与“到”同音，故倒置的“福”字表示“福到”。25.Please explain Sacrificial Offerings toAncestors of Chen Family Temple.(the choicest fruits inLingnanArea)At the tops of the balusters are carved several kinds of fruit that abound in South China:peach,star-fruit,papaya,lychee and so on.They are symbolic offerings to the Chen familys ancestors.25.请解释一下请解释一下陈家祠陈家祠“岭南佳果岭南佳果”供品供品。平台的栏杆柱顶端分别雕有各种岭南佳果，如蟠桃、洋桃、木瓜、荔枝等。这是陈氏族人向他们的祖先供奉的象征性的供品。二、导游规范服务（QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON NORMAL SERVICES OF TOUR GUIDES）1.What are the main points that the local guide must try to make sure when reading the tourplan of the group in order that he would not miss meeting the group or fail to meet a group at theairport,train station or any other ports?The local guide must pay attention to the following points:(1)The name and telephone number of the tour operator of the domestic tour organizer travel service.(2)The number of people in the group and the name,sex and occupation of the tourists.(3)The arrival time and the place of the plane or train that the group is going to take.(4)For an inbound tourist group,he must also know the name of the overseas tour organizer travelservice,the name or code of the group,the name of the tour escort,the language they speak,nationality andreligious belief of the tourists and the entry and exit cities of the group.1.为了避免接团时发生误接漏接和空接，地陪在阅读接待计划时应弄清哪些内容？地陪必须注为了避免接团时发生误接漏接和空接，地陪在阅读接待计划时应弄清哪些内容？地陪必须注意以下几点意以下几点:答：（1）国内组团社联络人和全陪的姓名及电话号码；（2）旅游团成员的人数、性别、姓名和职业；（3）团队抵达本地时所乘的交通工具的班次、时间和接站地点；（4）接待入境团时还要了解客源地组团社和领队的名称旅行团的外语名称或代号游客的国籍语言和宗教信仰以及旅行团的入（出）境地点等。2.What are the main points that the local guide of an inbound tourist group must get to knowabout the transport tickets for the group?In regard to transport tickets for the group,the local guide must try to get the answers to the followingquestions:(1)Have the groups transport tickets for the next destination been booked according to schedule orhave they been changed?And,has the changed booking been confirmed?(2)Are there any return tickets for the group?(3)Do the tourists hold international air-tickets for domestic flight?(4)Whether their return tickets have been reconfirmed.2接待入境团的地陪应从哪几方面掌握交通票据的情况？接待入境团的地陪应从哪几方面掌握交通票据的情况？答：（1）团队往下一站的交通票是否按计划订妥有无变更以及更改后的落实情况；（2）是否有返程票；（3）是否有国内段国际机票；(4)他们的返程机票是否已重新确认好。3.In what ways must the local guide make preparations for conducting a group in respect tolanguage and knowledge?(1)Before the group arrives,the local guide must familiarize himself with the explanatory materials onthe places that the group is going to visit.For an English-speaking guide,he must also make preparations forthe English way of expressing himself.(2)For a tourist group that is composed of people in a special trade,the local guide must try to acquainthimself with the knowledge and technical terms of their specialty.(3)In addition,the local guide must be well prepared for questions about hot talks of the town,important news at home and abroad and any other subjects that the tourists may be interested in.(4)If the local guide himself is new to the places to be visited by the group,he must try his best tofamiliarize himself with them beforehand.3地陪上团前应如何做好语言和知识方面的准备？地陪上团前应如何做好语言和知识方面的准备？答：（1）根据接待计划上确定的参观游览项目，做好讲解内容的准备,外语导游还要做好语言表达上的准备；（2）接待有专业要求的团队，要做好相关专业知识、词汇的准备；（3）作好当前的热门话题、国内外重大新闻、游客可能感兴趣的话题等方面的准备；（4）对自己不熟悉的景点应事先设法作详细了解。4.While meeting an inbound group in the airport or train station,how can the local guide makesure that the group he is meeting is the very one he should meet?The local guide must make certain that:(1)The local guide must ask the tourists what country they come from and inquire of them about thenames of their tour escort and their national guide,the name of the travel service in their own country and thename of the tour organizer travel service in China.(2)If the group has neither escort nor national guide,he must inquire of the tourists their nationality,the name or code of the group,and the number of people and the main itinerary of the group.4接待入境团的地陪在机场或车站接团时，应如何确认某一团队是否是自己应接的团？接待入境团的地陪在机场或车站接团时，应如何确认某一团队是否是自己应接的团？答：（1）应问清该团来自哪个国家（地区）、客源地组团社和国内组团社的名称、领队和全陪的姓名等；（2）如该团没有领队和全陪，地陪应与该团成员核对团名、团号、国别及游客人数、姓名并核实其主要行程。5.Try to make a welcome speech to a tourist group in the name of a local guide.The followingpoints should be included:(1)According the tourists a welcome for their visit to your city on behalf of your travel service,thedriver and yourself;(2)Introducing yourself and the travel service you work for;(3)Introducing the driver;(4)Expressing your willingness and desire to render good services to the tourists;(5)Wishing the tourists a pleasant stay in your city.5试以地陪的身份对旅行团致一段规范的欢迎辞。试以地陪的身份对旅行团致一段规范的欢迎辞。答：要求包括以下内容：（1）代表所在接待社、司机及本人欢迎客人的光临；（2）介绍自己的姓名及所属单位；（3）介绍司机；（4）表示提供优质服务的诚挚愿望；（5）预祝游客旅游愉快。Reference Example:ALocal Guides Welcome Speech(For Reference)Good morning,ladies and Gentlemen:Welcome to Guangzhou!My name is Our drivers name is I work for Guangzhou ChinaInternational Travel Service,and we two have the pleasure of being your guides during your stay inGuangzhou(or we are very glad to be with you during your visit to our city).I expect that this is the first tripto Guangzhou for most of you.Well do our best to make your stay here enjoyable,restful and comfortable,so please feel free to let us know whatever complaints you may have about our work or the hotel service,orwhatever,so we can improve in good time.We look forward to your cooperation.Wish you enjoy your tourin our city and have fun.参考示例参考示例:地陪欢迎词(仅供参考)女士们,先生们:早上好!欢迎来到广州，我的名字是 xxx,我们的司机的名字是 xxx。我是中国国际旅行社广州分社的导游,在你们逗留期间我们俩很荣幸做你们的导游(或我们非常高兴在你们访问我们的城市期间能与你们在一起)。我估计这次是你们的大多数人第一次广州到广州来吧。在你们逗留广州期间我们会尽力让你们在这里过得愉快、休闲与舒适。因此如有任何关于我们工作或酒店服务等方面的不满意,请不要介意告诉我们。这样我们便可以及时改进。我们期待着你们的合作。愿你们享受这里的旅游，同时玩得开心。6.What things should be mentioned when the local guide is telling the tourists the generalconditions of his city?When giving the tourists a general idea of the city,the local guide should refer to such things as:(1)The citys climate,population,administrative divisions,social life,cultural tradition,specialproducts and its history.(2)In the meantime,he should take occasion to tell the tourists something about thecitys developments in economy and municipal construction as well as the streets and important buildingsalong the way.6地陪在向游客作当地概况介绍时，应包括哪些内容？地陪在向游客作当地概况介绍时，应包括哪些内容？答：（1）介绍当地的概况应包括气候条件、人口、行政区域划分、社会生活、文化传统、土特产品、历史沿革等；（2）还要适时介绍当地的市貌、发展概况及沿途经过的重要建筑物、街道等。7.How can the local guide keep in touch with the tourists after the group has checked in at thehotel?The local guide must write down all the room numbers of the group,especially those of the tour escortand the national guide.He should also tell the tour escort and the national guide his own room number andtelephone number so that they may reach each other in time of need.7在游客入住酒店后，地陪应如何保持与旅行团的联系？在游客入住酒店后，地陪应如何保持与旅行团的联系？答：地陪要掌握领队、全陪和团员的房间号，并将与自己联系的办法如房间号、电话号码等告诉全陪和领队，以便有事时尽快联系。8.What should the local guide do if the tour escort or the national guide proposed to make aminor change or add a new item to the sightseeing program?(1)The local guide should report the matter to the travel service leadership and try his best to arrange itif their proposal is reasonable and feasible.(2)If an extra charge must be made for the added item,he must let them know in advance and mustcollect the money at the set price.(3)If it is difficult or impossible to meet their demand,he must give them a clear explanation andpatiently persuade them to follow the original program.8当领队或全陪对接待计划提出小的修改意见或增加新的游览项目时，地陪应如何应对？当领队或全陪对接待计划提出小的修改意见或增加新的游览项目时，地陪应如何应对？答：（1）及时向旅行社有关部门反映，对合理又可行的要求，应尽量予以满足；（2）对需要加收费用的项目，地陪要事先向领队或游客讲明，按有关规定收取费用；（3）对确实无法满足的要求，地陪要详细解释，耐心说服。9.In what way should the local guide collect the checked luggage of the group that has justarrived?(1)When the group has arrived,the local guide should help the tourists get their luggage together at adesignated place and remind them to check and make sure that their bags are all in good condition.(2)Together with the tour escort and the national guide,he should count to get the right number ofpieces and then hand them over to the luggage man of the local travel service through necessary procedures.(3)If something is missing or damaged,he should help the owner to approach departments concerned toreport and register the loss or claim compensation for the damaged.9有托运行李的旅行团抵达本地后，地陪应如何清点行李？有托运行李的旅行团抵达本地后，地陪应如何清点行李？答：（1）地陪应协助本团游客将行李集中放在指定位置，提醒游客检查自己的行李物品是否完整无损；（2）与领队、全陪核对行李无误后，移交给行李员，双方办好交接手续；（3）若有行李未到或破损，地陪应协助当事人到有关交通部门办理行李丢失或赔偿申报手续。10.What should the local guide remind the tourists to do when they are going to leave the bus forsightseeing?On this occasion the local guide should advise the tourists to remember the model,color,number andspecial sign of the tour bus.He should also tell them where the bus will be parking and what time they willbe leaving for the next destination.10游客下车参观景点前，地陪应向他们交代游客下车参观景点前，地陪应向他们交代哪些内容哪些内容？答：地陪要讲清并提醒游客记住旅行车的型号、颜色、标志、车号，以及停车地点、开车的时间等。11.What are the main points that need the local guides attention in regard to the travelcertificates of the tour escort and other tourists?(1)Under normal conditions,the local guide should not keep the travel certificates of the tourists.If heneeds to use them,he must return them to the tourists as soon as he has finished using them.(2)On the day before the group leaves,the local guide should check his own belongings to see if hehas kept any of the groups passports or other papers and,if any,should hand them back personally to theirowners without delay.(3)Some hotels request that the tour escort should leave his passport at the reception department whenthe group checks in at the hotel.In this case,the local guide must remind the tour escort to take it back whenthe group checks out to leave the hotel.(4)When a foreign group is going to leave the country,the local guide should remind the tourists tocheck and make sure that they have their passports and Customs declaration forms readily available forexaminations by the Customs and immigration officers.(They must not pack them into their bags to bechecked.)11在领队和游客的证件保管、使用方面，地陪应做哪些工作？在领队和游客的证件保管、使用方面，地陪应做哪些工作？答：（1）一般情况下，地陪不应保管团队的旅行证件。如需使用游客的证件办理某项手续时，应在用完后立即归还游客；（2）在离站前一天，地陪要检查自己的物品，看是否保留有游客的证件、票据等，若有应立即归还，当面点清；（3）某些酒店在旅行团入住时，要求领队将其证件留在总台，地陪应在旅行团离店时提醒领队取回自己的证件；（4）入境团出境前，要提醒游客准备好护照和申报单，以便交边检站和海关检查。12.How can the tour guide ensure that the tourists will not get lost?To prevent the tourists from getting lost,the tour guide must do a good job of the following:(1)The local guide must request that the tourists should bear in mind the names of the local travelservice and the hotel and the number of the tour bus,that they must not wander too far away from the groupwhile its moving on,and that they must not come back to the hotel too late if they leave the group to staybehind or when they go out of the hotel by themselves.(2)During the sightseeing tour,the local guide should often announce the itinerary of the day so as tokeep the tourists informed of such things as the route of the tour,the time and place for meals,the time andplace to assemble and the parking place of the tour bus.(3)The tour guide should stay together with the tourists all the time and frequently count the numberof people in the group.(4)The local guide,the national guide and the tour escort must closely cooperate in their work.Whilethe local guide leads the way for the group,the national guide and the tour escort should bring up the rear.(5)The local guides explanatory speeches must be interesting enough to attract the tourists attentionso that they would not wander away from the group.12导游人员应如何预防游客走失？导游人员应如何预防游客走失？答：（1）导游人员要提醒游客：记住地接社名称、车号、酒店名称，团队行进时不要离团太远，在外逗留或自行外出时回酒店不要太晚。（2）在参观游览过程中，经常向游客预报行程并讲清用餐时间、地点，游览线路，集合时间、地点以及停车地点。（3）时刻与游客在一起，经常清点人数。（4）地陪、全陪、领队密切配合；地陪在前领路，全陪、领队做好断后工作。（5）地陪要以精彩的讲解吸引游客。13.What should the local guide tell the tourists when the group is going to check in at the hotel?When the group is going to check in at the hotel,the local guide should tell the tourists where they canchange their money,how to find the place for entertainment and the locations of the stores,public toilets andthe Chinese and Western-food restaurants and so on.In addition,he should also make the tourists acquaintedwith matters deserving their attention while staying in the hotel.13地陪在旅行团入住饭店时，应向游客交代什么？地陪在旅行团入住饭店时，应向游客交代什么？答：地陪应向全团介绍酒店内的外币兑换处、中西餐厅、娱乐场所、商场、公共洗手间等设施的位置，并讲清入住的注意事项。14.What should the local guide do before,during and after meals in order that meals for thegroup could be properly arranged?(1)Before meals,the local guide must check such things as place,time,number of diners and percapita price for the meals and particular requests of the tourists,and try to make sure that all these have beenproperly arranged.(2)When the tourists are having their meals,the local guide should go,once or twice,around thedining-room to answer questions of the tourists and to supervise the service of the restaurant.(3)After meals,the local guide must settle the bills strictly in accordance with the fixed per capitacharge and the actual number of diners.14地陪在团队用餐前、用餐时和用餐后要做好哪些工作？地陪在团队用餐前、用餐时和用餐后要做好哪些工作？答：（1）用餐前，地陪要提前对用餐地点、时间、人数、标准、特殊要求等逐一核实并确认；（2）用餐时，地陪应巡视团队的用餐情况一两次，解答游客在用餐中提出的问题，并监督、检查餐厅的服务质量;（3）用餐后，地陪要严格按实际用餐人数、标准与餐厅结账。15.What is the right way for the local guide to deal with the recreational activity that is includedor excluded in the groups scheduled program?(1)If the activity is included in the groups itinerary,the local guide is duty-bound to accompany thetourists to attend it and make them acquainted with the performance.(2)If it is not included in the groups itinerary,for instance,if the tourists ask to watch a theatricalperformance at their own expense,the local guide can help them with such things as buying admissiontickets or hiring a taxi but usually he has no occasion to keep them company.(3)When the group is staying in a large place of recreation,the local guide should advise the touristsagainst separating themselves from the group.He must also keep an eye on the movement of the tourists andthe condition of the surroundings so as to be prepared for any contingency.15地陪应怎样安排好旅游团计划内和计划外的文娱活动？地陪应怎样安排好旅游团计划内和计划外的文娱活动？答：（1）如果是计划内的文娱节目，地陪应陪同前往，并介绍情况;（2）如果是计划外的文娱活动（如游客提出自费观看文娱演出或参加某种娱乐活动），地陪一般应予以协助，但通常不陪同前往；（3）当游客要去大型娱乐场所活动时，地陪应提醒游客不要走散，并留意其动向和周围的环境，以防不测。16.What should the local guide do when the group is going to leave the hotel?(1)When the group is about to leave the hotel,the local guide must collect all the heavy bags of thetourists for consignment if they have any.And,together with the tour escort,the national guide and theluggage man,he should check the number of pieces and the packing condition of the luggage at an appointedtime.(2)Under normal conditions,he should go through the check-out formalities before 12:00 noon.(3)Before the group leaves,he should remind the tourists to pay the hotel bills and return the keys tothe reception desk in case they should forget.When the tourists are all seated in the bus,he should carefullycount the number of people and remind the tourists to check and make sure that they have nothing left behindin the hotel.16旅行团离开当地饭店前，地陪要做好哪些工作？旅行团离开当地饭店前，地陪要做好哪些工作？答：（1）集中交运行李。如旅行团有行李须交付托运，地陪要按商定好的时间与领队、全陪、行李员一起清点行李并检查行李的包扎情况。（2）办理退房手续。如无特殊情况，地陪应在中午 12 点前办理退房手续;（3）集合登车。离开饭店前，地陪要询问游客与饭店的帐目是否结清，请游客将房间钥匙交回服务台；集合游客上车，等游客入座后，要仔细清点实到人数，提醒游客检查有无遗漏物品。