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Quantum Information Science andTechnologyImplications for Records ManagementWhite PaperNational Archives and Records AdministrationSeptember 2022Introduction3Quantum Information Science and Technology(QIST)3Classical and Quantum Computing6QIST Implications for Records Management9Conclusion11Bibliography12Acknowledgements182IntroductionThe National Archives and Records Administration,Office of the Chief Records Officerfor the U.S.Government,has been researching and writing about emergingtechnologies that will have an impact on the field of records management.This is thethird in a series of white papersthe first one being Blockchain(2019)and the second,Cognitive Technologies(2020).Unlike previous white papers in which the technologieswere more established,the field of Quantum Information Science and Technology(QIST)is in its early stages,so the technological impacts for records management areevolving.This white paper is intended to provide a non-technical introduction to QIST for federalrecords managers.Emerging quantum technologies could have the biggest impact inthese areas of records management:cryptography,authentication,encryptedcommunication,storage of records,and records retrieval.Records managers may findthis information helpful as the technology evolves and matures.Quantum Information Science and Technology(QIST)QIST is the merger of quantum physics and information theory.Quantum physicsdescribes nature at an atomic and subatomic level.Information theory is the study ofquantification,storage,and communication of information(A Federal Vision forQuantum Information Science,2009).Early examples of quantum technologies arelasers,transistors,magnetic resonance spectroscopy,and atomic clocks.These,in turn,gave us computers,the internet,medical imaging,and GPS navigation(A CoordinatedApproach to Quantum Networking Research,2021).Future technologies such asquantum computers,quantum networks,and quantum sensors are being researchedand developed by combining quantum physics and information theory.U.S.Federal Government Support for Basic ResearchSince its founding,the United States has encouraged scientific creativity andexploration.Our Constitution reflects this and grants Congress the power to promotethe progress of science and useful arts”(U.S.Constitution,Art.1,sec.8).Earlygovernment support for research can be seen in the 1862 Morrill Land-Grant CollegeAct,which authorized public land grants for colleges to teach agriculture andmechanical arts.Several years later,the 1887 Hatch Experiment Station Act providedfederal grants to states for agricultural experimentation.3The combination of the Great Depression and both world wars spurred activegovernment interest in solving social,economic,and military problems.The Office ofScientific Research and Development(OSRD)was established by President Rooseveltto support Americas efforts in the war.OSRD director Vannevar Bush wrote a report toPresident Roosevelt titled Science:The Endless Frontier,arguing that“basic researchis the pacemaker of technological progress.”Bushs report along with John R.Steelmans report to President Truman,Science and Public Policy:A Program for theNation,helped to establish the National Science Foundation(NSF)in 1950.Asphysicist William A.Blanpied noted,“What made the NSF so different from the outsetwas its emphasis on government policy in support of scientific activity,not science forgovernment policy.”By establishing the Office of Science and Technology Policy in theExecutive Office of the President in 1976,Congress recognized the need for thePresident to receive“advice on the scientific,engineering,and technological aspects ofissues that require attention at the highest levels of Government.”The federal government has a unique role in funding long-term basic research that mayhave the potential for practical application.One example of the lengthy timeline is theDepartment of Defenses ARPANET(Advanced Research Projects Agency Network).This project was proposed to make links between computers at different physicallocations to ensure continuity of communications during the Cold War.Oftentimes,thebenefits and advances from basic research investments were unanticipated.Forexample,what began as a computer-to-computer signal in 1969 eventually led to thedevelopment of mesh networks,packet transmission protocols,and the internet.TheNSF funded the network for more than 10 years before the commercial capabilitiesbecame clear.ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990 after the telecommunicationand computer industries expanded the network for commercial use(DARPA).Like those who worked on the early internet,todays researchers are still exploring thecapabilities of QIST.In 1981,physicist Richard Feynman suggested building computersbased upon the principles of quantum mechanics because of the difficulties ofsimulating quantum mechanical systems on classical computers.In 1994,appliedmathematician Peter Shor,proposed a quantum computer algorithm that wouldtheoretically factor large numbers.As Shors algorithm gained understanding in thescientific community,the National Institute of Standards and Technology(NIST)hostedthe first workshop focused on quantum computing and communication in 1994.The4following year,researchers at NIST experimentally realized the first quantum logic gate.1Over the next decade,several agencies from across the federal government beganfunding academic research into quantum information science,such as the creation ofthe Joint Quantum Institute(JQI)in 2006.The National Science and TechnologyCouncils(NSTC)Subcommittee on Quantum Information Science issued a report in2009,A Federal Vision for Quantum Information Science.This vision document led toworkshops and collaborations between the federal government,academia,and industry.In 2016,NSTC issued a report on the challenges and opportunities around quantuminformation science,and the White House Office of Science and Technology Policyconvened a forum on quantum information science.The following year,the NationalPhotonics Initiativean alliance of government,academia,and industryshared aproposal,“Call for the National Quantum Initiative,”with Congress.In September 2018,the NSTCs Subcommittee on Quantum Information Science released the NationalStrategic Overview for Quantum Information Science,which emphasized goals forresearch,workforce expansion,and coordination between government,academia,andindustry(Raymer,2019).Later that year,on December 21,the President signed theNational Quantum Initiative Act(NQI).The purpose of the NQI was to accelerate U.S.leadership in quantum informationscience for economic prosperity and national security.The National QuantumCoordination Office(NQCO)was established within the White House Office of Scienceand Technology Policy to foster a whole-of-government approach to quantuminformation science.NQCO serves as the primary point of contact for federal quantumscience and technology activities and disseminates findings and recommendations.Executive Order 13885 established the National Quantum Initiative Advisory Committeein 2019,and this committee includes representatives from federal agencies,industry,and academia(Raymer,2019).Executive Order 14073 in 2022 enhanced the advisorycommittee by establishing it as a presidential advisory committee.Currently,a numberof government agencies and national laboratories have research efforts in quantuminformation science,including the National Security Agency,the Intelligence AdvancedResearch Projects Activity,the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency,theNational Science Foundation,the National Institute of Standards and Technology,the1Logic gates,which allow or block electricity,are building blocks for processing information.By arranginggates in a circuit,engineers enable computers to carry out multiple mathematical calculations.Unlikeclassical logic gates,quantum logic gates can process multiple possibilities simultaneously(NIST“Quantum Logic Gates”).5Department of Energy,the Army Research Laboratory,the Air Force ResearchLaboratory,and the Naval Research Laboratory.Classical and Quantum ComputingClassical computing is based on the binary digit or bit,which is the most basic way tostore information in a computer.A bit is represented as either a 0 or 1 and can bethought of as a binary set,such as the Boolean result true/false.More complexprocessing can be accomplished by stringing bits together into bytes and largerconfigurations.The processing of bits occurs in central processing units(CPUs),whichsequentially process code.Advances over the past decades such as increased CPUprocessing speed,parallel CPU cores,and the development of graphics processingunits have dramatically improved the speed at which a computer can executecalculations(Rupp,2018).The purpose of all these advances was to make theprocessing of binary 0s and 1s faster and more efficient.Quantum computers use 0s and 1s to process data,but rather than using only discretestates like 0 and 1,the state of a quantum bit or qubit can be a combination of 0 and 1simultaneously(Nielson 2010).This is known as superposition.Multiple qubits can becorrelated through entanglement.Entanglement means that the qubits are linked insuch a way that measuring one qubit will instantaneously collapse the other entangled6qubits(Mooney,2019).Using superposition and entanglement,a quantum computercan solve