17.What should the local guide do when the sightseeing tour of the day is coming to an end andthe tourists are all seated in the bus on the way back to the hotel?(1)On this occasion,the local guide should review the sightseeing tour of the day,tell the tourists morein detail about what they have seen and answer their questions,if they have any.(2)If the tour bus is not going the same way back to the hotel as it came out,the local guide shouldtake occasion to acquaint the tourists with the sights passed by.(3)Before the tourists get off the bus,the local guide should announce the program for the evening andfor the next day,and tell them the time to leave and the place to meet.(4)On arriving at the hotel,the local guide should remind the tourists to take all their belongings withthem when they leave the bus.(5)When the bus is parked,the local guide should be the first to get off the bus and stand at the door tosay good-bye to the tourists while watching them getting off the bus.17在结束一天的游览返回饭店的途中，地陪有哪些工作要做？在结束一天的游览返回饭店的途中，地陪有哪些工作要做？答：（1）返回饭店的途中，地陪应回顾当天参观、游览的内容，必要时可补充讲解并回答游客的问询;（2）如旅行车不从原路返回饭店，地陪应作沿途风光导游;（3）在游客下车前，地陪要预报晚上或次日的活动日程、出发时间、集合地点等;（4）提醒游客带好随身物品;（5）地陪要先下车，照顾游客下车，并向他们道别。18.What are the three“outposts”that a tourist group has to pass through before it enters aforeign country?The three“outposts”refer to the check-posts of the three authority organs of the destination country,that is,the Customs,immigration and quarantine check-posts stationed at the city of entry to the destinationcountry.(This means that,before the group is allowed to enter the country,it must go through all thechecking and examination formalities of the Customs,immigration and quarantine authorities of thedestination country.)18旅行团进入旅游目的地国家时，需要过哪旅行团进入旅游目的地国家时，需要过哪“三关三关”？答：就是要办理有关入境的三项检查手续：卫生检疫、证件查验、海关检查。19.How long before departure time must tourist groups arrive at the airport,train-station or pierso as to ensure that they will not lose the flight,train or ship？In order that the tourist group will not risk losing the flight,train or ship,the tour guide must manageto ensure that his group will arrive at the airport,train station or pier at an earliest possible time.Specificrequirements are:(1)If the flight is an international flight or is destined for a coastal city,the group must get to theairport 2 hours before departure time;(2)For domestic flight,90 minutes before departure time;(3)For train and ship,one hour before departure time.19为了避免误机（车、船）事故的发生，导游送团时在时间安排上要注意什么？为了避免误机（车、船）事故的发生，导游送团时在时间安排上要注意什么？答：导游团送团时，应确保团队在飞机或车、船离站前抵达机场或车站、码头，具体要求是：（1）乘坐出境航班或去沿海城市的航班，提前 2 小时;（2）乘坐国内航班提前 1.5 小时；（3）乘坐火车、轮船提前 1 小时。20.On what principle must the national guide insist when discussing the sightseeing programwith the local guide?The national guides duty is to ensure that the tour itinerary worked out by the tour organizer will befully implemented by the tour executor travel service.So,(1)If the local guide suggests a change in the itinerary,the national guide must insist that the order ofvisits to places of tourist interest can be changed but none of the items in the program can be omitted.Whenoccasion requires,he should report the matter to the tour organizer travel service.(2)In case the local guide proposes to add an item with extra charge,the national guide must get thecommon consent of the group before he agrees to the proposal.20全陪在与地陪商定日程时，应掌握怎样的原则？全陪在与地陪商定日程时，应掌握怎样的原则？答：（1）如果地陪修改日程，全陪应坚持“调整顺序可以，减少项目不行”的原则，必要时报告组团社；（2）地陪推荐自费项目时，全陪要征求全体旅游团成员的意见。21.What is the national guide required to do whenever the group arrives at a destination city?Every time the group arrives at a destination city,the national guide is duty-bound(1)To acquaint the local guide with things in the group so as to help him with his work;(2)To supervise the service of the local travel company and,if he thinks necessary,put forward somesuggestions;(3)To take care of the tourists to guard against any possible accidents and to solve problems arisingfrom accidents,if any;(4)To give advice to the tourists when they are shopping;(5)And,to make contacts with people concerned,especially with the travel service in the nextdestination city,so that the group may travel smoothly.21每到一个旅游目的地，全陪都要做好哪些工作每到一个旅游目的地，全陪都要做好哪些工作?答：（1）全陪应向地陪通报旅游团的情况，并协助地陪工作；（2）监督各地服务质量，酌情提出改进意见和建议；（3）保护游客的安全，预防和处理各种事故；（4）为游客当好购物顾问；（5）做好与下一站的联络工作。22.What role does a national guide play in the tour activities,and what are his responsibilities?The national guide is the representative of the tour organizer travel service.He must join the groupthroughout journey and take part in all its activities.His duty is to make the whole trip of the group wellconnected between destination cities along the route of the journey,to supervise the service of the local travelcompanies to ensure that the set itinerary for the group will be carried into effect,and to coordinate andharmonize the relations between the tour escort,the local guide and the driver.22全陪在旅行团的旅游活动中充当什么角色？承担什么责任全陪在旅行团的旅游活动中充当什么角色？承担什么责任?答：全陪是组团社的代表，应自始至终参与旅游团队的全程活动，负责旅行团行程中各环节的衔接，监督接待计划的实施，协调领队、地陪、司机等接待人员之间的关系。 23.In what ways must the national guide supervise the shopping arrangements for the groupand how should he help the tourists to do shopping?(1)If the local guide has arranged too many times for the group to do shopping and if shopping hastaken up too much of the time for sightseeing,the national guide must advise the local guide against thearrangements.(2)When the tourists are shopping,the national guide should advise them to examine the price andquality of the articles they are thinking of buying so that they should not buy any inferior goods or fakeproducts.(3)When some foreign tourists have bought something valuable,especially antiques,the nationalguide should remind them to keep the receipts for Customs examination.For purchase of ready-preparedChinese medicines or Chinese medicinal materials,he should tell them the relevant regulations of theChinese Customs.23全陪在旅行团购物时，应如何发挥监督与指导作用？全陪在旅行团购物时，应如何发挥监督与指导作用？答：（1）如地陪安排购物次数过多或延长购物时间，全陪要及时交涉；（2）购物时，要提醒游客注意商品的质量和价格，谨防假货或以次充好；（3）入境团游客购买贵重物品特别是文物时，要提醒其保管好发票以备出海关时查验；在他们购买中成药、中药材时，要向其讲清中国海关的有关规定。24.What is the national guide required to do when the group has arrived in the hotel?(1)When the group has arrived in the hotel,the national guide must take an active part in the work ofchecking in at the hotel.(2)While the responsibility of assigning rooms to the group members is usually undertaken by the tourescort,the national guide must keep a rooming list of the group.He should also exchange room numberswith the tour escort so that they may reach each other in case of need.(3)When the tourists have got their room numbers,the national guide should show them the way totheir rooms.(4)If the local guide is not staying in the hotel for the night,the national guide must take fullresponsibility of taking care of the group.(5)In addition,the national guide should note down the telephone number of the hotel reception andmust inquire of the local guide about the way of getting in touch with him in case of emergency.24在旅行团抵达酒店时，全陪有哪些工作要做？在旅行团抵达酒店时，全陪有哪些工作要做？答：（1）积极主动地协助领队办理旅游团的入住手续；（2）请领队分配住房，全陪要掌握住房分配名单，并与领队互通房号以便联系；（3）热情引导游客进入房间；（4）如地陪不住酒店，全陪要负起全责，照顾好旅行团；（5）掌握酒店前台的电话号码以及与地陪联系的办法，以备必要时联系。25.What should the national guide do in order to supervise the service quality of the local travelagencies?(1)If the sightseeing program in a city is much the same as those in the preceding cities,the nationalguide must suggest that the local guide should make some changes.(2)He must frankly give his opinions to the local guide if he has any complaint about the service of thelocal tour company;for example,if the meals,hotel or tour bus arranged by the local tour company do notcome up to the agreed standards,if the local guide deliberately cancel an item on the sightseeing program inan attempt to add another item for extra charge before he is authorized to do so,or if shopping has taken uptoo much of the time for sightseeing.(3)If his efforts of talking to the local guide have no effect,he should refer the problem directly to thelocal travel service leadership or report the matter to the tour organizer if necessary.25在监督各地服务质量方面，全陪应采取怎样的措施？在监督各地服务质量方面，全陪应采取怎样的措施？答：（1）若某地的活动安排与前几站有明显重复，全陪应建议地陪作必要的调整；（2）若对当地接待工作有意见（如住房、餐饮、车辆达不到原协议的标准地陪擅自减少取消旅游项目或收费加点以及过多安排购物等），要诚恳地向地陪提出。（3）如仍未改善，则直接向接待社提出，必要时向组团社报告。26What should the national guide of a foreign tourist group do when the group is about to leavethe country?(1)When a foreign tourist groups trip to our country is coming to an end and the group is going toleave the hotel for the airport or train station,the national guide should remind the tourists to check and makesure that they have all their belongings with them and have their travel certificates within easy reach.(2)On the way to the airport or train station,he should earnestly ask the tourists for their comments orcomplaints on the tour.(3)When the bus is arriving at the airport or train station,he should make a farewell speech to givethanks to the tourists for their cooperation and understanding and express his expectation for their return.26.在入境团即将离境时在入境团即将离境时,全陪要做好哪些工作？全陪要做好哪些工作？答：（1）当旅行结束时，全陪要提醒游客带好自己的物品和证件；（2）征求游客对整个接待工作的意见和建议；（3）致欢送辞，对客人给予的合作表示感谢并欢迎再次光临。27.Try to make a farewell speech to the tourists in the name of a national guide.The followingpoints should be included in the speech:(1)Reviewing the trip of the group and giving your thanks to the tourists for their cooperation.(2)Expressing your friendliness to the tourists and your reluctance and regret to part with them.(3)Inviting suggestions and opinions from the tourists.(4)Offering apologies to the tourists if things on the tour were not going smoothly or if the tourists arenot satisfied with the service they have received.(5)Expressing your good wishes to the tourists27试以全陪的身份对旅行团致一段欢送辞。试以全陪的身份对旅行团致一段欢送辞。要求包括以下内容：（1）回顾旅游活动，感谢大家的合作；（2）表达友谊和惜别之情；（3）诚恳征求游客对接待工作的意见和建议；（4）若旅游活动中有不顺利或旅游服务有不尽如人意之处，导游人员可借此机会再次向游客赔礼道歉；（5）表达美好的祝愿。Reference Example:ANational Guides Farewell Speech(For Reference):Ladies and Gentlemen:Your visit to China is now coming to an end.In the last 10 days,you have climbed up on the Great Wall,which is one of the eight wonders of the world and was once said to be the only man-made object on earthman could see from the moon;you have visited the home of the Ming and Qing emperors-the ForbiddenCity in Beijing;you have reviewed the guards of honor of the Qin emperor in Xian,I mean the 6000terracotta figures of soldiers and horses dating back over 2000 years;you have feasted your eyes on thebeautiful karst scenery in Guilin,and you have just tasted the best Chinese food in Guangzhou Anyway,you have got an idea of how China looks like.But China is a big country with a vast territory of 9.6 millionsquare kilometers,with a population of 1.3 billion and a recorded history of nearly 5000 years.A10-day visitto China,as a Chinese idiom goes,is just like a hurried journey of dragonflies,skimming the surface of thewater looking for food.Therefore,you should come again if you want to get a better understanding of thecountry.I look forward to seeing you again in China in the near future.However,I know it is time you went home and rejoined your family.On this occasion before yourimmediate departure,I should say Ive got a very nice group of very nice people and its been my pleasurestaying with you over the last 10 days.I understand that the tour may be not a satisfaction to you all and ourwork leaves much to be desired,so any comments or complaints from you will be much appreciated.Friends,yours has been such a nice group that I hate to say good-bye to you and so I say“See youagain!”Take care everybody and I wish you a pleasant journey home!参考范例参考范例:全陪告别词(仅供参考):女士们,先生们:你访问中国现在即将结束。在过去 10 天里,你们登上了长城,万里长城是世界八大奇迹之一,据说曾经是从月球上能看到的地球上唯一的人造物体。你们访问了明朝和清朝皇帝的家北京紫禁城;你们检阅了秦始皇帝在西安的仪仗队,我的意思是那追溯到 2000 多年前的 6000 多秦兵马俑；那美丽的桂林喀斯特风景令你们一饱眼福；你们刚刚还在广州品尝了最好的中国菜.。总之,我想中国是怎么一个样子你们已经有了一定的了解。但是,中国是一个大国,地域辽阔，有着 960 万平方公里国土,人口13 亿,承载了近 5000 年的历史。为期 10 天的访问中国就像中国的成语-“蜻蜓点水”。因此,如果你们能够再来你们将会对这个国家有更好的理解。我期待着在不久的将来在中国再次见到您。然而,我知道这该是你们回家与家人团聚的时间了。在你们即将离开的时刻,我应该说我接待了一个很好的团和一群很好的人。这是我的荣幸和你们一起度过了过去的 10 天。我知道这次旅游不能令你们所有人都满意你，我们的工作还有很多不尽如人意的地方,所以你们对我们如有任何的意见或投诉，我们将会不胜感激。朋友们,你们是这么好的一个团,我真的很不想与你们说再见,所以我只能说“再见到你!”大家保重,祝你们归途愉快!28.In what manner must tour guides behave before the excessive demands and critical remarks ofthe tourists?Before the excessive demands and critical remarks of the tourists,the tour guide must keep calm andbehave reasonably and politely.(1)First,they should have the patience to listen to the tourists and must not interrupt them to assert thattheir demands are unreasonable,or just find an excuse for refusal.(2)Second,they should keep smiling all the time and must not talk back to the tourists or becomeimpatient the moment he hears something unpleasing to the ear.(3)Third,they should have the patience to explain to the tourists why it is impossible to satisfy theirdemands even if they are reasonable,and must not flatly refuse them simply by saying“No,it isimpossible!”28面对游客的苛求和挑剔，导游人员应如何应对？面对游客的苛求和挑剔，导游人员应如何应对？答：（1）一要认真倾听，不要没有听完就指责游客的要求不合理或胡乱解释；（2）二要微笑对待，不要一听到不顺耳的话就表示反感还恶语相向；（3）三要耐心解释，对合理的但不可能办到的要求，要耐心地、实事求是地进行解释，不要以“办不到”一口拒绝。29.What kind of relationship should be maintained between the tour guides and thetourists?(1)The tour guides must bear in mind that they are the host and must behave as such.they should havethe manner of being hospitable,courteous and thoughtful towards the guests.(2)But the tour guides must not keep much too close a relation with the tourists.They should treatpeople equally and must not favor one and be prejudiced against the other.They must never tell tales amongthe tourists,nor must he get involved in the disputes between them.29在带团的全过程中，导游人员与游客之间应保持怎样的人际关系？在带团的全过程中，导游人员与游客之间应保持怎样的人际关系？答：（1）导游人员要记住自己是主人。要有主人热情好客的态度，要有主人的度量，对游客礼让三分。（2）导游人员不要与游客过分亲近；不介入旅行团内部的矛盾和纠纷，不在游客之间搬弄是非；对待游客要一视同仁，不厚此薄彼。30.How are tour guides to assist foreign tourists to meet with people in China?When the foreign tourists in a group of a special trade are scheduled to meet with their Chinesecounterparts,the tour guide is duty-bound to act as an interpreter.If another interpreter is appointed,he canjust sit aside and listen quietly.In case the tourists want to meet with their friends or relatives in China,thetour guide can help them with arrangements,but usually he is not necessarily responsible for interpretation.30导游人员应如何协助、安排入境游客的会见活动？导游人员应如何协助、安排入境游客的会见活动？答：（1）当游客（主要是专业旅行团）会见中国方面的同行或负责人，必要时导游员可充当翻译；若另有翻译，导游员可在一旁静听。（2）若游客要会见在华亲友，导游员应协助安排，一般情况下没有充当翻译的义务。31.What must the local guide do before setting out to meet the tourist group in order that the tourbus for the group may be properly arranged?In order to make sure that the tour bus for the group is properly arranged,the local guide must:(1)Call the tour bus company to inquire about the model and number of the bus and the name andtelephone number of the driver,and then(2)Get in touch with the driver to decide when and where they shall meet and,at the same time,tellthe driver the itinerary and sight-seeing program of the group.31地陪在接团前应如何落实旅游车辆？地陪在接团前应如何落实旅游车辆？答：（1）与车队联系，确认车型、车牌号和司机姓名及电话；（2）与司机确定接头地点并告知活动日程和具体时间安排。32.What articles should the local guide get ready for conducting a tourist group?Before setting out to meet the group,the local guide should get the following things ready for use inconducting the group:adequate copies of tourist maps or brochures and admission tickets according to thenumber of people in the group,vouchers or cash for payments for meals or other expenses,tour plan of thegroup,tour guides identity certificate,sign board and flag of his travel service and so on.32地陪上团前应准备好哪些物品？地陪上团前应准备好哪些物品？答：上团前，按照人数领取导游图、门票、用餐结算单和费用，带好接待计划、导游证 IC 卡、本社社牌、导游旗、接站牌等必备物品。33.What should the local guide do when the group is on the way to a tourist attraction?When the group is on the way to the tourist resort for sight-seeing,the local guide should(1)Announce to the tourists the sight-seeing program of the day;(2)Take occasion to make the tourists acquainted with the sights passed by;and.(3)Give them a general description of the place they are going to visit.33在旅行团前往景点参观的途中，地陪应做些什么？在旅行团前往景点参观的途中，地陪应做些什么？答：（1）重述当日的活动安排;（2）做好沿途风光导游;（3）扼要介绍景点的情况。34.What should the local guide tell the tourists when they are gathering in front of the sketchmap of the tourist resort?（20）(1)On this occasion,the local guide should illustrate to the tourists the route of their procession,tellthem how long they will stay and at what time and what place they shall meet to leave for the nextdestination.(2)In the meantime,he should make clear other matters deserving their attention while visiting theplace.34.在景点示意图前，地陪应向游客交代什么？在景点示意图前，地陪应向游客交代什么？答：（1）讲明游览路线、所需时间、集合时间和地点等；（2）讲清游览参观过程中的有关注意事项。35.What should the local guide tell the tourists when they are having an elaborate dinner oftypical local dishes?On this occasion,the local guide should try to make the tourists acquainted with the famous local dishes,their ingredients,ways of preparation and serving,eating,and the stories relating to them,if any.35在风味餐宴上，地陪要向游客介绍什么在风味餐宴上，地陪要向游客介绍什么?答：地陪要向游客介绍风味名菜的选料、烹制，有关典故及其吃法。36.What is the right manner for the national guide to deal with the conflicts between the tourescorts and the group members?(1)The national guide must not inquire deeply into the details of their conflict.(2)He must not get involved in their disputes by stating his view to favor one side against the other.(3)On the contrary,he must act as a peace-maker to mediate between them,if possible.36领队与客人之间出现矛盾时，全陪应该怎么办领队与客人之间出现矛盾时，全陪应该怎么办?答：（1）全陪对他们之间的矛盾不宜寻根究底；（2）不宜发表自己的意见，不宜介入矛盾；（3）必要时可帮助协调他们之间的关系。37.What should the national guide do to ensure that the tourists will be safe from accidents whilethey are sightseeing?(1)When the group is doing sightseeing,the national guide should help the local guide with his work.He should keep a close watch on the surroundings and the movements of the tourists so as to guard againstaccidents and see to it that the tourists will not wander away from the group.(2)He should often advise the tourists to stay safe from danger and remind them to take care of theirpersonal belongings.If unfortunately an accident should happen,he must rely on the local travel service tohandle it properly.37在游览活动中，为了保护游客的安全，预防事故的发生，全陪要做什么？在游览活动中，为了保护游客的安全，预防事故的发生，全陪要做什么？答：（1）在游览活动中，全陪要注意观察周围的环境，留意游客动向，协助地陪圆满完成导游讲解任务，避免游客走失或发生意外。（2）全陪要提醒游客注意人身和财物安全；如突发意外，应依靠地方领导妥善进行处理。38What should the national guides do when the group is traveling long distance(by plane,trainor ship)?(1)When the group is traveling long distance by plane,train or ship,the national guides must try toseek help from the crews of the plane,the train,and the ship，working together to ensure that thetourists will be taken good care of and will stay safe from danger.(2)They should also remind the tourists to watch the safety of their own persons and their personalbelongings.(3)They must have their meals and recreational activities properly arranged and make sure that theycan have a good rest on board.(4)Keep safely the baggage checks and other documents such as plane tickets,train tickets and boattickets,and hand them to the local guide when arriving at the next destination;(5)When traveling on train,he should help the tour escort to distribute in advance thecompartments and berths to the group members38团队乘坐长途交通工具（机、车、船）时，全陪应做好哪些工作？团队乘坐长途交通工具（机、车、船）时，全陪应做好哪些工作？答：（1）乘飞机（火车、轮船）时，全陪要积极争取民航、铁路、航运部门工作人员的支持，共同做好安全保卫、生活服务工作；（2）在运行中，全陪应提醒游客注意人身和物品的安全；（3）组织好娱乐活动，安排照顾好游客的饮食和休息；（4）保管好行李托运单和飞机、车、船票等单据，抵达下站时将其交予地陪；（5）乘火车旅行时，应事先请领队分配好包房、卧铺铺位。39.What should the national guide do when the group is going to leave a city for the nextdestination?(1)When the groups visit to a city is coming to an end,the national guide should consult the localguide to make sure that transport tickets for the next destination are confirmed and(2)Help the local guide and the tour escort with the necessary procedures for leaving the city.(3)In the meantime,he must keep and take care of the transport tickets and luggage claiming tags of thegroup.39在旅行团离开各地时，全陪应做好哪些工作？在旅行团离开各地时，全陪应做好哪些工作？答：（1）提前提醒地陪落实离站的交通票据及离站的准确时间。（2）协助领队和地陪办理离站事宜。（3）妥善保管票证。40.What should a tour guide prepare mentally before conducting tourist groups?(1)A tour guide must get prepared to bear hardships and troubles.He not only must render a warmservice to the tourists according to the routine working procedure,but must also be ready at all times totackle any problems and accidents probably occurred in the course of the tour and to offer additional servicesto particular tourists.(2)A tour guide must get fully prepared to endure grumbles and complaints.No matter how hard a tourguide tries to serve the tourists attentively,there would always be someone who finds fault to makecomplaints.So,the tour guide must get fully prepared for this and,when this happens,he must have enoughof the patience and tolerance to proceed with his work without resentment and regret.40导游人员在上团前，要做好哪些方面的心理准备？导游人员在上团前，要做好哪些方面的心理准备？答：（1）准备应对艰苦复杂的工作。导游人员不仅要按照常规工作程序的要求向游客提供热情的服务，还要有为特殊游客提供服务以及在接待工作中发生问题或事故时去面对、去处理的思想准备。（2）准备承受抱怨和投诉。导游工作繁杂辛苦，有时导游人员已尽其所能热情周到地为旅游团服务，但还会有一些游客挑剔、抱怨、指责导游人员的工作，甚至提出投诉。对于这种情况，导游人员也要有足够的心理准备，冷静、沉着地面对，无怨无悔地为游客服务。三、特殊问题的处理方法（QUESTIONSANDANSWERS ON WAYS OF SOLVING SPECIALPROBLEMS）1.What should the tour guides do when they discovered that an old man in the group is missingwhile they sightseeing in a tourist resort?(1)In this case,the tour guides should first try to find out when and where he was missing and then thenational guide and the tour escort should look for him separately,while the rest of the group should followthe local guide to proceed with the tour.(2)If they failed to find him,they should apply to the nearby police station and the management of thetourist resort for help.(3)In the meantime,they should call up the hotel to find out if the man has been back there.(4)If not,they should phone to report the case to the local travel service and(5)They should get prepared to deal with possible problems arising from the event.(6)Finally,they should write out a report on the event.1某旅行团在景点游览时，发现少了一个老年游客，导游人员应如何处理？某旅行团在景点游览时，发现少了一个老年游客，导游人员应如何处理？答：（1）了解情况，迅速寻找。一般是全陪、领队分头寻找，地陪带领其他游客继续游览。（2）向当地派出所和景点管理部门求助；（3）与饭店联系，询问该游客是否已回饭店；（4）向旅行社报告；（5）做好善后工作；（6）写出事故报告。2.What should the tour guide do if someone in the group is suspected of suffering from aninfectious disease?(1)In this case,the tour guide must first try to find out the details of the patients condition.(2)And then,he should report the case to the local travel service and then to the quarantine andepidemic prevention departments.(3)If they consider it necessary to do epidemiological examination,the tour guide should talk over thematter with the tour leader and persuade the patient to have his health checked and his blood serum tested.(4)If the patient is proved to be infected with contagious disease,he must be isolated for treatment orother measures will be taken according to the requirements of the departments concerned.(5)If the patient is a foreigner,he would be required to leave the country ahead of schedule.In this case,the tour guide must help him with the exit formalities.(6)After the event,the tour guide should submit a written report to departments concerned,stating clearthe details of the case and measures taken.2某旅行团中有一游客患有传染病，导游员应如何处理某旅行团中有一游客患有传染病，导游员应如何处理?答：（1）详细了解客人提供的情况及弄清患者的健康情况；（2）向旅行社领导及当地防疫、卫生检疫机关汇报；（3）如有关部门认为应对其进行防疫检查，应经领队和患者本人同意后，送患者到当地防疫站进行血清检验和检查；（4）如查实确患传染病，应遵照有关部门意见进行隔离或采取其它措施；（5）如患者是国外游客，应向患者及领队说明，按我国规定患者需提前出境，并帮其办理有关手续；（6）将详细情况及处理经过以书面形式向有关方面汇报。3.What would the tour guide do in case a tourist in the group suddenly has a heart attack?(1)If the tourist is surely suffering from heart attack,the tour guide should immediately help him liedown on his back with his head cushioned to rise a bit,and ask his family member to feed him with thefirst-aid medicine he has brought with him so that his condition may improve.(2)Then,the tour guide should call an ambulance to help or take the patient to the nearby hospital fortreatment.(3)In the meantime,he should ask the local travel service to send someone to help.(4)When rescue treatment is in process,the local guide should ask the patients family member to stayin the hospital.(5)While the patient is staying in the hospital,the local guide should often come to visit.If the patient isa member of a foreign group,he should help him with such things as separating his visa from the groupscollective visa,going through the formalities for leaving the hospital after his recovery and booking hishome-bound transport ticket etc.(6)Also,he must make good arrangements for sightseeing for the rest of the group.3旅行团中有一个客人心脏病发作，地陪应如何处理？旅行团中有一个客人心脏病发作，地陪应如何处理？答：（1）若证实是心脏病发作，应让病人就地平躺，头略高；让其家人取出备用药品让病人服用，以舒缓病情；（2）马上叫救护车，或送病人到最近的医院；（3）通知旅行社派人协助；（4）医院抢救时，导游人员应要求病人亲属在场；（5）地陪要不时去医院探望，若患者是入境团的客人，应帮助其办理分离签证、预订回国交通票证等事宜；（6）地陪应安排好团队其他游客的活动。4.What must the tour guide do if,by any chance,the tourists were robbed when they were ontheir own in the free time arranged?In this case,the tour guide must do the following things:(1)To dial 110 immediately to report the case to the police,stating clear the facts of the case,includingwhen,where and how the robbery was,the features and appearance of the robbers,the names of the touristsand the tourist group,and the distinctive marks of the robbed articles.(2)To report the case to the local travel service for directions.(3)To pacify the tourists to proceed with the tour.(4)To write out a report,stating clear the nature of the case,emergency measures taken and theopinions and demands of the victims(5)To assist departments concerned to deal with problems arising from the event.4旅游团安排自由活动时，客人遭歹徒抢劫，作为该团导游员，要做哪几项工作？旅游团安排自由活动时，客人遭歹徒抢劫，作为该团导游员，要做哪几项工作？答：（1）立即报警：打电话 110 报案，介绍事故发生的时间、地点、经过，提供作案者的特征、受害者的姓名、团号、损失物品的名称、型号、特征等；（2）及时向旅行社报告，请求指示；（3）安定游客情绪；（4）写出书面报告，写明案件性质，处理措施、受害者的反映及要求；（5）协助有关部门做好善后工作。5.When a group is checking in at the hotel,what precautions should the tour guide take,in caseof fire,to evacuate quickly?In order that,in case of fire,the tourists may quickly escape from danger,(1)The tour guide must try and get to know beforehand the route of fire escape and locations of thefire exit and emergency staircase.(2)He should bear in mind the fire emergency telephone number(119)and keep ready at hand theroom numbers of the tour escort and all other tourists of the group.5为了保证游客在火灾发生时能尽快疏散，导游人员在入住酒店时就要采取哪些防范措施？为了保证游客在火灾发生时能尽快疏散，导游人员在入住酒店时就要采取哪些防范措施？答：（1）熟悉饭店楼层的太平门、安全出口、安全楼梯的位置及安全转移路线，并向游客介绍；（2）应牢记火警电话（119），掌握领队和游客所住房间的号码。6.Supposing the hotel suddenly caught fire and the fire scene is 2 stories below the floor wherea tourist group is staying.In these circumstances,how should the tour guide of the group direct thetourists to save themselves?At this critical moment,the tour guide must keep calm to make a sober judgment of the situation.Thebasic point of first importance is that,in case of fire,people must not try to escape by taking the elevator andin no case should they leap down from high up the building.(1)If people caught fire on their clothes,they can roll on the floor or slap their bodies with heavyclothing to put out the fire.(2)When people must pass through dense smoke areas,they must wrap their bodies and cover theirmouths and noses with wet clothes and creep forward along the walls.(3)If the room door is blocked by fire and people cannot run away,they must stop up the chinks of thedoor with soaked clothes or beddings and splash water to lower the temperature.(4)At the same time,they must wave colorful clothes out of the window to call for help.6饭店突然发生火灾，火场就在旅行团入住客房的下面两层，导游员应如何引导客人自救？饭店突然发生火灾，火场就在旅行团入住客房的下面两层，导游员应如何引导客人自救？答：千万不能让游客搭乘电梯或随意跳楼逃生，导游人员要镇定地判断火情，引导大家自救：（1）若身上着火，可就地打滚或用厚重衣物压灭火苗；（2）必须穿过浓烟时，用浸湿的衣物披裹身体，捂住口鼻，贴近地面顺墙爬行；（3）大火封门无法逃出时，可用浸湿的衣物、被褥堵塞门缝并泼水降温，等待救援；（4）摇动色彩鲜艳的衣物呼唤救援人员。7.What should the tour guide do if,by any chance,the tourists are poisoned by food?In case thetourists suffer food-poisoning(1)The tour guide should tell the tourists to drink plenty of water and try to make them vomit so as toeliminate the toxins from their intestines.(2)Then,he must take them immediately to the hospital for emergency treatment and ask the doctorfor a medical certificate.(3)In the meantime,he should report the case to the local travel service to fix responsibility on therestaurant.7旅行团发生食物中毒事故时，导游人员应如何处理？旅行团发生食物中毒事故时，导游人员应如何处理？答：（1）设法为中毒者催吐并让其多喝水排解毒性；（2）尽快将患者送医院抢救，请医生开具诊断证明；（3）报告地接社，追究餐厅责任。8.The tourists of a group requested some time before meal that the Western-food meal reservedfor them should be changed to Chinese food.What should the local guide do in answer to theirrequest?(1)If their request(for substitution of Chinese food for Western food)was made 3 hours before themeal,the local guide should approach the restaurant and try to meet their requirement as far as possible.(2)If they asked for the change just before the meal,the local guide usually could refuse but must tellthem why it could not be changed.(3)If they still insisted in making the change,the local guide could suggest that they order the mealthemselves at their own expense.(4)Their request for additional dishes and beverage(in excess of the set price)could be grantedprovided they agreed to cover the extra charge.8旅游团的客人临时提出将原订西餐换成中餐，地陪应怎样处理？旅游团的客人临时提出将原订西餐换成中餐，地陪应怎样处理？答：（1）如游客在用餐前 3 小时提出换餐要求，地陪要尽量与餐厅联系，按有关规定办理；（2）若在接近用餐时才提出换餐，则一般不予接受，但导游人员应做好解释工作；（3）若游客坚持换餐，导游人员可建议他们自己点菜，费用自理；（4）游客要求加菜、加饮料等，应予以满足，但费用自理。9.The local guide of a group just got to know,when he was going through the check-informalities in the hotel,that some of the double rooms they reserved for the group had been replacedby triple rooms.How would you solve this problem if you were the local guide of the group?(1)Lodging the tourists in triple rooms falls short of the requirements provided in the tour contract,so,if I were the local guide of the group,I must undertake the responsibility of changing them back to doublerooms.(2)First,I would take up the matter with the hotel management and request that they should try theirbest to spare enough double rooms for the group.If they were not able to help,I would try other hotelsnearby.(3)If all my efforts resulted in failure,I must make an apology to the tourists to seek theirunderstanding,and promise them a suitable payment to make up the difference between the double and triplerooms so as to persuade them to make do with the triple rooms.(4)For further compensation and apology,I could order a better meal for them or give them somesouvenirs,and I should take care of them more attentively so that they would find satisfaction in beingcordially treated.9地陪在为团队办理入住手续时才发现，原来预订的部分标准双人房被三人房取代。如果你是地陪在为团队办理入住手续时才发现，原来预订的部分标准双人房被三人房取代。如果你是该团地陪，应如何处理？