certain problems faster than a classical computer.Quantum states are verysensitive to their environment.When unaccounted for,unwanted thermal,optical,ormechanical interference can cause a superposition to collapse,ultimately limitingcomputational capabilities.How a classical computer and a quantum computer approach a computationalchallenge might illuminate the differences more clearly.Many current computers have64 bits of processing,which means that there are approximately 1.8 x 1019differentcombinations of 0 and 1 across the 64 bits.A 3.1 GHz processor can process 64 bits3.1 billion times a second.At that speed,it would take almost 189 years for a computerto try all of the combinations of 0 and 1 across 64 bits.Conversely,a quantum computerwith 64 qubits can be in a superposition of all combinations of 64 bits,and if thesuperposition can be quickly altered to highlight the correct answer while suppressingthe incorrect answers,the quantum computer can compute faster.In 2019,a team atGoogle used a 53-qubit quantum computer to complete a computation in 200 secondsthat,at the time,would take a state-of-the-art classical computer approximately 10,000years(Arute,2019).Quantum Advantage Over Classical ComputersThere are a number of examples where quantum computing could have an advantageover a classical computer.Three of the most significant are:(1)Factoring:Using Peter Shors factoring algorithm,quantum computers couldextract the private key for RSA messages much more quickly than classicalcomputers(Raymer,2019).(2)Quantum Search:In 1995,Lov Grover demonstrated the potential of quantumcomputers to search through unstructured data.Grovers algorithm showed howquantum computers could speed up and expand search capabilities(Nielson,2010).(3)Quantum Modeling:The third area was suggested by Richard Feynman in theearly 1980s and allows scientists to model complex quantum systems in acomputer that is itself a complex quantum system(Feynman,1982).Developing Quantum ComputersNISTs 1994 workshop was the first workshop in the field.It brought together physicists,mathematicians,and computer scientists from academia,government,industry,and the7intelligence community.The event included a talk by co-organizer Artur Ekert,aphysicist at the University of Oxford,who was well known among quantum physicists.His talk inspired theoretical physicists Ignacio Cirac and Peter Zoller of the University ofInnsbruck to envision making quantum computers a reality in the laboratory.Researchers would trap a group of individual ions in a line,like birds on awire.Lasers would manipulate the ions energy states so that they eachrepresented 0s and 1s or superpositions of the two.Each ion wouldcommunicate with another by rocking back and forth.The rocking wouldenable each ion to exchange information with its neighbors.In this way,researchers would be able to carry out computations with the qubits(“NIST Jump-Starts,”2018).Around the same time period,Dave Wineland with NIST was working on making a moreaccurate atomic clock using ions.When Wineland and colleagues saw Cirac andZollers paper,they immediately recognized parallels between controlling atoms in anatomic clock and performing quantum computation.At the end of 1995,Wineland andhis team announced the first operation on a qubit.Winelands research would berecognized in 2012 with a Nobel Prize for his work in experimental methods that enablemeasuring and manipulating individual quantum systems(“NIST Jump-Starts,”2018).The first quantum computer,built in 1998,was a very rudimentary computer consistingof just two qubits and only operated for a few nanoseconds due to the fragility of thequbits to external interference.In 2000,two competing projects announced that theyhad created quantum computers with four and seven qubits,but external interferenceagain limited their size and usefulness.While these projects demonstrated thepossibility of quantum computing,they were far from being scaled for any practicalapplication(Holton,2021).Over the last decade a number of companies have beguninvesting in quantum computing with the goal of overcoming the external interferencethat affects qubits.The field is still evolving with multiple approaches for quantumcomputing being developed as illustrated in the figure below.8(Popkin,2016)QIST ChallengesWhile there is great potential in QIST,additional factors are complicating the shift fromquantum research to quantum computing.The fragility of qubits often requires a verycold environment to maintain the quantum state and limit external interference.Maintaining extremely low temperatures for quantum computing requires high levels ofenergy consumption.Despite this,a quantum computer may use less energy overall tosolve problems