该团地陪，应如何处理？答：（1）向客人提供的三人房，虽然床位没有减少，但实际是低于旅游协议中规定的双人房标准，地接社应负责予以调换；（2）地陪应向酒店交涉，要求换回双人房，若本酒店没有，应考虑邻近酒店；（3）如确有困难，则应向游客说明，请求谅解，并给予差额补偿；（4）说服客人入住，并在事后给予物质补偿（如加酒水、加菜、送纪念品）和精神补偿（提供更为优质的服务）。10.A foreign tourist requested that the tour guide should buy something for him and have itshipped to his country.What is the proper way for the tour guide to deal with his request?In dealing with this kind of request from the tourists(1)The tour guide should first try to find an excuse to refuse tactfully.(2)If it is hard to refuse at the insistent requests of the tourist,he should report the matter to hissuperior and ask for instructions.(3)Then,he must get enough money from the tourist for purchase and shipping.When shipment ismade,he should mail the original copies of the consignment bill and the receipt of purchase to the touristwhile keeping the duplicates for future reference.10一名外国客人委托导游员购买物品并代其托运回国。导游员应如何处理这类要求？一名外国客人委托导游员购买物品并代其托运回国。导游员应如何处理这类要求？答：（1）一般应该婉言拒绝；（2）推托不了，要请示领导；（3）认真办理受托事宜：向客人收取足够的货款和运费，购买并托运；事后将发票、托运单、托运费收据寄给客人；旅行社保存复印件，以备查验。11.What can the tour guide do to prevent the tourists getting sick?To ensure that the tourists will not get sick,the following precautions are necessary:(1)When planning the sightseeing program for the group,the age and physical constitutions of themajority of the group members must be taken into account and margins of time must be left for relaxation aswell as for sightseeing.(2)Sometimes,the tour guides advice against drinking the unboiled tap water in the hotel rooms andbuying food from street peddlers is necessary.(3)In changeable weather,the tour guide should often announce weather forecasts for the next day sothat the tourists may choose to dress themselves accordingly or bring an umbrella with them in a rainy day.At dry season,drinking more water and eating more fruit are also advisable.11导游人员应如何预防游客患病？导游人员应如何预防游客患病？答：（1）导游人员要认真分析团队情况，据多数人的年龄、身体状况周密安排行程；要注意有张有弛；（2）提醒游客注意饮食卫生，不喝生水、不洁的水；（3）做好天气预报：根据天气变化提醒游客增减衣服或带雨具；干燥季节要提醒游客多喝水、多吃水果等。12.A tourist group scheduled to arrive this morning is reported to be delayed till tomorrow beforedinner,so the time of its stay in the local city will be shortened by one and a half days.What should thelocal guide do to cope with the change?(1)In this case,the local guide must,first of all,notify people concerned to cancel the earlierarrangements of meals and hotel accommodations for today and(2)Reconfirm the reservations of meals and hotel accommodations for tomorrow and the transporttickets for the next destination.(3)The sightseeing program for the group must also be altered accordingly.While the tourist resorts ofless importance can be skipped over,those of major importance must be retained.(4)If time is too short,priority must be given to the tourist resorts that are typical of the local features.12一个原定今天上午抵达的旅行团一个原定今天上午抵达的旅行团，因故改为明天晚饭前才抵达因故改为明天晚饭前才抵达，行程缩短了一天半行程缩短了一天半。在这种在这种情况下，地陪应该怎样做？情况下，地陪应该怎样做？答：（1）首先，地陪应通知有关接待单位退掉今日食宿；（2）预订明天的食宿及交通；（3）重新制订该团在当地的日程安排，尽量保留原定的主要游览项目；（4）若时间太紧，应优先安排最具代表性和地方特色的旅游景点。13.Sometimes a travel service would have no alternative but put a tourist group on an extra flightto leave ahead of schedule because there is a shortage of space on the regular flight.Under thesecircumstances,how can the local guide manage to get understandings from the tourists?(1)In these circumstances,the local guide should first talk over the matter with the national guide andthe tour escort and try to get cooperation and support from them.(2)In the meantime,he should find out the persons of great influence in the group and try to talk theminto consent.(3)Then,he should honestly announce the real situation to the tourists and sincerely apologize for thechange so as to ask for their forgiveness and understandings.(4)For further apologies,a substantial compensation could be made if necessary.(5)Besides,the local guide must make full use of the time to fulfill the scheduled sightseeing program.13因机票紧张因机票紧张，旅行社不得不安排旅行团乘坐加班机提早离开本地旅行社不得不安排旅行团乘坐加班机提早离开本地。在这种情况下在这种情况下，地陪怎样地陪怎样做才能使客人谅解？做才能使客人谅解？答：（1）先争取全陪与领队的配合，取得一致意见；（2）做好团中有影响力的游客的工作；（3）如实向游客说明情况，诚恳道歉以求得谅解；（4）适当给予物质补偿；（5）利用有限时间，安排客人参观计划内的景点。14.As the road to the tourist resort is impassable,a tourist group has to cancel its one-day tourto the attraction and this has made the tourists feel quite unhappy.How can the local guide solve thisproblem?(1)The local guide must arrange another activity as a substitute.(2)He should try his best to arouse peoples interest in the new arrangement with his eloquent andinteresting speech.(3)He should ask the national guide to report the matter to the tour organizer travel service for a finaldecision.14因道路不通，旅行团被迫取消前往某地的一天行程。客人非常沮丧，地陪应怎样处理？因道路不通，旅行团被迫取消前往某地的一天行程。客人非常沮丧，地陪应怎样处理？答：（1）要安排另一活动替代；（2）要以精彩的介绍、新奇的内容和最佳的安排激起游客的游兴；（3）请全陪报告组团社并作出决定。15.Supposing that,when you get to the train station,the tourist group you are to meet has beenwaiting there for a long time;the tourists are very unhappy about waiting and the tour escort alsoblame you for being late.What would you do in this case if you were the local guide of the group?(1)In this case,I must make an apology to the tour escort,the national guide and all the tourists for mycoming late.(2)I must tell them the true reason why I was delayed and assure them of my sincerity to do a good jobfor the group.(3)To make amends for my error,I should make full use of the time to fulfill the sightseeing program soas to get understandings from the tourists.(4)And,if necessary,I should give them a substantial compensation.15当你抵达车站时，你要接的旅行团已在车站外等候多时，客人非常不高兴，领队也埋怨你当你抵达车站时，你要接的旅行团已在车站外等候多时，客人非常不高兴，领队也埋怨你漏接。作为地陪，你应如何处理？漏接。作为地陪，你应如何处理？答：（1）应及时向领队、全陪及客人赔礼道歉；（2）实事求是地说明情况，表明自己要做好导游工作的诚意；（3）采取弥补措施，圆满完成接待计划，取得游客的谅解；（4）必要时，酌情给予游客一定的物质补偿。16Atourist in the group told you that he didnt want to share a room with others and asked fora separate room for his own.How would you solve the problem?(1)In this case I must first try to find out why the tourist made the request.If the reason is that the tworoom-mates were not getting along well because of their differences in opinions or in habits and customs,Iwould ask the tour escort to mediate between them or try to help them exchange rooms with somebody elsein the group.(2)If the tour escort failed to settle the problem,I can ask for an extra single room from the hotelprovided its available.But,I must make it clear to that tourist beforehand that he should pay for it becausethe general rule is that the person who asks for should pay.16团队中有一客人提出，不愿与别人合住双人房，要求单独住宿。你将怎样合理处置？团队中有一客人提出，不愿与别人合住双人房，要求单独住宿。你将怎样合理处置？答：（1）如该客人是因与同房游客闹矛盾或生活习惯不同而要求住单间，导游人员应请领队调解或在内部调整；（2）若调解、调配不成而酒店又有空房，可满足其要求；但导游人员须事先说明，房费由游客自理（一般是谁提出住单间谁付房费）。17.What must the tour guide do in case the group has failed to catch the flight?In case the group has lost the flight,the tour guide must do the following:(1)He must report the matter immediately to the leaders of his travel service to ask for help.(2)He must consult the airline and try to arrange another flight for the group to leave at an earliestpossible time.(3)He must have the meals,hotel accommodations and sightseeing well arranged for the tourists whilethey are detained so as to relieve them from anxiety.(4)Then,he must inform the travel service in the next destination city so that they may alter the tourprogram for the group accordingly.(5)And,of course,he must make an apology to the tourists for the mishap.(6)Finally,he must write out a report to find out the cause of the event and to ascertain where theresponsibility lies so that the wrong-doer should answer for the losses incurred.17一旦旅行团发生误机事故，导游人员应如何处理？一旦旅行团发生误机事故，导游人员应如何处理？答：（1）导游人员应立即向旅行社领导及有关部门报告,请求协助；（2）尽快与机场联系，安排游客尽快离开本站；（3）稳定游客的情绪，安排好食宿、游览等事宜；（4）及时通知下一站，对日程作相应的调整；（5）向游客赔礼道歉；（6）写出事故报告，查清事故原因和责任，责任者应承担经济损失。18.What should the local guide do if a ChineseAmerican(anAmerican citizen of Chinese origin)lost his passport while the group is sightseeing in Guangzhou?In this case,the local guide must help him apply for a new American passport and a new visa to China.The expense incurred from this must be borne by the person concerned.(1)To help him apply for a new American passport,the local guide must first get a certificate of lossfrom the local travel service and ask the tourist to get his photos ready for use.(2)With the certificate of loss from the travel service,the tourist must personally report the case to(theForeigners Exit and Entry Affairs Management Department of)the Guangzhou Public Security Bureau andask for an official certificate of loss.(3)With the certificate of loss from the Guangzhou Public Security Bureau,the tourist should go to theAmerican Consulate in Guangzhou to apply for a newAmerican passport.(4)Then,with the new passport,he should go to the Guangzhou Public Security Bureau again to applyfor a new visa to China.18某旅行团在广州游览时，团内一位美籍华人不慎丢失了自己的证件，经多方寻找仍无下落某旅行团在广州游览时，团内一位美籍华人不慎丢失了自己的证件，经多方寻找仍无下落。作为地陪，你应当如何处理？作为地陪，你应当如何处理？答：要协助失主补办护照及签证,办证所需费用由游客自理。程序是：（1）先由旅行社出具遗失证明并让失主准备照片；（2）由失主本人持证明去广州市公安局（外国人出入境管理处）报失并开具证明；（3）持公安局的证明去美国驻广州领事馆，申请补办美国护照；（4）领到新护照后，再去广州市公安局补办中国签证。19.What should the local guide do if an American Chinese(a Chinese national residing in theUnited States)lost his passport while the group is sightseeing in Guangzhou?In this case,the local guide must help him apply for a new Chinese passport and a new visa to theUnited States.(1)To apply for a new Chinese passport,the tourist must first get his photos ready for use.(2)And the local guide must get a certificate of loss from his travel service.(3)With the certificate of loss from the travel service,the tourist must go personally to the PublicSecurity Bureau of Guangdong Province to report the loss and apply for a new Chinese passport.(4)Then,with the new passport,the tourist should apply to the American Consulate in Guangzhou foran entry visa to the United States.19某旅行团在广州游览时，团里一位美国华侨不慎丢失了自己的证件，经多方寻找仍无下落某旅行团在广州游览时，团里一位美国华侨不慎丢失了自己的证件，经多方寻找仍无下落。作为地陪，你应当如何协助他补办护照和签证？作为地陪，你应当如何协助他补办护照和签证？答：（1）让失主准备照片；（2）请当地接待社开具遗失证明；（3）失主持遗失证明到广东省公安厅报失并申请补办中国护照；（4）持新护照到广州美国领事馆办理进入美国的签证。20.A native Chinese in a tourist group lost his identity card and the group is going to travel byplane.What should the tour guide do to deal with the case?(1)The tour guide should first ask the local travel service to write out a letter of certification to provethe loss.(2)With the letter of certification written by the local travel service,the tourist must personally reportthe case to the local public security bureau and ask them to issue a certificate to prove his identity.(3)If he failed to get the certificate from the public security bureau,the tour guide should arrange forhim to travel by other means of transport.The travel fares should be paid by the said tourist and finalaccounts will be settled after the tour according to the stipulations of the tour contract.20旅行团中旅行团中，有一名国内客人在旅游期间不慎丢失了自己的身份证有一名国内客人在旅游期间不慎丢失了自己的身份证，而该团须乘飞机旅行而该团须乘飞机旅行，导导游人员应如何处理此事？游人员应如何处理此事？答：（1）由当地旅行社出具遗失证明；（2）失主本人持证明到当地公安局报失并要求开具身份证明；（3）如无法办理身份证明文件，则安排该客人改乘其它交通工具，交通费用先由该客人自付，待旅游结束后再依协议书或有关规定合理结算。21.When a foreign tourist group arrived in the airport in China,a tourist in the group discoveredthat his luggage was missing.What should the local guide do to help him?(1)In this case,the local guide should take the tourist to the Lost Luggage Registration Office of theairport to report and register the loss.(2)While the group is visiting the local city,the local guide should often telephone the airport to inquireabout the result of their search for the luggage.(3)When the luggage is not found for the moment,the local guide should help the tourist to buy hisdaily necessities.(4)If eventually they give it up for lost,the local guide should help the tourist to claim compensationfrom the airline.21一位外国游客的行李在来华途中丢失，在到达我国机场时才发觉。地陪应如何协助他处理一位外国游客的行李在来华途中丢失，在到达我国机场时才发觉。地陪应如何协助他处理此事？此事？答：（1）带失主到机场失物登记处，办理行李丢失和认领手续；（2）在本地游览期间，地陪要不时打电话询问寻找行李情况；（3）一时找不回行李，要协助失主购置必要的生活用品；（4）若行李确实丢失，应协助失主向有关航空公司索赔。22.What should the tour guide do if the tourists are greatly discontented with the meals theyvebeen served during their stay in a city?(1)The tour guide should earnestly listen to and note down the opinions and complaints of the tourists.(2)And report the matter to the local travel service and the hotel or restaurants so that they would makeimprovement or take possible remedial measures to apologize to the tourists.(3)Also,he should make a study of peoples likes and dislikes in food and,before the group leaves,inform the travel service in the next city about whats happened in the group so that they could have thegroups meals purposely prepared in advance.22某旅行团表示对某一地的餐饮强烈不满时，导游员在该团离开此地前应采取什么补救措施某旅行团表示对某一地的餐饮强烈不满时，导游员在该团离开此地前应采取什么补救措施?答：（1）认真听取客人的意见，并做好记录。（2）向该地旅行社及饭店通报情况，并提出改进意见；若有可能，可让其向游客道歉，并采取必要的补救措施。（3）分析了解客人的餐饮习惯并通知下一站旅行社，使其提前做好这方面的特别服务。23.What should the national guide do to take care of the tourists who are liable to carsick,airsickor seasick?(1)To take good care of the tourists who are liable to carsickness,airsickness or seasickness,thenational guide should warn them not to eat too much before traveling.He should remind them to take a rightdose of carsickness preventive,but must warn them of the contraindications of the drug because manycarsickness preventives are harmful to health,especially for glaucoma sufferers.(2)When assigning seats on the bus or plane,those at less shaky positions should be reserved for them.(3)When the group is traveling long distance by plane or train,the national guide should ask theattendants to help look after them.23全陪对旅行团中会晕车、晕机或晕船的客人，应作何关照？全陪对旅行团中会晕车、晕机或晕船的客人，应作何关照？答：（1）提醒晕车、晕机、晕船者，旅行前要不饱食并服用适当药物（最好是使用自备药，并提醒游客留意药品的禁忌，许多晕车药均不适合青光眼患者）；（2）尽可能安排其坐在较为平衡的座位上；（3）长途旅行中游客晕机（车、船），导游人员可请乘务员协助照顾。24.What should the tour guide do if a tourist in the group fainted away for heatstroke?(1)If someone fainted away for heatstroke,the tour guide should help him lie down on his back at acool and shady place and unbutton his collar and loosen his waist-belt.(2)Then,he should feed him some salted drinks and heatstroke preventive if they are available.If thepatient has a fever,he should wipe his body with alcohol or cold water so as to disperse the excessive heatfrom his body.(3)When the patients condition has improved,he can just let him sit or lie down to rest for a while.(4)But,if his condition is still serious,he must take him to the hospital for further treatment.24团中有一客人中暑晕倒，导游人员应采取什么措施？团中有一客人中暑晕倒，导游人员应采取什么措施？答：（1）应置患者于阴凉处，平躺，解开衣领，放松裤带；（2）可能时让其饮用含盐饮料或服用必要的防暑药物，对发烧者要用冷水或酒精擦身散热；（3）症状缓解后，让其静坐（卧）休息；（4）严重中暑者在作必要处理后，立即送医院治疗。25.What measure should the tour guide take in order to prevent tourists from personal andproperty damage while they are staying in the hotel?(1)That they must lodge their valuables in the safes of the hotel instead of carrying them on theirpersons or just leaving them about in the hotel rooms.(2)And that they should always leave their doors fastened when going in and out of their rooms andmust not allow strangers or people who claim to be hotel workers(say,repairmen)to come into their rooms,especially at night.In addition,the tour guide should advise the tourists against changing their money with privatemoney-changers so that they should not be fooled and cheated by evil people.25旅游团入住饭店时，导游人员要采取什么措施，防止游客人身及财物遭受损害旅游团入住饭店时，导游人员要采取什么措施，防止游客人身及财物遭受损害?答：（1）入住饭店后，导游人员应建议游客将贵重财物存放在饭店保险柜中，不要随身携带或放在房间内；（2）提醒游客出入房间锁好门，不要将房号随便告诉陌生人；不要让陌生人或自称饭店维修工等人员随便进入房间，尤其是夜间不可贸然开门，以防止意外；不要与私人兑换外币。26.A local guide followed the original schedule and got to the airport in time to meet the group.However,when the plane came in,the group didnt turn up.What should he do now?(1)He should immediately try to get in touch with people in his office to find out the reason.(2)If the group is delayed for only a short time,he should keep on waiting in the airport.(3)If it is delayed for a long time,he must work out a new sightseeing program for the group accordingto the arrangements of departments concerned.26地陪按原定计划准时到达机场迎接团队，但却没有接到，他应怎么做？地陪按原定计划准时到达机场迎接团队，但却没有接到，他应怎么做？答：（1）立即与本社有关部门联系，查明原因；（2）如团队推迟到达时间不长，可留在接站地点继续等候；（3）如推迟时间较长，要按本社有关部门的安排重新落实接团事宜。27.A local guide picked up a group at the airport but,when they arrived at the hotel,hediscovered that he had taken a wrong group.What should he do now to solve the problem?(1)He should first seek the cause of the mistake and(2)Try to find out where his group is and by whom it was taken away by mistake so that he may get intouch with it without delay.(3)If his group was taken by one of his colleagues and they all act as a local guide,they usually neednot change their groups back to each other.But,if any of them is at once the local guide and national guide,they must change their groups back to each other,even though they come from the same company.(4)Then,he should honestly explain the whole thing to the tourists and sincerely apologize for themistake.27一地陪按计划到机场接回一个团队一地陪按计划到机场接回一个团队，抵达饭店时才发现该团并非自己应接的团抵达饭店时才发现该团并非自己应接的团，他应当如何他应当如何处理？处理？答：（1）找出差错的原因；（2）了解自己团队的去向；如果是被其他旅行社的导游接走，应尽快取得联系,立即换回；（3）若自己的团队是被本旅行社的导游接走，则地陪一般不必换回,但全陪必须调换；（4）实事求是地向客人说明情况，诚恳道歉。28.When a group finish its scheduled itinerary and is going to leave China,several tourists in thegroup request that they would stay behind to proceed with the tour.What should the national guide doto help them?(1)The national guide should ask the tour organizer travel service for instruction and then give themnecessary assistance.He should get a letter of certification from the local travel service,have their passportsand the collective visa of the group ready and then take them to the local public security bureau to separatetheir visas from the collective one and extend their individual visas so that they could stay longer in China.He should also help them reserve hotel accommodations and transport tickets.All the expenses incurred fromthese must be covered by the tourists themselves.(2)If the tourists need continuous guide service and other services,the national guide should help themconclude a new contract with the travel service.28有几个外国游客有几个外国游客，按团队接待计划完成在我国的旅游行程后按团队接待计划完成在我国的旅游行程后，要求留下来继续游览要求留下来继续游览。全陪应全陪应如何处置？如何处置？答：（1）在请示旅行社后，可向其提供必要的帮助：陪同他们持本人的护照旅行社的证明和旅游团的集体签证，去当地公安局办理分离签证和延长签证手续，协助其重订交通票及住房，所需费用由游客自理；（2）若他们需要旅行社继续为其提供导游等服务，则应另签合同。29.Supposing the tour bus of a group turned over and three people were seriously injured andseveral were slightly wounded.What would you do in this case if you were the tour guide of the group?(1)At this critical moment of life and death,I must lose no time in arranging first-aid treatments forthe wounded.(2)I must keep the accident scene intact and call departments concerned for help.(3)At the same time,I should report the accident to the local travel service and(4)Try to placate the tourists of the group.(5)Finally,I should write out a report about the accident.29旅游车不慎翻侧，造成旅游车不慎翻侧，造成 3 人重伤，多人轻伤。如果你是该团的导游人员，你会采取什么措人重伤，多人轻伤。如果你是该团的导游人员，你会采取什么措施处理？施处理？答：（1）立即组织抢救；（2）保护现场，立即报案；（3）迅速向旅行社汇报；（4）安抚全团游客情绪；（5）写出事故的书面报告。30.What should the tour guide do in order to guard against traffic accidents during the tour?In order to avoid traffic accidents,the tour guide should do as follows:(1)Before setting out to meet the group,the tour guide should ask the driver to check and make surethat the bus is in good condition or request that the bus be changed if any breakdown has not been fixed.(2)When the tour guide is planning the sightseeing program,he must leave adequate margins of timeto allow for traffic jams and other possible delays so that the driver should not be pressed to drive over speedlimit to hurry on with the journey.(3)When driving in bad weather or on rough or heavily trafficked roads,the tour guide should warnthe driver not to drive rashly.(4)When occasion requires,the tour guide should advise the driver against allowing other drivers todrive his bus and(5)When the driver is at work,stop him from having alcoholic drinks.30在旅游过程中，为了预防出现交通事故，导游员应做好哪些工作在旅游过程中，为了预防出现交通事故，导游员应做好哪些工作?答：（1）出团前，提醒司机检查车辆，发现隐患及时排除或换车。（2）安排行程要留有余地，不因赶行程而催促司机超速或违章行车。（3）在天气、交通、路况不好的情况下，行车时要提醒司机注意安全。（4）禁止非本车的司机开车。（5）提醒司机不要饮酒。31.What must the tour guide do in order that the tourists should not be poisoned by food?To guard against the accident of food-poisoning,(1)The tour guide must reserve meals for the group in the restaurants that are designated for touristgroups and(2)Warn the tourists not to buy any food from street peddlers.(3)If the food served in the restaurant is found turning bad or unclean,the tour guide must ask tochange it without delay.31导游员应如何防止旅行团发生食物中毒事故？导游员应如何防止旅行团发生食物中毒事故？答：（1）必须安排旅行团在定点餐厅用餐；（2）提醒游客不要在小摊购买食物；（3）用餐时发现食物不洁或变质，应立即要求更换。32.What should the tour guide do if a tourist from Taiwan reported that his Travel Permit forTaiwan Compatriot was nowhere to be found?In this case,the tour guide should have a letter of certification written by the local travel service toprove the loss and ask the tourist to have his photo taken.With the letter written by the local travel serviceand the identity certificate and photos of the tourist,the tour guide should take him to report the loss to thelocal security bureau at the municipal level,which will verify his identity and give him a provisional Entryand Exit Permit that is valid just on one occasion.32旅行团中，一位来自台湾的客人发现自己的旅行证件不见了。地陪应如何处理？旅行团中，一位来自台湾的客人发现自己的旅行证件不见了。地陪应如何处理？答：由地接社出具证明，让失主携带能证明其身份的证件、资料及照片，向遗失地的市级公安局出入境签证处报失，核实后发给一次性有效的出入境通行证。33.What should the national guide do if someone in the group failed to get his luggage back fromthe luggage conveyer belt in the airport?(1)The national guide should take the tourist to the Lost and Found Office of the airport to register theloss.The tourist must produce his air-ticket and luggage claim and fill out a Lost Luggage RegistrationForm.(2)Then,the national guide should report the matter to the local travel service leadership so that theymay contact the airport,the airline and the travel service in the preceding city for help.33如游客在机场行李输送带前找不到自己的行李，全陪应怎么做？如游客在机场行李输送带前找不到自己的行李，全陪应怎么做？答：（1）带失主到失物登记处办理行李丢失和认领手续。由失主出示机票和行李牌，填写丢失行李登记表；（2）立即向旅行社领导汇报，请其安排有关部门和人员与机场、上一站旅行社、航空公司等单位联系，积极寻找。34.What can the tour guide do if a couple of husband and wife in the group asked to have theirmeal in their hotel room?(1)In this case the tour guide can ask the tour escort to help persuade them to have their meal with thegroup.(2)If they still insist in having their meal in their room,the tour guide can tell them that they can order aroom service with the hotel restaurant at their own expense and that the service charge they have paid for thetour is not to be refunded.34旅游团中，一对夫妇要求在客房自行用餐，导游人员怎样处置？旅游团中，一对夫妇要求在客房自行用餐，导游人员怎样处置？答：（1）导游人员要耐心解释，并请领队劝其与团队一起用餐；（2）如游客仍坚持要在客房自行用餐，导游人员可告知其直接与餐厅联系送餐，但餐费自理，而且不能退还综合服务费。35.What should the tour guide do if someone in the group intends to give up the sightseeing tourand stay behind in the hotel for a rest because he is not feeling well?When someone in the group is sick and is not able to join the group for sightseeing,(1)The tour guide should let him stay behind in the hotel for a rest.He should not urge him to join thegroup for sightseeing.(2)He should reserve a lunch for him in the hotel restaurant or arrange a room service for him ifnecessary.(3)He should tell the tourist the way of getting in touch with the doctor in the hotel and(4)Ask the hotel house-keeper to help take care of him(5)When back from sightseeing,the tour guide should go to see him and inquire after his health so asto show concern for him.35游客因身体不适，想单独留在饭店休息而不随团活动时，怎么办游客因身体不适，想单独留在饭店休息而不随团活动时，怎么办?答：（1）请其自便，不勉强其随团活动；（2）通知餐厅安排午餐，必要时为其提供送餐服务；（3）告知客人饭店医务室的联系办法；（4）告知房间服务员注意照顾客人；（5）游览回来后，应去询问该客人情况，以示关心。36.What should the tour guide do if a foreign tourist in the group insists that,for a certain reason,he must stop traveling and leave China for home ahead of schedule?(1)Usually,such request of the tourists should be granted,but the unused part of the service chargeincluded in the travel fare will not be refunded or will be partly refunded according to the stipulations of thetourist agreement.The tour guide must immediately report the matter to people concerned in the local travelservice,who will consult the domestic tour organizer travel service.(2)With the consent of the domestic tour organizer travel service,the tour guide should help the touristwith such things as separating his visa from the groups collective visa,booking his home-bound transportticket and going through other formalities for leaving the group.All the expense incurred from these must beborne by the tourist himself.36有一外国游客，因有要事要求提前离团回国，导游员应如何处理？有一外国游客，因有要事要求提前离团回国，导游员应如何处理？答：（1）导游员应马上将游客的要求向旅行社汇报，经接待社与组团社协商后，可满足其要求；至于未享受的综合服务费，按旅游协议书规定可部分退还或不予退还；（2）导游员还要协助该游客重订交通票，办理分离签证及其他离团手续，所需费用由游客自理。37.While a group was sightseeing,a photography-lover in the group said that he didnt want tojoin and keep moving on with the group.How would you respond if you were the local guide of thegroup?I would agree to his request if conditions permitted,say,the place was not crowded and public orderwas good,but meanwhile I must remind him of the time and place to meet and the number of the tour bus or,to be on the safe side,give him a note marking clear the time and place to meet,the number of the tour busand the name and telephone number of the hotel.37在旅行团观光游览途中在旅行团观光游览途中，团内有摄影爱好者提出不随团行走团内有摄影爱好者提出不随团行走。你是地陪你是地陪，将如何妥善安排？将如何妥善安排？答：若情况许可（游人不太多，秩序不乱），可满足其要求，但要提醒游客集合的时间和地点及旅游车的车号；必要时可留一字条给游客，写明集合时间和地点车号以及饭店名称和电话号码等。38.A tourist told the tour guide that he wanted to exchange his purchase with the shop.Shouldthe tour guide help him with the replacement?The tour guide is duty-bound to help him and should accompany him to the shop for the replacement ifnecessary.38有位游客在商店购买商品后要求退换，导游员应否予以帮助？有位游客在商店购买商品后要求退换，导游员应否予以帮助？答：导游人员应积极协助，必要时陪同前往。39.Supposing a group is traveling by train and a tourist suddenly fell seriously ill.What must thetour guide do since the train is speeding forward and is not allowed to stop at will?In this case,the tour guide must ask the head of the train crew to help find a doctor on the train to givehim first aid treatment.In the meantime,he must notify the travel service in the next destination city to getprepared to transfer the patient to the hospital as soon as the train arrives.39火车在运行中是不能随意停站的。如旅行团乘火车旅行时，有游客突发重病火车在运行中是不能随意停站的。如旅行团乘火车旅行时，有游客突发重病,全陪应如何处全陪应如何处理？理？答：应立即请求列车员在火车上寻找医生就地抢救，并通知下一站急救中心和旅行社准备接车抢救。40.What should the tour guide do if the tourists request that they should go swimming in anearby beach?(1)The tour guide must try patiently to dissuade them from going,because bathing in a natural beachwithout any safety installations is dangerous.(2)He can take them to a swimming-pool if they insist in going swimming.(3)He must not accompany a small number of people to swim while ignoring the majority of the group.(4)Even if the tourists are swimming in a swimming-pool,the tour guide should warn them of possibledangers so as to guard against accidents of drowning.40若游客要求导游员组织他们到附近的海滨游泳，导游员应该怎么办若游客要求导游员组织他们到附近的海滨游泳，导游员应该怎么办?答：（1）耐心劝阻并向客人说明，不可到没有安全措施的自然水域中去游泳。（2）必要时可组织他们到游泳池游泳。（3）导游员决不可置全团不顾，陪少数人去游泳。（4）即使到游泳池游泳，也应提醒游泳者注意安全，以免发生溺水事故。四、综合知识题1.Please tell us something about the origin of the name of Guangzhou.Under the Wu Kingdom of the Three Kingdoms period,the region to the north of Hepu was namedGuangzhou,which ruled the Nanhai,Changwu and Yulin prefectures.Hence,the name of“Guangzhou”came into being.1.请告诉我们关于请告诉我们关于“广州广州”这名字的来由。这名字的来由。三国东吴统治时期，分合浦以北为广州，统辖南海、苍梧、郁林等郡，“广州”由此得名。2.Please say a few words about the climate in Guangdong Province.Located on the subtropical zone,Guangdong enjoys a mild climate and a rich rainfall,with an averageannual temperature of 22.3centigrade and a rainfall of 1,700 mm.2.请说说广东的气候。请说说广东的气候。广东地处亚热带，气候温和，雨量充沛，年平均气温约为 22.3,年平均降水量为 1700 毫米。3.Please say a few words about the history of Guangdong Province during the Pre-Qin period.During the Pre-Qin period,Guangdong area was inhabited by the Nan Yue ethnic people.Qin unifiedSouth China in 219 BC,and set up Guilin,Xiangjun and Nanhai prefectures.Todays Guangzhou is wherethe Nanhai Prefecture was located.3.请谈谈广东先秦时期的历史。请谈谈广东先秦时期的历史。先秦时期这里是百越族中南越族居住的地区。秦始皇于公元前 219 年统一了岭南，设桂林、象郡、南海 3 个郡，今天的广州就是当时南海郡的治所。4.How much do you know about the Nanyue Kingdom?At the beginning of the Western Han Dynasty,a former Qin commanding general,Zhao Tuo by name,founded the first local state in the present-day Guangdong area,the Kingdom of Nanyue,thus promoting thefusion between the Han and the Yue ethnics and accelerating the social,economic and cultural progress inSouth China.4.关于南越王国关于南越王国你了解哪些历史你了解哪些历史?西汉初期，原秦朝将领赵佗在广东建立了第一个岭南地方政权南越国，推动了汉越民族的融合，加快了岭南社会经济文化的进步。5.What are the four most famous gardens in Guangdong Province?The Lingnan Gardens are represented by Qinghui Garden,Ke Garden,Yuyinshanfang Garden and LiangGarden,which are the most famous gardens in Guangdong Province.5.广东省的四大园是那几个广东省的四大园是那几个?代表岭南园林的清晖园、可园、余荫山房和梁园是最著名的广东省四大名园。6.What are the four famous embroideries in China?Guangdong Embroidery,together with Suzhou Embroidery,Hunan Embroidery and SichuanEmbroidery,is known as the four famous Embroideries in China.6.中国四大著名刺绣是什么中国四大著名刺绣是什么?广绣与苏绣、湘绣、蜀绣并称为中国“四大名绣”。7.Could you introduce the three major groups of people living in Guangdong Province?It consists of Guangfu,Chao-shan and Hakka people,which are corresponding to Guangfu culture,Chao-shan culture and Hakka culture respectively,which has formed after exchange,clash,and fusion ofvarious cultures.The Guangfu group appeared the earliest,which lives in the Pearl River Delta and someother counties and cities in the middle and west part of Guangdong Province.7.你能介绍一下广东省的三大民系吗你能介绍一下广东省的三大民系吗?他们由广府、潮汕、客家三大民系组成，分别对应着广府文化、潮汕文化和客家文化，代表了岭南文化的精髓。广府民系是三大民系中最早形成的，主要分布在珠江三角洲以及粤中、粤西的一些县市。8.What is the significant feature distinguishing the three groups of people?That is their different dialects:the“Baihua”(the plain language)based on Guangzhou dialect,the Hakkalanguage based on Meizhou dialect and the Chao-shan language based on Shantou local dialect.8.区别三大民系的区别三大民系的明显明显特征是什么？特征是什么？那就是他们不同的方言，即以广州方言为标准音的“白话”、以梅县方言为标准音的客家话和以汕头方言为标准音的潮汕话。9.Guangdong cuisine is one of the four major cuisines in China.Can you introduce three types ofcuisines in Guangdong Province?As a Chinese saying goes,“to enjoy the best that life has to offer,one has to eat in Guangdong”.Guangdong cuisine consists of Guangzhou,Chaozhou and Dongjiang dishes.Guangzhoudishesarecharacterized by being light,fresh,tender,tasty and crisp.They are particular about color,aroma,taste andappearance.Chaozhou dishes excel in sea food,and especially in soup.Dongjiang dishes,also known asHakka dishes,using much meat for preparation,tend to be greasy and slightly salty.One of the most specialis the earthenware pot casserole.9.粤菜是中国著名的四大菜系之一，你能介绍一下广东粤菜是中国著名的四大菜系之一，你能介绍一下广东的的三三种菜系吗种菜系吗?素有“食在广东”之说。粤菜主要由广州菜、潮州菜和东江菜三种菜式组成。