that would take much longer on a classical computer.In addition to thetechnical challenges,the field has a shortage of workforce talent.NSTCs 2022 strategicplan on workforce development notes that“beyond the significant technical challengesfacing QIST research and development(R&D),the shortage of talent constrainsprogress.The field is currently creating more job openings than can be filled,with thevariety of jobs related to QIST expanding in academia,industry,national labs,andgovernment”(QIST Workforce National Strategic Plan,2022).QIST Implications for Records ManagementQuantum computing poses challenges beyond technologies based on classicalcomputation because it is based upon superposition and entanglement,which do nothave classical counterparts.For records management,this creates a unique set ofchallenges that differ from other emerging areas like blockchain and artificial9intelligence.As with any evolving field,there are future implications that we will not beable to predict.Below we have highlighted a few areas for records management expertsto track.Cryptography is used to protect information and digital identity authentication.Somecurrent public key cryptography is based on the length of time it takes a classicalcomputer to factor large numbers.If it takes 30 years using classical computers to factora large number,then cryptography can effectively protect information for that period oftime.As explained above,Shors algorithm outlines a way for a quantum computer tofactor a large number much faster than a classical computer.Records managers willcontend with the reality that encrypted information and digital identities will be morevulnerable to attack by quantum computers.The federal government has identified thisrisk,and many agencies,including NIST,the National Security Agency(NSA),andDepartment of Homeland Security,are developing quantum-resistant or post-quantumcryptography that can use existing infrastructure.2In general,interference can cause delicate quantum states to collapse.This sensitivitypresents two related challenges for a records manager.First,a qubit cannot currently bestored for more than a microsecond.It would be challenging to retain a record that hasa quantum component,and therefore a quantum computer would likely never hold thefinal version of a record.Second,records encoded using superposition cannot beduplicated because the act of copying the records would cause the superposition tocollapse and thereby cause a change in the record(Wooters,1982).Agencies will likelyuse a quantum computer for a specific task,such as processing,calculating,orsearching,and then capture the output in a classical format.For example,a quantumcomputer might be used to search unstructured data,but the output of the search wouldbe used by a classical computer.The records generated by quantum processing arelikely intermediary records as defined in General Records Schedule 5.2,meaning thatthey are created or used in the process of creating a subsequent record.If the quantumcomputers sole function is to receive and process data from other classical systems,itis essentially a“pass-through”system.2Theories suggest that quantum key distribution(QKD)or quantum cryptography(QC)allows detection ofthe presence of an eavesdropper,(which is not a feature not provided in standard cryptography);however,QKD requires a quantum network.NSA is recommending focusing on quantum-resistantclassical cryptographic solutions as more cost-effective and easier to maintain,instead of building aquantum network.10ConclusionIn the near term,classical computers will continue to dominate the marketplace.Giventhe specialized equipment,space,and expertise required for building and using them,quantum computers will be limited to specific institutions and uses.Technologycompanies are beginning to address this limitation by making quantum capabilities andservices available through the cloud,thereby making these capabilities broadlyavailable to government,academia,and industry and ensuring continued interest anddevelopment.The ability for quantum computers to quickly factor large numbers will be disruptive tothe field of cryptography.This change will require a shift from current cryptographystandards to systems that are challenging for quantum computers to break.QIST is in its early days,but with ongoing government,academic,and industryresearch,QIST will impact our work and lives.In the field of records management,QISTwill provide both solutions and challenges.As records managers it is important to beaware of developments in QIST so our profession can evolve to take advantage ofquantum system analysis as part of the information landscape.11BibliographyAaronson,Scott.