广州菜是粤菜的代表，其特点是清、鲜、嫩、滑、爽，讲究“色、香、味、形”俱佳。潮州菜以烹饪海鲜见长，尤其汤菜最具特色。东江菜又称客家菜，菜肴多肉类，下油重，味偏咸，以砂锅菜见长。10.As a vehicle of Lingnan culture,the architecture in Guangdong is also distinctive.Can you listthe unique folk buildings in Guangdong Province?Folk buildings unique to the region all present distinct Lingnan characteristics,for example,the Xiguanbig house and the arcaded building,the Hakka circular houses;buildings of social institutions,such as theTemple of South China Sea God,Foshan Ancestral Temple,the Chen Family Temple and the PanyuAcademy;buildings of world cultural heritage such as the Kaiping watchtowers,and buildings for citydefense such as the Xinhui Yanmen artillery fort and the Guangzhou Zhenhai Tower.10.作为岭南文化的载体作为岭南文化的载体，广东的建筑风格也与众不同。你能列出广东省独特的民间建筑吗广东的建筑风格也与众不同。你能列出广东省独特的民间建筑吗?比如说：西关大屋、骑楼建筑、客家围龙屋等岭南所特有的民居建筑，南海神庙、佛山祖庙、陈家祠、番禺学宫等礼制建筑，世界文化遗产开平碉楼以及新会崖门炮台、广州镇海楼等城防建筑，无不显示出岭南建筑的特点。11.Please tell us the name origin of Kaiyuan Temple in Chaozhou City,Guangdong Province.It is recorded that Kaiyuan Temple was formerly called Lifeng Temple,constructed during Sui and Tangdynasties.In the 26th year of Kaiyuan,Tang Dynasty(738 A.D.),to celebrate his birthday,emperorXuanzong ordered that each of the 81 states and counties in the country should choose a big temple to benamed after his reign title,Kaiyuan,so Lifeng Temple in Chaozhou was renamed Kaiyuan Temple.11.请告诉我们广东省潮州开元寺请告诉我们广东省潮州开元寺的的名字名字来由来由。据记载：开元寺的前身是创建于隋唐之际的荔峰寺。唐朝开元二十六年（738 年），唐玄宗为庆祝自已的生日，下令全国 81 州郡各选一大寺，以其年号为名，潮州就把“荔峰寺”改名为“开元寺”。12.What can we tell from the jade seals unearthed from the Nanyue Kings tomb？Of the 9 seals unearthed from the Nanyue Kings tomb,3 were found on Zhao Mos body and areinscribed respectively with the words“Zhao Mo”,“Tai Zi”(the prince)and“Seal of Emperor”,which is theevidence for the fact that Zhao Mo overstepped his authority to style himself“emperor”to break away fromthe Han and exercise local power.12.从南越王墓出土的玉玺中我们可以从南越王墓出土的玉玺中我们可以了解到了解到什么什么?9 枚玉印中有 3 枚分别刻有“赵昧”、“泰子”、“帝印”字样，均出自主棺室墓主的身上，是赵昧僭越称帝的物证。.13.Please tell us something about the Zidong Boat in Baomo Garden in Panyu in GuangdongProvince?Zidong Boat is characteristic of those in the Pearl River Delta:luxurious decoration,tables set at thebow,and kitchen at the stern.This kind of pleasure-boats were most popular during the Ming and Qingdynasties,originally owned by the rich,and later developed into tea houses on the river.13.请请介绍介绍广东番禺宝墨园的紫洞舫广东番禺宝墨园的紫洞舫?紫洞舫是珠江三角洲地方特色的画舫。船上装饰华丽，船头可摆餐桌，船后设有厨房。这种船明清时期最为流行，原为有钱人家的游艇，后发展成为水上茶楼。14.What does the relief sculpture to be conferred a title of Nobility imply,which is on theright-hand side behind the stone drum outside the gate of Guangzhou Chen Family Temple?The relief sculpture is an implicative picture.The bird,the deer,the bee and the monkey combine toimply that people of the Chen family would be conferred scholarly honors and appointed high officialpositions with handsome salaries by the imperial court,because the Chinese characters for bird,deer,bee andmonkey are homonymous respectively with those for“title of nobility”,“official salary”and“granting titlesto the nobles”.14.广州陈家祠大门外右边石鼓后的墙上的石雕爵禄封侯寓意什么？广州陈家祠大门外右边石鼓后的墙上的石雕爵禄封侯寓意什么？在右边石鼓后的墙上也有一幅寓意石雕，上面有雀鸟、梅花鹿、蜜蜂和猴子，隐寓爵、禄、封、侯。15.Where are the minorities of Guangdong living together?Please tell us something about theircustoms.The minorities of Guangdong are distributed mainly in places like Liannan and Ruyuan districts.Localcustoms such as the Getang(the Singing Meet)and the Wooden Handle Lion of Yao nationality,the Eighthof April Festival and the Ox King Birthday Celebration of Zhuang nationality,as well as the Third of MarchFestival and the Second of February Festival of She nationality are of unique flavor.15.广东的少数民族主要聚居在那些地方？请给我们讲讲他们的风俗。广东的少数民族主要聚居在那些地方？请给我们讲讲他们的风俗。广东的少数民族主要分布在连南、乳源等地区。瑶族的“歌堂”和布袋木狮习俗、壮族四月八的“牛王诞”和畲族的“二月二”、“三月三”习俗均别具风情。16.What is regime of the Nanyue Kingdom?How many years did it last?In which year did ithappen?To what dynasty did it belong?The Nanyue Kingdom was a local state in South China in the period of Chinas Western Han Dynasty.Itlasted 93 years with 5 kings in succession and submitted to the Western Han in 111 BC.16.南越王国是怎样的政权，传了几代，历时几年，南越王国是怎样的政权，传了几代，历时几年，哪哪一年归属什么朝代一年归属什么朝代?南越王国是中国西汉时期南方的地方政权，传五代历 93 年，汉武帝元鼎六年（公元前 111 年）归属西汉。17.What are the major forest parks in Guangdong Province?The major forest parks include Liuxi River Forest Park,Mount Xiqiao Forest Park,Nanling NationalForest Park,Nankunshan Forest Park,and Shimen Forest Bathing Place.17.广东省有哪些广东省有哪些知名的知名的森林公园？森林公园？主要有流溪河森林公园、西樵山森林公园、南岭国家森林公园、南昆山森林公园、石门森林浴场等丰富的森林旅游资源18.Please tell us what you know about Guangdong carvings and well-known special crafts.The delicate and exquisite Guangdong carving,including ivory carving,jade carving and woodcarving,attains to unrivalled workmanship.Special crafts of Guangdong,such as Duan Ink-stone inZhaoqing,paper-cuttings and lion-head making in Foshan,palm-leaf handicraft in Xinhui and lacquerware inYangjiang,all boast a long history and extremely high craftsmanship.18.请告诉我们你所知道关于广东的雕刻和著名特色工艺品。请告诉我们你所知道关于广东的雕刻和著名特色工艺品。以象牙雕、玉雕和木雕为代表的广雕工艺细腻精湛，艺术水平极高，令人叹为观止；广东的特色器艺包括肇庆端砚、佛山剪纸、佛山狮头艺术、新会葵艺和阳江漆器等，均具有悠久的历史和极高的艺术水平。19.Why can we say the structure of Chen Family Temple is unique in the way it is decorated,theway that is characteristic of Guangdong Province?Because the temple,from the roof to the floor,from inside to outside,no matter column,eaves,ridge,stairs,doors and windows are decorated with carvings such as stone-carvings,brick-carvings,lime sculptures,ceramic figurines,wood-carvings or artistic objects of iron-casting can be found everywhere.They are madeinto flowers and trees,insects and birds,animals and human figures and even architectural complex.Theseworks of art are used not only for the purpose of decoration but are also symbols or implications of one thingor another,or depictions of various scenes from stories of Chinese history and legends.For example,thepeony flower is a symbol of richness and wealth,the twin lotus flowers on one stalk stand for an affectionatecouple of husband and wife and the lion sculpture,power and dignity.19.为什么说陈家祠在建筑装饰艺术上具有浓厚的广东地方色彩？为什么说陈家祠在建筑装饰艺术上具有浓厚的广东地方色彩？因为该祠从上至下，从里到外，无论是柱、檐、脊、台阶、门窗等都饰以木雕、砖雕、石雕、陶塑、灰塑或铁铸构件等工艺品。这些工艺品不但起到艺术装饰的作用，而且广罗各种历史、神话故事，一些花、鸟、虫/、鱼、飞禽、走兽雕塑及其构成的图案还隐寓各种意义；如牡丹代表富贵，莲花（并蒂莲）代表夫妻恩爱，狮子代表权力与尊严等等。20.Why is theAncestral Temple in Foshan known as The Palace of Oriental FolkArt?Because in decorating techniques,pottery sculpture,lime sculpture,brick carvings,wood carvings andother works of art can be found on the ridges,the eaves,the walls or elsewhere.These works of art are notonly used for the purpose of decoration but are also depictions of various scenes from Chinese folk storiesand legends.They are delicately made to be lifelike and are all masterpieces of ancient Chinese folk art,sothe temple is known as the Palace of Oriental FolkArt.20.为什么佛山祖庙被称为为什么佛山祖庙被称为“东方民间艺术之宫东方民间艺术之宫”?在装饰工艺上，屋脊、屋檐、墙壁以及庙堂内均饰有各式陶塑、灰塑、砖雕、木雕等，描述了我国传统民间故事和神话传说。这些装饰品制作精细，人物造型栩栩如生，是我国珍贵的古代艺术品；故祖庙有“东方民间艺术之宫”的称号。21.Why was Hui Neng,together with Confucius and Laozi known as one of the three sages inChina and one of the ten great thinkers of the world?Because Hui Nengs doctrine of instant realization not only had exerted a great impact on theBuddhist circles,making the Chan Sect the mainstream of Chinese Buddhism,but also had produced asignificant influence on Chinas philosophical thinking.Therefore,Hui Neng,together with Confucius andLaozi known as one of the three sages in China and one of the ten great thinkers of the world.21.为什么惠能与孔子和老子一道被称为为什么惠能与孔子和老子一道被称为“东方三大圣人东方三大圣人”及及世界十大思想家之一。世界十大思想家之一。因为惠能的“顿悟”理论不但在佛教中影响巨大，使禅宗成为了中国佛教的主流宗派，而且对中国的哲学思想产生了很大影响，故与孔子和老子一起被称为“东方三大圣人”，欧洲学界曾称其为世界十大思想家之一。22.Can you list the types of carving used in Chen Family Temple?Stone carvings,brick carvings,lime sculptures,ceramic figurines,wood carvings or artistic objects ofiron-casting can be found everywhere in Chen Family Temple.22.你能列出用于装饰陈家祠的雕刻类型吗你能列出用于装饰陈家祠的雕刻类型吗?在陈家祠到处都可以找到石雕、砖雕、灰塑、陶塑、木雕或铁铸构件等工艺品。23.What does Xiguan Big House mean in Guangzhou?In the back streets around the Shangxiajiu Shopping Street,there are some old residential houses thatare unique in appearance and architecture.These high and solid houses,known as“Xiguan Big House”,werebuilt by the former rich merchants and were all decorated with wood-carvings,stone-carvings,potterysculptures and 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.Report National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 National Foundation for Educational Research(NFER).National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 Bethan Burge Louise Benson Published in August 2024 By the National Foundation for Educational Research,The Mere,Upton Park,Slough,Berkshire SL1 2DQ https:/www.nfer.ac.uk/2024 National Foundation for Educational Research Registered Charity No.313392 ISBN 978-1-916567-13-9 How to cite this publication:Burge,B.and Benson,L.(2024)National Reference Test Results Digest 2024.Slough:NFER .Contents 1.Introduction.1 2.The sample.2 2.1.Access arrangements.5 3.Results for the test booklets in 2024.6 3.1.English.6 3.2.Maths.8 4.Performance in English in 2024.11 5.Performance in maths in 2024.16 6.Appendix A:A brief summary of the NRT.20 .National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 1 1.Introduction Ofqual has contracted the National Foundation for Educational Research(NFER)to develop,administer and analyse the National Reference Test(NRT)in English and maths.The first NRT took place in 2017 and established a baseline from which any future changes in standards can be detected.This report represents an overview of the findings of the 2024 testing process.The NRT,which consists of a series of test booklets,provides evidence on changes in the performance standards in GCSE English language and maths in England at the end of key stage 4.It does this by testing content taken from the GCSE English and maths curricula.It has been designed to provide additional information to support the awarding of GCSEs in English language and maths and is based on a robust and representative sample of Year 11 students who will,in the relevant year,take their GCSEs.More information about the NRT can be found in the NRT document collection.The outcomes of the 2017 GCSE examinations in English language and maths provided the baseline percentages of students at 3 grade boundaries and these were mapped to the NRT for 2017 to establish the corresponding proficiency level.The percentages of students achieving those proficiency levels in each subsequent year are calculated and compared.The NRT structure remains the same each year.For each of English and maths,there are 8 test booklets in use.Each question is used in 2 booklets,so that effectively all the tests can be analysed together to give a single measure of subject performance.This is similar to other studies that analyse trends in performance over time,for example,international surveys such as the Programme for International Student Assessment(PISA)and Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study(TIMSS).This report provides summarised information of the key performance outcomes for English and maths in 2024 and provides information on the changes from the baseline standards established in 2017.It also includes data on the achievement of the samples,their representativeness and the performance of the students on the tests.Further information on the nature of the tests,the development process,the survey design and its conduct,and the analysis methods used is provided in the accompanying document:Background Report:National Reference Test.National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 2 2.The sample The NRT took place between 16 February and 4 March 2024.The numbers of participating schools and students are shown in Table 2.1 and Table 2.2.In 2024,the number of schools in the sample was consistent with previous years(apart from 2021,when participation was impacted by the pandemic)and was above target.The sample was stratified by the historical attainment of schools in GCSE English language and GCSE maths and by school size.In addition,the types of schools were monitored.Checks were made on all 3 of these variables to ensure that the achieved sample reflects the sampling frame.Students at independent schools are under-represented in the NRT,which may have contributed to a slight deviation between the distribution of school historical GCSE performance for the achieved sample relative to the sampling frame at the upper end of the distribution,this difference is small and broadly consistent across the years.Overall,the match in historical GCSE performance between the sample and population is very good,confirming the quality of the sample.Table 2.2 shows the number of students in the final sample for whom booklets were dispatched and the number completing the tests for both English and maths.This shows that just over 80%of students who were selected took part in the tests.In total,1,549 students from 339 schools were recorded as non-attendees during the English NRT,which is 19%of the total number of 8,206 students allocated tests during student sampling1 spread across the schools participating in the assessment.A total of 1,507 students from 341 schools were recorded as non-attendees during the maths NRT,which is 18%of the total number of 8,230 students allocated tests during student sampling spread across the schools participating in the test.The pattern of non-attendance is similar in maths and English.The principal reason given for non-attendance was absence due to illness or other authorised reason,which accounted for 58%of non-attendance for English and 62%of non-attendance for maths.Students being absent from the testing session but present in school remains the second most frequently recorded reason,accounting for 12%of non-attendance in both subjects.Of the remaining reasons for non-attendance,6%of students for both English and maths had left the school and around 6%of students were studying at a different venue(6%for English and 5%for maths).The percentage of non-attendance in 2024 was similar to that seen in 2023 but was higher than pre-pandemic cycles of the NRT.Student participation rates in 2024 were 81%for English and 82%for maths.Although student participation rates in the NRT continue to be lower compared with pre-pandemic administrations of the NRT(on average 85%)they are still comparable with the response rates required in large scale international studies.The lower participation rates for the NRT in 2024 reflect the higher absence rates in the state secondary school population in March 2024 compared with pre-pandemic rates,indicating that students were absent from school rather than absent from the NRT administration specifically.1 Two schools were allocated tests but were not included in the final results;both schools withdrew during the testing window due to exceptional circumstances.A further 24 eligible English students were categorised as other(U)non-attendance due to a test administrators car breakdown which meant the administration could not take place.National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 3 .National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 4 Table 2.1 Target sample sizes and achieved samples in current and previous years Subject NRT Target Sample Achieved sample 2024 Achieved sample 2023 Achieved sample 2022 Achieved sample 2021 Achieved sample 2020 Achieved sample 2019 Achieved sample 2018 Achieved sample 2017 English:Number of Schools 330 339 343 334 214 332 332 312 339 Maths:Number of Schools 330 341 341 334 216 333 331 307 340 Table 2.2.Completed student test returns for English and maths in all NRT administrations Year No.of students:dispatched English tests No.of students:completed English tests%of students:completed English tests No.of students:dispatched maths tests No.of students:completed maths tests%of students:completed maths tests 2024 8,158 6,609 81 8,181 6,674 82 2023 8,200 6,630 81 8,152 6,567 81 2022 7,969 6,457 81 7,961 6,406 80 2021 5,124 4,030 79 5,152 4,143 80 2020 7,845 6,639 85 7,886 6,756 86 2019 7,928 6,739 85 7,917 6,825 86 2018 7,354 6,193 84 7,320 6,169 84 2017 8,040 7,082 88 8,080 7,144 88 .National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 5 2.1.Access arrangements The NRT offers access arrangements consistent with JCQ requirements(for GCSE examinations)in order to make the test accessible to as many sampled students as possible.Schools were asked to contact NFER in advance of the NRT to indicate whether any of their students required modified test materials or if students normal working practice was to use a word processor or laptop during examinations.In cases where additional time would be needed for particular students,schools were asked to discuss this need with the NFER test administrator and ensure that the extra time for the testing session could be accommodated.All requests from schools for access arrangements and the type of arrangement required were recorded.Table 2.3 shows the different types of access arrangements that were provided to students for the 2024 NRT,organised by NFER.This table includes instances where students required more than one access arrangement.These are the access arrangements facilitated by NFER for the NRT in 2024;we do not collect complete data on the permitted arrangements that are organised by the school such as readers,scribes,extra time and examination pens so they are not included in the table below.Overall,the percentage of students whose school requested access arrangements for them for the NRT has decreased slightly to 5.8%compared with 6.8%in 2023.Table 2.3.Number of access arrangements facilitated by NFER in 2024 Arrangement provided No.of students English No.of students maths Total number of students%of tested students Word processor 356 228 584 3.6 Different colour test paper 161 160 321 2.0 Modified enlarged print,enlarged print and braille copies 13 18 31 0.2 Total 530 406 936 5.8%NB:Due to some students having multiple access arrangements,they will be featured twice in the table.National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 6 3.Results for the test booklets in 2024 Details of the analysis procedures are given in the accompanying document:Background Report:National Reference Test Information.The analysis process followed a sequence of steps.Initially,the tests were analysed using Classical Test Theory to establish that they had performed well,with appropriate difficulty and good levels of reliability.The subsequent analyses used Item Response Theory(IRT)techniques to link all the tests and estimate the ability of all the students on a common scale for each subject,independent of the test or items they had taken.These ability estimates were then used for calculating the ability level at the percentiles associated with the GCSE grade boundaries in 2017.From 2018 onwards,the percentages of students achieving above these baseline ability levels are estimated from the NRT.3.1.English The results of the Classical Test Theory analyses are summarised in Table 3.1.This shows the range of the main test performance statistics for the 8 English test booklets used.Table 3.1.Range of Classical Test Theory statistics for the English tests in 2024 Classical Test Theory statistic Lowest Highest Number of students taking each test booklet 805 846 Maximum score attained(out of 50)39 47 Average score attained 18.50 19.87 Standard deviation of scores attained 8.23 9.47 Reliability of the tests(Coefficient Alpha)0.76 0.81 Average percentage of students attempting each item(%)91 95 These results show that the English test booklets functioned well,and similarly to previous years.The booklets were challenging,with few students attaining over 40 marks and average scores somewhat less than half of the available marks.Maximum raw scores ranged from 39 to 47 across the 8 booklets,showing a wider range compared with 2023 where maximum raw scores were between 40 and 44.The standard deviation shows that the scores were well spread out,allowing discrimination between the students.This is confirmed by the reliability coefficients,which are at a good level for an English test of this length.Finally,the average percentage of students attempting each item was over 90%for all booklets,indicating that the students were engaging with the test and attempting to answer the majority of questions.These results were confirmed by the distribution of scores students achieved on the tests.This is shown for one of the tests in Figure 3.1.It is an example of one test booklet only but the distributions were similar for the other tests.The figure shows that students were spread across the range,although no students attained the very highest marks.National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 7 Figure 3.1.Score distribution for one of the English tests In addition,a full item analysis was carried out for each test,in which the difficulty of every question and its discrimination were calculated.These indicated that all the questions had functioned either well or,in a small number of cases,adequately and there was no need to remove any items from the analyses.Additionally,an analysis was conducted to establish if any items had performed markedly differently in 2024 compared with the previous years.Where there are such indications,a formal procedure is followed for reviewing the items to establish whether there could be an external reason for the change.In 2024,no items were removed from the link between years,so all items were treated as common with the previous year.Using the common items,the IRT analysis equated the 8 tests.The IRT analysis also used the items common between years to equate the tests over years,allowing ability estimates for students in all 8 years to be on the same scale.After this had been done,the results showed that the mean ability scores for students were similar for all the tests,confirming that the random allocation to tests had been successful.The results also showed that the level of difficulty of the 8 tests was fairly consistent,with only small differences between them.Both the Classical Test Theory results and the IRT results for the English tests showed that these had functioned well to provide good measures of the ability of students,sufficient for estimating averages for the sample as a whole.bser ed score re uenc bser ed score distribution .National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 8 3.2.Maths The results of the Classical Test Theory analyses are summarised in Table 3.2.This shows the range of the main test performance statistics for the 8 maths tests used.Table 3.2.Range of Classical Test Theory statistics for the maths tests in 2023 Classical Test Theory statistic Lowest Highest Number of students taking each test booklet 824 842 Maximum score attained(out of 50)50 50 Average score attained 20.70 23.75 Standard Deviation of scores attained 12.15 14.29 Reliability of the tests(Coefficient Alpha)0.90 0.91 Average percentage of students attempting each item(%)83 90 These results show that the maths tests also functioned well.The maximum score was attained on all booklets.The average scores were less than half marks for all booklets which is similar to 2023 but continues to be lower than in pre-pandemic years of the NRT.The standard deviation shows that the scores were well spread out,allowing discrimination between the students.This is confirmed by the reliability coefficients which are at a very good level for a maths test of this length and higher than for English,which is usual.Finally,the average percentage of students attempting each item(between 83%and 90%)is similar to the percentages seen in 2023.As has been the case in previous years,the average percentage of students attempting each item for maths was also lower than that seen for the English test.However,there are more individual items for students to attempt in the maths test.These results were confirmed by the distribution of scores achieved on the tests.This is shown for one of the tests in Figure 3.2.The distributions were similar for the other tests.The figure shows that scores were attained over the range of possible marks and that the students were fairly evenly spread over the range.National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 9 Figure 3.2.Score distribution for one of the maths tests In addition,a full item analysis was carried out for each test,in which the difficulty of every question and its discrimination were calculated.These indicated that all the questions had functioned either well or,in a small number of cases,adequately.All items were therefore retained for the IRT analyses.Additionally,an analysis was conducted to establish if any items had performed markedly differently in 2024 compared with the previous years.Where there are such indications,a formal procedure is followed for reviewing the items to establish whether there could be an external reason for the change and if there is sufficient evidence to remove the item from the link between years.In 2024,no items were removed from the link.There was also no evidence that the continued provision of formulae sheets for GCSE maths exams has had an impact on performance on the NRT items.Using the common items,the IRT analysis was used to equate the 8 tests.The IRT analysis also used the items common between years to equate the tests over years,allowing ability estimates for students in all 8 years to be on the same scale.After this had been done,the results showed that the mean ability scores for students were similar for all the tests,confirming that the random allocation to tests had been successful.The results also showed that the level of difficulty of the 8 tests was fairly consistent,with only small differences between them.Both the Classical Test Theory results and the IRT results for the maths tests showed that these had functioned well to provide good measures of the ability of students,sufficient for estimating averages for the sample as a whole.bser ed score re uenc bser ed score distribution .National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 10 Summary These initial stages of the analysis,the Classical Test Theory evaluation of test functioning and the IRT equating of the tests,indicate that the NRT performed as well in 2024 as it had in previous years.This allowed the final stages of the analysis,the estimation of the percentages of students above the same ability thresholds as in 2017 and the calculation of their precision,to be undertaken with confidence.These are described in Sections 4 and 5 for English and maths respectively.National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 11 4.Performance in English in 2024 The objective of the NRT is to get precise estimates of the percentages of students each year achieving at a level equivalent to 3 key GCSE grades in 2017:these key grades are 4,5 and 7.For the NRT in 2017,these baseline percentages were established from the 2017 GCSE population percentages.The NRT ability distribution,based on the IRT analysis,was then used to establish the ability thresholds which corresponded to those percentages.From 2018 onwards,the thresholds correspond to the same level of student ability as the thresholds established in 2017,thus allowing us to estimate the percentage of students above each of those thresholds and track performance over time.Alongside this,based on the sample achieved and the reliability of the tests,we can model the level of precision with which the proportion of students achieving the ability thresholds can be measured.The target for the NRT is to achieve a 95%confidence interval of plus or minus no more than 1.5 percentage points from the estimate at each ability threshold.Ofqual provided the percentages of students at or above the 3 relevant grades(grades 4,5 and 7)taken from the 2017 GCSE population.These are shown in Table 4.1.These percentages were mapped to 3 ability threshold scores in the NRT in 2017.Table 4.1.English 2017 NRT baseline thresholds Threshold Percentage of students above threshold from 2017 GCSE Grade 7 and above 16.8 Grade 5 and above 53.3 Grade 4 and above 69.9 In 2024,the NRT data for the years 2017 to 2024 were analysed together using IRT modelling techniques.By analysing all the data concurrently,ability distributions can be produced for the samples for each year on the same scale.The percentages of students at each of the 3 GCSE grade boundaries,fixed on the 2017 distribution,can then be mapped on to the distributions for the subsequent years to produce estimates of the percentage of students at the same level of ability in those ears.or example,the percentage of students at the Grade and abo e threshold in the 2017 GCSE population was 69.9%.This is mapped on to the 2017 distribution to read off an ability value at that grade boundary.The same ability value on the distributions for all other years can then be found,and the percentage of students at this threshold or above in those years can be established.In this way,we are able to estimate the percentage of students at the same level of ability as represented in the 2017 GCSE population for each year of the NRT going forward.The precision of these estimates is dependent on both the sample achieved and the reliability of the tests as measures.Table 4.2 presents the percentages of students achieving above the specified grade boundaries for the years 2017 to 2024.The 95%confidence intervals for the percentages are provided in brackets alongside the estimates.This is important as it shows that,although there have been changes in .National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 12 performance,these are often within the confidence intervals.The statistical interpretation of the differences is discussed below.Table 4.2.Estimated percentages at grade boundaries in English Year Estimated percentages at grade 4 and above Estimated percentages at grade 5 and above Estimated percentages at grade 7 and above 2017 69.9(68.4-71.4)53.3(51.7-54.9)16.8(15.6-18.0)2018 69.3(67.5-71.0)53.3(51.5-55.2)17.5(16.3-18.8)2019 66.1(64.4-67.8)50.2(48.4-51.9)16.6(15.4-17.8)2020 68.3(66.6-69.9)52.7(51.0-54.4)18.4(17.1-19.7)2021 67.5(65.5-69.6)53.1(51.0-55.3)19.7(18.1-21.4)2022 65.9(64.2-67.6)50.1(48.4-51.9)17.4(16.1-18.8)2023 66.2(64.4-67.9)50.9(49.0-52.7)17.8(16.5-19.2)2024 65.1(63.4-66.8)49.1(47.4-50.8)16.4(15.3-17.6)The 2017 figures in the table above are based on the NRT study,rather than the 2017 GCSE percentages.Note