“The Limits of Quantum.”Scientific American(March,2008):6269,available at www.cs.virginia.edu/robins/The_Limits_of_Quantum_Computers.pdf,accessed December 2,2021Act of July 2,1862(Morrill Act),Public Law 37-108,which established land grantcolleges,07/02/1862;Enrolled Acts and Resolutions of Congress,17891996;RecordGroup 11;General Records of the United States Government;National Archives.Anderson,Sam.“Why Its Okay to Teach Wrong Ideas in Physics.”Scientific American(blog),2016,available athttps:/ September 9,2021.Arute,F.,K.Arya,R.Babbush,et al.“Quantum supremacy using a programmablesuperconducting processor.”Nature 574(2019):505510,https:/doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1666-5,accessed January 7,2021.Berkowitz,Rachel.“The Smallest Quantum Computer Yet.”Physics,2021,available athttps:/physics.aps.org/articles/v14/s73,accessed September 16,2021.Blanpied,William A.“Inventing US Science Policy.”Physics Today,51(February 1998):3440,available at 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February15,2022.Figliola,Patricia Moloney.“Federal Quantum Information Science:An Overview.”Congressional Research Service In Focus.July 2,2018.IF10872IF10872,available at:https:/ March 12,2021.Figliola,Patricia Moloney.“Quantum Information Science:Congressional Activity andFederal Policy Recommendations.”Congressional Research Service In Focus.April 28,132020.F11524,available at:https:/ March 12,2021.Gibney,Elizabeth.“Quantum computer race intensifies as alternative technology gainssteam:trapped-ion systems are gaining momentum in the quest to make a commercialquantum computer.”Nature 587(2020):342-343,https:/doi.org/10.1038/d41586-020-03237-w,accessed July 2,2021.Holton,William Coffeen.Quantum Computer.Encyclopedia Britannica,June 1,2021,https:/ July 2,2021.Mazuan,George T.“The National Science Foundation:A Brief History.”July 15,1994,https:/www.nsf.gov/about/history/nsf50/nsf8816.jsp,accessed August 18,2021.Mooney,G.J.,C.D.Hill,and L.C.L.Hollenberg.“Entanglement in a 20-QubitSuperconducting Quantum Computer.”Scientific Reports 9,13465(2019).https:/doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-49805-7,accessed September 8,2021.National Archives and Records Administration.General Records Schedule 5.2Transitory and Intermediary Records,Transmittal No.28,July 2017.https:/www.archives.gov/files/records-mgmt/grs/grs05-2.pdfNational Institute of Standards and Technology.“NIST Jump-Starts QuantumInformation,”2018,https:/www.nist.gov/topics/physics/introduction-new-quantum-revolution/nist-jump-starts-quantum-information,accessed February 4,2022.National Institute of Standards and Technology.“Quantum Logic Gates,”2018,https:/www.nist.gov/physics/introduction-new-quantum-revolution/quantum-logic-gates,accessed April 18,2022.National Quantum Initiative Act of 2018,Pub.L.No.115-368,132 Stat.5092.https:/www.congress.gov/115/plaws/publ368/PLAW-115publ368.htm,accessed June17,2021.National Security Agency.“Quantum Key Distribution(QKD)and 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athttps:/iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/2058-9565/ab0441,accessed March 12,2021.Rowberg,Richard.“Federal R&D Funding:A Concise History.”CRS Report forCongress.April 14,1988.95-1209 STM,available at:https:/ August 17,2021.Rupp,Karl.“42 Years of Microprocessor Trend Data”(blog).February 15,2018,available at:https:/ June 28,2021.Schmidt,Fabian.“How a Quantum Computer Works,”DW,October 24,2019,availableat:https:/ August 27,2021.Shannon,C.E.“A Mathematical Theory of Communication.”The Bell System TechnicalJournal 27(1948):379423,632656,available at:https:/people.math.harvard.edu/ctm/home/text/others/shannon/entropy/entropy.pdf,accessed January 31,2022.Susskind,Leonard,and Art Friedman.Quantum Mechanics:The Theoretical Minimum.USA:Basic Books,2014.“To establish agricultural experiment stations in connection with the colleges establishedin the several States under the provisions of an act approved July second,eighteenhundred and sixty-two,and of the acts supplementary thereto,”(Hatch Act of 1887),24Stat.440.U.S.Constitution,Art.1,sec.8.Wooters,W.K.,and W.H.Zurek.“A Single Quantum Cannot be Cloned,”Nature 299(1982):802803,doi.org/10.1038/299802a0.16Zyga,Lisa.“Quantum physics offers a new way to factor numbers.”Phys.org,November 28,2016,available at:https:/phys.org/news/2016-11-quantum-physics-factor.html,accessed September 2,2021.17AcknowledgementsWe would like to thank the following organizations and individuals for their time and expertise inreviewing the white paper:White House Office of Science and Technology,National QuantumCoordination Office;Dr.Kenneth Thibodeau;Dr.Douglas W.Oard;Mary Ryan;and AndreaShahmohammadi.18

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