that,because of the way in which they have been computed,they match closely with the GCSE percentages.The confidence intervals for them reflect the fact that the NRT 2017 outcomes carry the statistical error inherent in a sample survey,as per the subsequent years.In each year of the NRT,the percentages for previous years are re-estimated due to the concurrent calibration approach which analyses all of the data together in a single IRT model.Some degree of variation is therefore expected with the addition of more data,and the differences seen are generally small.Table 4.3 shows the half widths of the confidence intervals.The confidence intervals for all years are narrower than those reported prior to 2023,following a change in 2023 in the way precision is calculated for the NRT.The confidence intervals for 2021 are wider than other years,reflecting the smaller sample size in that year.For NRT 2024,the precision for all 3 grade boundaries is in line with the values for other years.National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 13 Table 4.3.English NRT half width of confidence intervals each year Year Half width of confidence intervals:grade 4 and above Half width of confidence intervals:grade 5 and above Half width of confidence intervals:grade 7 and above 2017 1.5 1.6 1.2 2018 1.7 1.8 1.3 2019 1.7 1.7 1.2 2020 1.6 1.7 1.3 2021 2.0 2.2 1.7 2022 1.7 1.8 1.3 2023 1.8 1.8 1.3 2024 1.7 1.7 1.2 Figure 4.1 presents 95%confidence intervals around the percentages achieving at least the specified grade boundary in 2024,as compared with previous years and the 2017 population baseline percentages.The 2017 population percentages are represented as dotted lines and the trend lines across years as solid lines.This format has been used to encourage the reader to compare the point estimate confidence bands for each year with the 2017 baseline population percentages,bearing in mind the confidence intervals.National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 14 Figure 4.1.Long term changes in NRT English over time from 2017 baseline Some patterns in the results can be observed from the chart,though care should be taken not to over-interpret small differences which may arise due to statistical uncertainty around the measurements.Nevertheless,the chart suggests that performance in English in 2024 may have declined relative to 2023.There had previously been a small decline in the percentage of students achieving at-or-above both grades 4 and 5 from the baseline in 2017 to 2019,but 2020 had seen an upturn in performance,bringing performance much closer to that seen in 2017.This performance then remained stable in 2021,despite the impact of school closures due to the pandemic.Indications in 2023 were of some slight recovery,following a dip in 2022,but performance in 2024 appears similar to that in 2022.At grade 7 and above,performance has been relatively consistent across the years,with an improvement in 2020 and 2021,followed by a dip in 2022,and seemingly stable performance since then.A key question arising for the NRT results in a given year is to determine if differences in outcomes across the years are statistically significant.For the NRT,several comparisons could be made between different pairs of years at different grade boundaries,and this gives rise to the possibility that changes arising by chance may seem real.Hence,the criteria for significance that have been used are adjusted for multiple comparisons.For more information,see Appendix A.The research question NFER was asked to address is to compare the performance in 2024 with the performance in the baseline year of 2017 at each of the 3 grade boundaries.Adjusting for 3 ear ercentageGrade and abo eGrade and abo eGrade and abo e .National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 15 comparisons,the NRT English data shows that there has been a statistically significant drop in performance between 2017 and 2024 at the grade 4 and grade 5 boundaries,significant at the 1%level of significance.There is no statistically significant difference in performance between 2017 and 2024 at the grade 7 grade boundary.National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 16 5.Performance in maths in 2024 The objective of the NRT is to get precise estimates of the percentages of students each year achieving at a level equivalent to 3 key GCSE grades in 2017:these key grades are 4,5 and 7.For the NRT in 2017,these baseline percentages were established from the 2017 GCSE population percentages.The NRT ability distribution,based on the IRT analysis,was then used to establish the ability scores which corresponded to those percentages.From 2018 onwards,the thresholds correspond to the same level of student ability as the thresholds established in 2017,thus allowing us to estimate the percentage of students above each of those thresholds and track performance over time.Alongside this,based on the sample achieved and the reliability of the tests,we are able to model the level of precision with which the proportion of students achieving the ability scores can be measured.The target for the NRT is to achieve a 95%confidence interval of plus or minus no more than 1.5 percentage points from the estimate at each ability threshold.Ofqual provided the percentages of students at or above 3 relevant grades(grades 4,5 and 7)taken from the 2017 GCSE population.These are shown in Table 5.1.These percentages were mapped to 3 ability threshold scores in the NRT in 2017.Table 5.1.Maths 2017 NRT baseline thresholds Threshold Percentage of students above threshold from 2017 GCSE Grade 7 and above 19.9 Grade 5 and above 49.7 Grade 4 and above 70.7 In 2024,the NRT data for the years 2017 to 2024 were analysed together using IRT modelling techniques.By analysing all the data concurrently,ability distributions can be produced for the samples for each year on the same scale.The percentages of students at each of the 3 GCSE grade boundaries,fixed on the 2017 distribution,can then be mapped on to the distributions for the subsequent years to produce estimates of the percentage of students at the same level of ability in those ears.or example,the percentage of students at the Grade and abo e threshold in the 2017 GCSE population was 70.7%.This is mapped on to the 2017 distribution to read off an ability value equivalent to that grade boundary.The same ability value on the distributions for all other years can then be found,and the percentage of students at this threshold or above in those years can be established.In this way,we are able to estimate the percentage of students at the same level of ability as represented in the 2017 GCSE population for each year of the NRT going forward.The precision of these estimates is dependent on both the sample achieved and the reliability of the tests as measures.Table 5.2 presents the percentages of students achieving above the specified grade boundaries for the years 2017 to 2024.The 95%confidence intervals for the percentages are provided in brackets alongside the estimates.This is important as it shows that although there have been changes in .National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 17 performance,these are often within the confidence intervals.The statistical interpretation of the differences is discussed below.Table 5.2.Estimated percentages at grade boundaries in maths Year Estimated percentages at grade 4 and above Estimated percentages at grade 5 and above Estimated percentages at grade 7 and above 2017 70.7(69.3-72.1)49.7(48.1-51.3)19.9(18.6-21.2)2018 73.4(72.0-74.8)52.5(50.8-54.1)21.6(20.3-22.9)2019 73.2(71.9-74.6)52.0(50.3-53.6)22.7(21.3-24.0)2020 74.6(73.3-75.9)55.0(53.4-56.5)24.4(23.1-25.8)2021 70.2(68.3-72.1)50.0(47.9-52.1)22.0(20.0-23.9)2022 71.7(70.2-73.1)50.4(48.8-52.0)21.2(19.9-22.6)2023 70.2(68.7-71.7)48.8(47.3-50.4)19.9(18.7-21.1)2024 70.9(69.4-72.4)50.4(48.8-52.0)22.4(21.0-23.7)The 2017 figures in the table above are based on the NRT study,rather than the 2017 GCSE percentages.Note that,because of the way in which they have been computed,they match closely with the GCSE percentages.The confidence intervals for them reflect the fact that the NRT 2017 outcomes carry the statistical error inherent in a sample survey,as per the subsequent years.Since the percentages for previous years have been re-estimated following the concurrent calibration with the 2024 data,these figures differ slightly from those reported in previous years.Some degree of variation is expected given the addition of more data,and the differences seen are small.Table 5.3 shows the half widths of the confidence intervals.The confidence intervals for all years are similar to those reported previously,despite a change in the way precision is calculated for the NRT since 2023.The confidence intervals for 2021 are wider than other years,reflecting the smaller sample size in that year.For NRT 2024,the precision for all 3 grade boundaries is in line with the values for other years.National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 18 Table 5.3.Maths NRT half width of confidence intervals each year Year Half width of confidence intervals:grade 4 and above Half width of confidence intervals:grade 5 and above Half width of confidence intervals:grade 7 and above 2017 1.4 1.6 1.3 2018 1.4 1.6 1.3 2019 1.4 1.6 1.4 2020 1.3 1.5 1.3 2021 1.9 2.1 1.9 2022 1.4 1.6 1.4 2023 1.5 1.5 1.2 2024 1.5 1.6 1.4 Figure 5.1 presents 95%confidence intervals around the percentages achieving at least the specified grade boundary in 2024,as compared with previous years and the 2017 population baseline percentages.The 2017 population percentages are represented as dotted lines and the trend lines across years as solid lines.This format has been used to encourage the reader to compare the point estimate confidence bands for each year with the 2017 baseline population percentages,bearing in mind the confidence intervals.National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 19 Figure 5.1.Long term changes in NRT maths over time from 2017 baseline Some patterns in the maths results can be observed from the chart,though care should be taken not to over-interpret small differences which may arise due to statistical uncertainty around the measurements.Nevertheless,the chart shows a relatively steady increase in the percentage of students achieving at-or-above all 3 grade boundaries from 2017 to 2020,followed by a sharp drop in 2021,back to around the 2017 level of performance.Differences between the following 2 years were small,with a slight decline overall.The chart suggests some recovery in 2024,particularly at grade 7.A key question arising for the NRT results in a given year is to determine if differences in outcomes across the years are statistically significant.For the NRT,several comparisons could be made and this gives rise to the possibility that changes arising by chance may seem real.Hence,the criteria for significance that have been used are adjusted for multiple comparisons.For more information,see Appendix A.The research question NFER was asked to address is to compare the performance in 2024 with the performance in 2017 at each of the 3 grade boundaries.Adjusting for 3 comparisons,the NRT maths data shows that there has been a statistically significant increase in performance between 2017 and 2024 at the grade 7 boundary,significant at the 5%level of significance.There are no statistically significant differences in performance between 2017 and 2024 at the grade 4 or grade 5 boundaries.National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 20 6.Appendix A:A brief summary of the NRT English The English test takes one hour to administer and follows the curriculum for the reformed GCSE in English language.In each of the 8 English test booklets,there are 2 components;the first is a reading test and the second a writing test.Each component carries 25 marks and students are advised to spend broadly equal time on each component.The reading test is based on an extract from a longer prose text,or 2 shorter extracts from different texts.Students are asked 5,6 or 7 questions that refer to the extract(s).Some questions of one to 4 marks require short responses or require the student to select a response from options provided.In each booklet,the reading test also includes a 6-mark question and a 10-mark question,where longer,more in-depth responses need to be given.These focus on analysis and evaluation of aspects of the text or a comparison between texts.The writing test is a single,25-mark task.This is an extended piece of writing,responding to a stimulus.For example,students may be asked to describe,narrate,give and respond to information,argue,explain or instruct.Maths For maths,a separate sample of students is also given one hour to complete the test.The test includes questions on number,algebra,geometry and measures,ratio and proportion,and statistics and probability the same curriculum as the reformed GCSE.Each of the 8 test booklets has 13 or 14 questions with a total of 50 marks and each student takes just one of the test booklets.Analysis The analysis process followed a sequence of steps.Initially,the tests were analysed using Classical Test Theory to establish that they had performed well,with appropriate difficulty and good levels of reliability.The subsequent analyses used Item Response Theory techniques to link all the tests together from 2017 to 2024 and estimate the ability of all the students on a common scale for each subject for each year,independent of the test or items they had taken.These ability estimates were then used for calculating the ability level at the percentiles associated with the GCSE grade boundaries in 2017 and mapping these on to the distributions for subsequent years to generate percentile estimates for those years.Multiple comparisons The statistical significance of the difference between 2 percentages estimated in 2 years,say 2017 and 2024,may be approached with a 2-sample t-statistic.Because of the huge number of degrees of freedom,the value can be compared with the standard normal distribution rather than the t-distribution.For a comparison of 2 percentages,say the percentage of students at grade 4 or higher between 2 years,the critical value at a confidence level of 0.05(5%)would usually be 1.96.However,since there are 3 grade thresholds across multiple years,there are several comparisons .National Reference Test Results Digest 2024 21 which could be made(up to 84 if all pairs of years were compared across all 3 grade boundaries).As the number of simultaneous comparisons grows,the probability that some of them are significant by chance rapidly increases.To guarantee that the chosen level of significance is guaranteed overall,we have implemented a Bonferroni adjustment for multiple comparisons.Evidence for excellence in education Public National Foundation for Educational Research 2024 All rights reserved.No part of this document may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,or otherwise,without prior written permission of NFER.The Mere,Upton Park,Slough,Berks SL1 2DQ T: (): ()6 6 en uiriesnfer.ac.uk www.nfer.ac.uk NFER ref.OFMT ISBN 978-1-916567-13-9
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